GROUNDED THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL
TOURISM BEHAVIOR
Drew Martin
Arch G. Woodside
ABSTRACT. The dominant logic in conventional research methods involves collecting and
analyzing data to rigorously test a deductive theory. In contrast, grounded theory posits
constru~ting theory from data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). This analysis demonstrates the
application of McCracken's (1988) long interview method to collect data for grounded theory
development. Both ernie (self) and etic (researcher) interpretations of international visitor
experiences uncover important insights on leisure travel decisions and tourist behavior. Long
interviews of tourists visiting Hawaii's Big Island enable mapping and comparing visitors' plans,
motivations, decisions, and consequences. The results demonstrate the complexity of visitors'
travel decisions and behavior.
KEYWORDS. International tourism behavior, Japan, Germany, Hawaii, grounded theory
long interview method
Understanding international leisure travel complexities and nuances of leisure travel
behavior is challenging due to the number of experiences. Consumer (e.g., international
variables influencing travelers' decisions, visitor) self-reporting of lived experiences
behaviors, and interpretations of trip out­ provides insights on both motivations and
comes. These variables include both past behavior. The present study shows how
experiences and external stimuli. To interpret grounded theory is useful for achieving deep
traveler experiences, a holistic approach is understanding of international leisure travel
useful. Grounded theory development typi­ decisions and tourism behaviors. Employing
cally includes holistic thick descriptions of McCracken's (1988) long interview method,
behavior processes (Geertz, 1973; Glazer & personal, face-to-face interviews of travel
Strauss, 1967). These descriptions provide an parties provide insights on foreign visitors'
opportunity to collect both emic (informant planning processes, motivations, and experi­
own) and etic (researcher) interpretations of ences while visiting Hawaii's Big Island (BI)
the informant lived experiences and plans.
in the State of Hawaii, USA.
Why select international tourism to the BI
While etic reporting captures important
insights on behavior (e.g., Arnould & Price, for grounded theory research? The interna­
1993; Belk & Costa, 1998), etic reports in tional export tourism industry (visitors'
concert with emic interpretations allow expenditures in BI) is vital to area's economy,
researchers a rich method of capturing the employment, and quality oflife-eonstituting.
Drew Martin is Associate Professor of Marketing, College of Business and "Economics, University
of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo, HI 96720 (E-mail: [email protected]).
Arch G. Woodside is Professor of Marketing, Carroll School of Management, Boston College, 140
Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 (E-mail: [email protected]).
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Vol. 24(4) 2008
Available online at http://jttm.haworthpress.com
© 2008 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi: 10.1080/10548400802156695
245
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JOURNAL OF TRA VEL & TOURISM MARKETING
about 35 percent of the total visitor popula­
tion to the BI; the BI export tourism industry
accounts directly and indirectly for two-thirds
of its economic activity (HVCB, 2006).
International market research describing
and iqcreasing understanding of visitor beha­
vior is important for planning marketing
strategies that nurture this vital industry and
helps to justify specific international market­
ing plans. The present article serves an
exemplar for building grounded theory
research of other destinations having major
international export industry profiles (e.g.,
Hong Kong, Singapore, Prince Edward
Island, Chios, and Sicily).
This study's findings support the core
proposition that grounded theory enables
useful mapping and description of flows of
thoughts, decisions, events, and outcomes
within specific contexts in leisure travel
(Woodside, MacDonald, & Burford, 2004).
From the data, streams of processing and
behaviors surface showing relationships
among: (a) antecedent-to-trip conditions,
(b) trip planning strategies, (c) destination
activities-outcomes, and (d) outcome evalua­
tions. The results include gestalt understand­
ings of conscious and unconscious thinking
and behaviors (cf., Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee­
Chai, Barndollar, & Troetschel, 2001). The
findings provide nuances on key activities
and events affecting traveler's selection of BI
as a destination.
GROUNDED THEORY
CONSTRUCTION OF TOURISM
BEHAVIOR
Unlike most research, grounded theory is
emergent explicitly. Grounded theory does
not test a hypothesis; instead, this approach
sets out to find what theory accounts for the
research situation. Grounded theoryis action
research- the aim is to understand the
research situation. According to Glaser and
Strauss (1967), grounded theory's aim is to
discover the theory implicit in the data. Glaser
(1978) suggests two main criteria for judging
the adequacy of the emerging theory: that it
fits the situation; and that it works- that it
helps the people in the situation to make sense
of their experience and to manage the situa­
tion better (Dick, 2000). Some evidence
suggests that collecting information in narra­
tives is consistent with the way consumers
remember and process information (e.g.,
Adaval & Wyer, 1998; Mattila, 2000).
Allowing the respondents to tell the story in
their own words offers insights that may not
be captured by structured survey methods.
Previous studies about tourist purchase
consumption systems provide guidance for
grounded theory construction of tourist
behavior (Woodside & Dubelaar, 2002;
Woodside & King, 2001; Woodside et al.,
2004). Purchase decisions are a sequence of
mental and observable steps undertaken by
consumers to buy and use products. Often
these acquisitions lead to a purchase sequence
involving other products. Qualitative com­
parative analysis (see Becker, 1998; Ragin,
1987) is relevant for creating useful typologies
of trip decisions. Central to consumption
decisions is the proposition that prior pur­
chases and experiences (e.g., on-site destina­
tion activities) trigger later purchase.
One study examines the decision process
and doing-behaviors ofBI visitors (Woodside
& King, 2001). This study has useful conclu­
sions for policy and positioning decision;
however, Woodside and King do not include
in-depth reporting at the individual visit level.
Their results imply but do not validate that
grounded theory construction needs to cap­
ture the emic holistic view of individual-level
causes and consequences of processes in
tourism behavior. Woodside and Dubelaar
(2002) provide guidance for describing how
specific nuances in destination-area behaviors
affect other behaviors. Their study provides a
variable-level analysis, two variables at a
time, and thus a deep understanding of
complete decisions and flows at the individual
level is not possible.
Finally, Woodside et al. (2004) use thick
descriptions to describe complex destination
behaviors. They provide evidence that multiple
dependent variables influence travelers'
thoughts and actions. As their study is a case
247
Drew Martin and Arch G. Woodside
study of visitors to Canada's Prince Edward
Island, the results need cautious interpretation.
Additional testing of the propositions is neces­
sary for learning whether or not the conclusions
for building theory are location-specific.
Figure 1 displays nine issues relevant for
grounded theory construction of flows of
decisions and behaviors. The focus is on
destination choices such as antecedents and
consequences of implementing the decision.
Although not displayed in Figure 1, other
tourism foci for grounded theory construc­
tion include decisions about mode/route,
accommodations, dining-out, and participa­
tion in specific events or activities.
Grounded Theory Propositions
In Figure l, the arrows represent proposi­
tions relevant to develop grounded theory
and to construct guiding questions for thick
descriptions of visitors' behavior. Following
Woodside et al. (2004), Figure 1 provides a
template of topics covered during the long
interview process rather than a list for
variable-based analysis. Proposition 1 (PI),
(box 1 to 2 in Figure 1), suggests the
demographics and lifestyles of visitors affect
how they frame leisure choices (see
McGuiggan & Foo, 2004; Sellick, 2004).
For example, a family with a 3-year-old child
would consider leisure travel alternatives
with age-appropriate activities for their
child. Does the destination have a protected,
shallow lagoon with a sandy beach?
Proposition 2 (P2), (box 3 to 2), implies
unexpected or unplanned events occur that
mayor may not affect the framing of leisure
choices. A television advertisement promot­
ing a destination triggers initial thoughts
about planning a visit. The advertisement
represents a catalyst for collecting informa­
tion, or an affirmation that a specific destina­
tion should be top of mind. Thoughts
triggered by ad exposure are necessary, but
not sufficient motivation to visit.
Proposition 3 (P3), (box 4 to 2), proposes
external and internal personal influences
affect the framing of leisure choices. For
example, comments by friends about positive
experiences while visiting Hawaii might be
FIGURE 1.
3. Pre-framing and Pre-planning Trip
Issues
• Pre-framing events
• External stimuli not found?
\
I
• Who is this
visitor?
• What type of
lifestyle does
he/she have?
p1
P5
P2
I. Demographics
6. Key Activity Drive;:;-!
• What activities influenced
the selection of BI?
l
/'
P4~
2. Framing Leisure
Choices
• Leisure travel
alternatives
i
P=/
,t
j
l
4. External Influences
• Friends, relatives, or,co-workers
• Retrieval of thoughts and attitudes
• Situational constraints and
opportunities
~
5. Choice of
Destination
• Why was BI
selected?
• Why were
competitive
destinations
rejected?
p0
7. Activities
• Activities planned
and done
• Activities planned
and not done
• Activities not
planned and done
• Activities not
planned and not
done
I
I
8. Situation
On-Site
Influences
• Local
information
sources used
• Special
events
unknown
prior to visit
lY
~
9. Consequences
• Satisfaction/dissatisfaction with specific experiences
and global visit
• Intention to return
• Willingness to recommend BI as a destination
Adapted from Woodside, MacDonald, and Burford 2004
I
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JOURNAL OF TRA VEL & TOURISM MARKETING
retrieved from memory during the framing
of leisure choices. Proposition 4 (P4), (box 2
to 5), includes features and benefits in
framing leisure choices affecting the destina­
tion choice. For example, an opportunity to
visit a coffee plantation on BI may tip the
balance when a traveler must choose
between a visit to Oahu and BI.
Proposition 5 (P5), (box 3 to 5), states that
information collected for framing and trip
planning affects the process of selecting and
rejecting destination alternatives. The exter­
nal stimuli affected both the framing of
leisure choices (P 2) and are retrieved to
influence the final destination choice.
Proposition 6 (P6), (box 4 to 5), asserts
that friends' opinions and thoughts retrieved
from memory influence the selection or
rejection of destination alternatives. The
importance of reference group influence on
leisure trip planning is noted in a recent
study (Hsu, Kang, & Lam, 2006). Given the
influence of reference groups on consumer
purchasing behavior, the retrieval of pre­
vious reference group encounters also is
likely to influence the destination choice.
Proposition 7 (P 7), (box 5 to 6), contends key
activity drivers help solidify the decision to
visit the destination selected. Examples of
key activity drivers include concrete plans
and pre-trip actions (e.g., bookings) regard­
ing a visit to a specific destination.
Proposition 8 (P g), (box 6 to 7), claims that
key activity drivers affect what is planned and
done in a destination. Box 7 notes that leisure
activities can be categorized into four quad­
rants:
planned-done;
planned-undone;
unplanned-done; and unplanned-undone.
Planned-done activities typically are key
activity drivers. Visitors' decisions to choose
a destination are influence by planned parti­
cipation in these activities. Data in this
quadrant are useful for designing destination
attractions and creating positioning state­
ments. Since many travelers do not engage
in in-depth planning (Fodness & Murray,
1999), unplanned-done activities may repre­
sent the largest share of leisure time pursuits
done by visitors. Planned-undone activities
may be the result of loss of interest, an
unexpected situational contingency, or the
result of a tradeofflreplacement with a more
desirable activity. Finally, unplanned-undone
activities are when an activity is a possibility;
however, the visitor does not plan nor engage
in the pursuit. A visitor may have an
awareness of an activity (e.g., parasailing),
but he does not have an interest.
Proposition 9 (P g), (box 8 to 7) proposes
that visitors learn about events and activities
while visiting. Exposure to the destination
serves as a catalyst for affectiug behavior.
This behavior is consistent with Weick's
(1995) contention that visitors sometimes
only think about involvement in an activity
after seeing it. Finally, Proposition 10 (P 10),
(box 7 to 9), concludes that activities done
(and not done) affect much of the attitude
and intention consequences resulting from,
and associating with, visiting a destination.
In other words, visitor experiences that result
in specific outcomes are the antecedents to a
good or bad trip (see Frazer, 1991).
METHOD
A field study was designed to examine the
propositions. The field study includes 60- to
90-minute, in-situ interviews using an 18-page
questionnaire. The survey instrument was
structured to provide latitude for interviewers
to ask probing or follow-up questions in the
event that unexpected issues or experiences
surfaced during the interview process.
Informants and Procedure
Infonnants were tourists visiting BI in
July 2006. Both first-time and repeat visitors
participated. In the case of first-time visitors,
care was taken to assure informants were
interviewed at the end of their visits.
Informant selection was by convenience
sampling. . Prospective informants were
approached and prescreened with general
questions about their visit and whether they
would be willing to participate in an inter­
view. Most interviews were conducted at
Kailua-Kona (a resort city located on the
249
Drew Martin and Arch G. Woodside
west side of BI) in hotels, or at a tourist
shopping mall located at the Waikoloa resort
area-20 miles north of Kailua-Kona.
Japanese tourists were interviewed in their
native language by bilingual researchers.
Each informant received 50 USD and a
Hawaii-themed t-shirt for their cooperation.
The questionnaire includes questions ask­
ing for: (a) demographic information about
members of the traveling party, (b) pretrip
planning and sources of information, (c)
activities and destinations- both planned
and unplanned, (d) issues surrounding
flights, (e.g., accommodations), (e) eating
and dining experiences, and (f) overall
impressions of the travel experience.
Informants were told that their compensa­
tion was not dependent on answering all the
questions, and they could end the interview
at any time. On average, an interview's
duration was about 80 minutes. Nearly all
questions were answered by all the infor­
mants. Nine interviews were conducted.
Written, thick descriptions were completed
for each informant. Each case study report
was read and revised by the research team.
FINDINGS
The discussion of findings builds first
from individual case study analyses. Three
of the nine interviews are presented to
represent different tourism demographic
groups. Given the detail of information the
interviews uncovered, this sample size is
consistent with McCracken's (1988) recom­
mendations. Following the presentation of
these findings, the discussion shifts to pre­
senting findings from a comparative analysis
of the case studies.
A Couple from Bonn, Germany Visits
Hawaii for the First Time
This case study is of a husband and wife
from Bonn, Germany, visiting the State of
Hawaii for 3 weeks (July 2006). Figure 2
FIGURE 2.
------------------------3. Pre-framing and Pre-planning Trip Issues
• Children old enough to care for themselves
• Trip needs to be 3-weeks in length; 4-weeks too long away from work
• Regarding the volcanoes in Hawaii, "If not now, when? Older, need to
do this trip now. "
• Husband: "I did not have money to take this trip when I was younger."
• Delta Frequent Flier Program enables trip
1
1. Demographics
• Husband and
wife
• Teenage
~
children living
at horne
2. Framing Leisure
Choices
• Husband starts
thinking about dream
visit to "South Seas
Paradise"
• No infonnation search
prior to visit
• Used internet tor
infonnation
• Delta Frequent Flier
miles for 25 yearsfirst class tickets
t
1
~
I
I,
5. Choice of
Destination
• "Volcano
alone is the
reason to
corne to BI."
• Stops in San
Diego; Kauai;
Maui, and
Oahu
• Alternative:
Thailand
r
4. External Influences
• General press stories about Hawaii
volcanoes
• Bought travel guide book
• Study web sites
I
6. Key Activity Drivers
• Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
7. Activities
• Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park
• Kilauea Volcano
• Saw lava tubes, no
helicopter ride
• Talk to children at
horne daily
• Visit church
• Snorkeling
• Hilo day trip
~
,.
II
8. Situation OnSite Influences
Rough coastline
• Did not spend
much time at the
beach
9. Consequences
• America has a
solution for
everything (e.g.,
taxies, buses)
• Wife happy now
(having visited BI)
I
I
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JOURNAL OF TRA VEL & TOURISM MARKETING
maps details of the interview. The following
discussion offers highlights and insights
relating to this long interview.
Helmut is in his early 60s and works full­
time as a professional scientist (PhD in
physics); Ingrid is in her late 50s and
manages their home full-time which includes
three children (17- , 18- , and 21-years old).
While visiting Hawaii, the couple kept in
daily contact by telephone with their chil­
dren back home in Bonn. This trip signifies
the first time that the couple believed that all
three children were old enough for them to
stay home alone.
Interview SitelDay
The couple was interviewed at the Kona
Seaside Hotel's pool. The 90-minute face-to­
face interview was conducted on July 22,
2006- the couple's last day on BI. The
interview was conducted in English. Both
husband and wife answered the questions.
Trip Decisions for the Total Trip
Ingrid was reluctant to fly directly to BI.
She wanted to visit someplace on the U.S.
mainland during the trip. The husband
suggested a visit to San Diego. A San
Diego stopover also serves the couple by
partially overcoming jet lag before visiting
Hawaii.
The couple was unwilling to travel away
from home as a couple until the children
were old enough to manage for themselves
alone and unsupervised at home. Helmut
and Ingrid planned their trip with the final 4
days away being in Honolulu. This schedule
allowed for the contingency of cutting the
trip short a few days if they sensed the
children needed their early return home.
Each day, the couple telephoned the children
during the 3-week trip.
Trip Planning and Visit
Issu~s
Helmut's accumulation of frequent flyer
points in Delta Airlines loyalty program
became an enabling step toward transform­
ing the dream into reality. Airline award
points were accumulated due to business
trips over the past 20 years. The couple
waited to accumulate enough points for two
first-class round-trip tickets.
Trip planning was limited to booking
flights and accommodations. Online com­
parative shopping was used for booking
accommodations and car rental. The bud­
get-priced Kona Seaside hotel was chosen
for accommodations because they wanted to
avoid paying $200 per night for a hotel.
While the hotel was a bit run-down (e.g., the
elevator did not work) and the room lacked
amenities (e.g., no coffee maker), the couple
did not have high expectations because of the
low price ($80 per night).
Also, an Avis rental car was booked on
the internet. The car rental was attractive
because they preferred to keep their trip
unstructured. As with the hotel booking, the
couple chose the car rental company with the
lowest price. One disappointment in the car
rental was that the signal lights did not work
properly.
Activities and Attractions Visited
The couple listed a number of activities
and attractions that they visited during their
stay. First, they visited their principle attrac­
tion, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. One
day was spent touring the Park. Although
the lava tubes were impressive, the couple
was disappointed because they did not see
spectacular lava flows. Unplanned activities
included a one-day driving tour with a stop
in Hilo, strolling around Kailua-Kona, and
an afternoon snorkeling/swimming at a
Kailua-Kona beach.
Motives for the trip
Helmut reported that he always has
wanted to visit the Big Island (BI) because
of the volcanoes. He reported learning about
Hawaii and its volcanoes in the general
media over many years. His training and
work history in physics likely affected his
vigilance toward media reports on the HI
over earlier decades in his life. Helmut noted
that his wife was agreeable to visit the
251
Drew Martin and Arch G. Woodside
destination, but BI was his dream rather
than hers.
Summary
for his employer for 20 years, Eiji was
entitled to take a I-month vacation. His
extended Hawaiian holiday was split
between Kauai (2 weeks), Oahu (10 days),
and BI (1 week). The data in Figure 3 apply
to Eiji's trip. Last year, the family visited BI,
but they only stayed for 3 days.
Eiji and his wife are in their mid-30s, and
their two sons aged 8- and 10-years old. Eiji
works for an automobile manUfacturer; his
wife is a homemaker. He answered most of
the questions, but his wife made comments
as well. The family resides in Toyota City in
Japan.
Indirect factors (e.g., news stories and
novels) influenced this couple's decision to
visit BI. For 20 years, the husband con­
sciously and unconsciously thought about
visiting Hawaii to see volcanoes and lava
flows. Surprisingly, little effort was made to
learn about BI before arriving. Most of their
activities were unplanned. Although the
couple was satisfied with their experience,
they did not display positive emotions when
describing their experiences. Either the lack
of spectacular lava flows at Hawaii Interview Site/Day
Volcanoes National Park, or the thought of
Eiji was interviewed at the Kings' Shops
leaving their children at home may have located in the Waikoloa resort. He had just
affected their ability to enjoy the experience. finished eating lunch at Merriman's Cafe.
The interview was held in the property
Japanese Family from Toyota, Japan
manager's office during the afternoon of
Visits BI Again
July 23, 2006. They had arrived from Japan
For the last 12 years, Eiji has visited the previous at day, so the family was tired.
Hawaii annually. The current trip is unique Eiji's wife and children were present for
because of visit's duration. Having worked about half of the interview.
FIGURE 3.
3. Pre-framing and Pre-planning Trip Issues
• Booked flight one year before arrival through travel agent
• Visited I Love Hawaii website to find accommodations
• Read many guide books including Chikyo no Arukikata:
Big Island
• Talked with friends, relatives, and co-workers that had
visited BI
6. Key Activity Drivers
• Husband has one month of vacation this year
I
1. Demographics
• Family with two,
young children
• Husband only
full-time worker
I
2. Framing Leisure
Choices
• Hawaii is the only
option; cannot
think about another
place.
• Son has a school
project to study a
coffee farm
• Desire to go on star
gazing tour on
Mauna kea
-
5. Choice of
Destination
• No other
destination
considered
I
;
r
4. External Influences
• Husband and wife visit Hawaii annually
• Friends from work visited BI
!
1
1
7. Activities
• Kailua-Kona
~
• Parker Ranck
• Hapuna Beach
• Kapa'a Beach Park
• Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park
• Kilauea Volcano
• Umauma Falls
• Rainbow Falls/
Boiling Pots
• King's Shops
• Huggo's Bubba:
Gump
• Imiloa Astronomy
Center
• Big Island Candy
• Snorkeling ~
• Coffee Farm
'------­
I
--
8. Situation OnSite Influences
Japanese food
restaurant closed,
so tried
Merriman's Cafe
9. Consequences
• Enjoyed BI's natural
beauty
• Service on Japim
Airlines was a little
slow
Children enjoyed
looking at words and
names created with
dead coral in lava
fields
• Pleased to stay at
such a nice
condominium
·
252
JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
Trip Decisions for the Total Trip
Activities, Attractions and Motives
Trip planning began one year before
The interview took place early in Eiji's visit
departure. Eiji and his wife began gathering to BI. Still, Eiji had definite plans on the places
information for their next visit after the that they were going to visit. These locations
family returned from their previous trip to can be categorized into ocean/beaches, inland
Hawaii. Since Eiji always had planned to nature (volcano and waterfall), and astron­
spend his 20-year employment holiday in omy-related destinations (e.g., Imiloa
Hawaii, pre-trip planning started years ear­ Astronomy Center). In addition, the family
lier. Pretrip planning included reading a was going to visit a coffee farm to gather
number of guide books, talking to family, information for the older son's summer school
friends, and co-workers, and online informa­ project. To buy omiyagi (gifts for friends), Eiji
tion searches. Eiji mentioned Chikyo no was going to visit Big Island Candy and the
Arukikata: Big Island [How to Travel the Prince Kuhio shopping mall in Hilo.
Eiji's strong attachment to Hawaii is
Globe: Big Island] as a useful book for
planning purposes. Also, he was a frequent evident from his words, "I cannot stop
visitor to a Japanese web site called "I Love thinking about Hawaii." Days after return­
ing from his previous visit, Eiji had con­
Hawaii."
tacted his travel agent to make reservations
BI Planning and Visit Issues
for his next trip. Perhaps these annual
excursions help him to cope with his
Japan Airlines (JAL) mileage awards from structured life in Japan. The lure of white
previous trips had accumulated to reach the sand beaches and palm tree creates a fantasy
threshold for a free air ticket. Flight arrange­ world that he looks forward to annually.
ments for the free ticket were made online.
The other tickets were booked through the Summary
travel agent he always uses. Eiji commented
Eiji and his family are regular visitors to
that the airline personnel were not very
efficient in serving food and drinks to Hawaii. Typically, he purchases a package
tour and stays for 1 week. Eiji's current trip is
passengers.
At the "I Love Hawaii" website, Eiji a departure from his usual tourist behavior.
found a very favorable rate for renting a Because of his 20-year employment anniver­
condominium called "The Shores." Having sary, Eiji was able to spend more time in
been to Kona before, Eiji was familiar with Hawaii. His activities on BI and other
this property, but the high price prevented Hawaiian islands suggest interests in both
him from making reservations previously. natural beauty and scientific discovery. BI
The family was delighted to stay in a nice offers these opportunities and should continue
condominium. Eiji's only misgiving about to provide a strong incentive for annual visits.
the accommodation is the lack of ocean view
American Couple, 50s, First-Time Visit
from the room.
To visit various parts of BI, Eiji rented a
Dave is a banker from a small town in
car. He chose Alamo car rental because of Georgia. He visited Hawaii in July 2006 with
a price discount. JCB, a Japanese credit his wife. They spent a total 6 days on BI. The
card company, was running its "Bonus trip's purpose was to attend the annual
Campaign" promotion. Cardholders were convention. for the Community Banker's
entitled to a discount on Alamo car rental Association of Georgia. Neither Dave nor
rates. Eiji contacted his local Alamo repre­ his wife previously visited Hawaii. The
sentative by telephone to make car rental couple extended their stay an extra 2 days
reservations. Overall, the rental car met his in order to see as much of the island as
possible, and so the wife could shop.
expectations.
253
Dfew Maffin and AfCh G. Woodside
Trip preplanning was coordinated by the
Association's official travel agent. Dave's
only pretrip decisions included the length of
stay, and whether or not to rent a car. This
visit was work-related, so most expenses
were paid by Dave's employer. Figure4
shows the external influences and outcomes
of Dave's visit to BI.
Description of the Family Visiting BI
Dave and his wife are in their mid-50s. They
have grown children that did not accompany
them on the trip. Dave is employed full-time,
his wife is a homemaker. Traveling by
chartered flight, their group included repre­
sentatives of 300 bank and 200 associate
members of the Community Banking
Association of Georgia (CBA, 2006).
Interview Site/Day
Dave was interviewed at the Kings' Shops
located in the Waikoloa resort. He was
patiently sitting on a bench at the shopping
center while his wife was shopping. The
interview was held in the afternoon of July
23, 2006. This day was Dave's last one in
Hawaii. His chartered flight was scheduled
to depart for home that evening (11:00 p.m.).
Trip Decisions for Total Trip
Dave's primary decision was whether or
not to attend the convention. The
Community
Banking Association
of
Georgia decided the convention's time and
location. Dave was a reluctant traveler for a
number of reasons. First, he was not happy
about the 12-hour flight from Atlanta. Also,
the flights were scheduled for evening
departures. Dave did not look forward to
all-night flights. Finally, he is an outdoors­
man that enjoys hunting, fishing, and golf.
Dave perceived that BI does not offer these
leisure activities. If Dave did not attend the
convention, he would wait until next year's
event.
FIGURE 4.
3. Pre-framing and Pre-planning Trip Issues
• Association worked directly with travel agency for
convention travel.
• Charter flight from Atlanta to Kona
• Contacted travel agent for all booking arrangements
1. Demographics
• Husband and
wife in mid-50's
• Grown children
• From a small
town in Georgia
• Bank manager
• Husband only
full time worker
2. Framing
Leisure Choices
• Want to see BI's
-+
natural beauty
• Dave is interested
in agriculture
industry
• Wife wants to
shop for
5. Choice of
Destination
• Banking
Association
chose the
destination.
• Wait until
next year's
convention
souvenirs
4. External Influences
• Family members visited other Hawaiian islands
• Banker's Association convention
6. Key Activity Drivers
• Attend Community Banker's
Association of Georgia convention
• Booked two extra days so wife
could go shopping
l
'--------'--t--J.- = - - ­
7. Activities
•Kailua-Kona
•Parker Ranch
•Waikoloa Village
•Kauhola Point Lighthouse
•Pololu Valley
•Pololu Beach
•Honokohau Harbor
•Hilton Waikoloa
'Mauna Lani
'King's Shops
•Palace Gift Shop
•Kona Historical Museum
•Captain Cook Monument
•Volcanoes National Park
•Volcano Village
'Hilo
•Lava Tree State Park
•Waimea
•Kona Airport Beach Park
•Kailua Bay
• Seeing Sea Turtles
8. Situation On-Site
Influences
• Wanted to see as
much as possible.
• Information center
brochures helped
decide destinations
-+
9. Consequences
• Impressed with
Bl's natural
beauty
• F airmont H~tel is
very nice
• Good food at
restaurants
• Did not like the
12-hour, all-night
flight
• Surprised by lack
of white sand
beaches and palm
trees
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JOURNAL OF TRA VEL & TOURISM MARKETING
BI Planning Issues
Air transportation and lodging were
scheduled by the Association's travel agent.
Once Dave decided to attend the convention,
he had decisions concerning the length of his
stay and whether or not to rent an auto­
mobile. Two chartered flights were sched­
uled. Dave opted to extend his visit by
choosing the flight arriving 2 days early.
According to Dave, the early arrival was
chosen to allow time for shopping. The
decision to rent an automobile was auto­
matic after he had decided to attend the
convention. Dave wanted a car so that he
could see as much of the island as possible.
The car rental booking process was not
extensive. Car rental was made by online
booking through Alamo.
Neither Dave nor his wife read travel or
guide books about BI prior to their arrival.
Dave did talk with family members about
their trip. Several of Dave's siblings pre­
viously visited Hawaii; however, they had
not been to BI. Dave's family provided
information about Hawaii that created a
distorted picture of BI. When Dave arrived
in Kona, he was surprised to see expansive
fields of black lava. He envisioned the entire
Kona coast to be white sand beaches and
palm trees.
BI Visit Issues
of 4 extra hours left a strong, favorable
impression upon Dave. He was delighted to
get 4 more hours of touring that otherwise
would have been spent at the airport.
Activities and Attractions Visited
With the exception of attending the
convention, Dave did not plan to visit any
specific attractions. To see as much as
possible, Dave and his wife drove around
the island. To assist with his touring, Dave
used brochures available at the hotel to guide
him. In 2 days of touring, he managed to see
a considerable amount of BI. Also, the
attractions he visited varied considerably
and included state and national parks,
beaches, museums, towns, and various shop­
ping centers (see Figure 3). He mentioned
two activities-visiting Volcano National
Park and seeing sea turtles-as his most
memorable experiences.
Eating Places
Overall, Dave noted nothing unusual or
surprising concerning his dining experience
on BI. Specifically, he mentioned that the
food at Edelweiss, Tommy Bahamas, and the
Volcano Restaurant Hotel was very good.
All three of these businesses are upscale
restaurants on BI, so this assessment is not
surprising. Other meals were served in
concert with the convention.
Dave did not choose the hotel. All
convention attendees stayed at the Motives for the Trip
Fairmont Orchid. Although the travel agent
Dave stated that his primary motivation
chose the hotel, Dave did see a brochure of for visiting BI was to attend a convention.
the hotel before his arrival. The brochure's The trip was extended 2 days for shopping
pictures gave Dave the impression that the and sightseeing activities, so there appears to
Fairmont Orchid is an upscale hotel. Dave's be more than one motivation for visiting BI.
overall impression of the Fairmont Orchid Undoubtedly, pretrip discussions with family
was consistent with his expectations.
members that had visited Hawaii had a
When Dave arrived at BI, he discovered strong influence as well.
that the car rental agreement required the
return of his vehicle 4 hours before his Summary
departing flight. Much to his surprise, the
The Community Banker's Association of
rental agent accommodated Dave's schedule
by letting him keep the vehicle for an Georgia's annual convention in Kona cre­
additional 4 hours. The rental car allowance ated an opportunity for Dave and his wife to
Drew Martin and Arch G. Woodside
visit BI. Although the prospect of an over­
night, 12-hour airplane flight was a negative
influence on the decision, input by family
members that previously visited Hawaii
overcame that obstacle. Once here, Dave
was a bit surprised by the flows of volcanic
rock because he expected to see white sand
beaches and palm trees. After spending a few
days traveling, Dave remarked favorably
about BI's unique natural beauty. Given
the choice of visiting BI or another destina­
tion, he would choose to return to BI
because it is fun and educational.
How the Propositions Apply to
International Tourism Behavior
The case studies provide evidence to
support all ten grounded theory proposi­
tions; however, the level of support varies.
Support for Proposition l---demographics
and lifestyles of visitors influence how they
frame leisure choices----can be found in each
case. All three families sought educational
experiences in their visit. While Eiji, the
repeat visitor, wanted to expose his two sons
to BI, the German and American couples
were first-time visitors. Helmut's education
and work experience was a foundation for
his interest in volcanoes. Dave required nice
accommodations because he is at a stage in
life where comfort is important.
The evidence also supports Proposition
2-unexpected or unplanned events affect
the framing of leisure choices. Eiji's visits to
a web site about Hawaii shows how pre­
planning can affect the framing of leisure
choices. Eiji consulted travel agents and
guide books to gather preplanning informa­
tion. Helmut's exposure to news stories
about the BI served as a catalyst for saving
frequent flier mileage to visit BI. Finally,
Dave's organization chose BI as the location
of their annual meeting. If Dav~ had been
the decision maker, the meeting would have
been held much closer to Georgia.
Proposition 3 receives strong support. Both
internal and external personal influences
affected the framing of the trip to BI. Eiji
talks with everyone about Hawaii. He thinks
255
about Hawaii all the time. The German
couple's external influences were primarily
passive. Hawaii's presence in the news media
and in the popular press, movies, short
stories, and novels had a long-time future
impact for their choice of leisure destination.
Talking with family members and tapping his
subconscious imagery of Hawaii, Dave
expected Kona to have white sand beaches
and palm trees. Consequently, such case
studies support the proposition that public
relations programs encouraging such story­
reporting are effective and necessary.
All three cases show evidence that features
and benefits in framing leisure choices affect
destination choice (proposition 4). Dave's
decision was whether to take the trip or wait
until next year's meeting. The long airplane
flight weighed heavily against the trip;
however, the opportunity to stay 2 extra
days for shopping and sightseeing tipped the
balance in favor of the trip. Both Eiji and
Helmut had to decide whether to split time
between BI and other islands. The implica­
tion is that BI is unlikely to be a stand-alone
destination for visitors to the State of
Hawaii. Cooperative marketing programs
across several islands and State-wide infor­
mation brochures are likely to be more
effective in influencing first-time visits.
Supporting proposition 5, the results show
how information collected in the preframing
and pre-planning phase also affects destina­
tion choice. These preframing activities had
a profound effect on the decisions to visit BI.
All three families used the internet and travel
agents to search for accommodations and
transportation.
External influences also influenced the
destination choice as proposed in proposi­
tion 6. Eiji's previous twelve trips to Hawaii
gave him a rich set of memories to influence
his destination choice. Helmut had thought
about visiting BI for over 20 years. Dave was
a bit reluctant to visit, but he enjoys the
meeting's networking opportunities. Also,
Dave's siblings previously visited Oahu; they
reported positive experiences.
According to proposition 7, once the
destination has been selected, key activity
1­
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JOURNAL OF TRA VEL & TOURISM MARKETING
drivers affect the decision to VISIt the
destination. Evidence from each case sup­
ports proposition 7. All three families
reserved rental cars for their trips. Also,
Eiji and Helmut made plans to accommo­
date their frequent mileage membership the
airlines.
Proposition 8 contends that the key
activity drivers affect what is planned and
done at the destination. Two cases provide
strong evidence of activity driver influence.
Eiji's I-month vacation provided an oppor­
tunity to participate in many activities not
possible during his typical I-week vacation.
Helmut was so obsessed with visiting Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park that he saved 20
years of airline mileage rewards.
Strong support for proposition 9 is found.
Information and events learned while visit­
ing affected plans and behaviors. Eiji
planned to eat Japanese cuisine at King's
Shops, but the restaurant was closed. As a
result, he chose Merriman's Cafe. The
Gern1an couple only planned to visit
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Once they
arrived, other activities such as a visit to
downtown Hilo became part of their visit.
Armed with tourist information center bro­
chures, Dave and his wife drove around the
island and stopped at every site that was
listed.
Finally, the evidence supports proposition
10- the activities done/not done affect much
of the attitude and intention consequences
resulting from visiting a destination. Both
positive and negative experiences affected
the overall trip assessment in each case. In
each case, the respondents stated that their
overall impression of BI was positive.
Exposure to BI's natural beauty and amaz­
ing biodiversity were mentioned as positive
influences. The cases differ in the amount of
time spent learning about the destination.
The Japanese travelers spent considerable
time, the German couple much less time,
and the American couple did not spend any
time learning about BI activies.. Had the
American and German couples prepared
more prior to departure, perhaps their
expectations would have been different.
Important differences exist between these
results and Woodside et al.'s (2004) study of
foreign tourists visiting Prince Edward
Island, Canada. Unlike the BI visitors, the
Prince Edward tourists primarily relied on
the Visitor's Guide Book published by the
local government. The internet played a
more important role in providing trip
information to BI visitors. This difference
may be an artifact of the period of time
studied. Another possibility is that the effort
to plan a trip to a remote location like BI
requires more information and planning.
Interestingly, word-of-mouth information
was more important for Prince Edward
Island than BI visitors. This finding implies
that more inforn1ation may be available to
BI visitors, so they have less need to ask
people for advice. Another possible implica­
tion is that the tourists may not perceive
local people in Hawaii to be as approachable
as those on Prince Edward Island. Finally,
the degree of visitor attachment to BI and
Prince Edward Island appear to be different.
Every visitor to BI wanted to return in the
future; however, many Prince Edward Island
visitors expressed serious doubts that they
would return. Prince Edward's local cuisine
was an important factor in trip decisions.
Perhaps a nice plate of seafood is easier to
create at other destinations than a tropical
paradise, even if the island is covered by
volcanic rock rather than white sand beaches
and palm trees.
Contributions to Theory and Practice
Emic story telling research shows how
streams or specific combinations of variables
affect travelers' thoughts and activities.
The preceding case-based studies support
the proposition that a holistic approach is
useful for understanding visitor behavior.
Visitor memories and recollections create
gestalt images affected by pretrip planning,
internal and external influences, and on-site
influences.
Also, emic story telling shows that
single variables or actions are not sufficient
to create a positive or negative visitor
257
Drew Martin and Arch G. Woodside
experience. For example, Hehnut saved
enough frequent flier miles for the trip to
BI; however, his children needed to be old
enough to stay home alone. Emic story
telling demonstrates the interconnection of
multiple services experiences. A lei greeting
at the airport needs to be reinforced by
friendly hotel employees, shop keepers, tour
operators, and taxi drivers.
State and local governments have an
important role to play in improving the
tourism climate. Information about visitor
behavior must be shared with service provi­
ders. Tourism bureaus must disseminate
pertinent information and communicate the
benefits of a consistent image. Since the
tourists' overall impressions are based on an
amalgamation of experiences, state and local
governments should consider training pro­
grams designed to improve service and image
consistency.
Finally, all nine interviews uncovered a
common motivation to visit BI. The visitors
were motivated by educational opportunities
(e.g., to see an active volcano). Each person's
internet usage to find infomlation is con­
sistent with the notion. Do visitors view BI
as a living laboratory? If yes, perhaps more
attractions
like
Hilo's
new
Imiloa
Astronomy Center will appeal to these
educational tourists?
Limitations and Suggestions for
Additional Research
The case studies show the value of systems
thinking in examining the influences,
choices, activities, and consequences of
leisure travel decisions and processes
(Senge, 1990). While the preceding cases
are useful for building grounded theories
about travelers' thought processes, further
study is recommended. Detailed interviews
of a small number of visitors provide
amazing detail about an individual's thought
process; however, large-scale surveys and
field experiments are still needed to general­
ize the theory to populations. Grounded
theory is an important first step in theory
development.
The results suggest possibilities for future
directions in research. First, are the indivi­
dual maps specific to a destination, or do
these maps generalize each visitor's travel
behavior? Comparing the preceding results
to Woodside et al. (2004) shows important
differences that exist when people visit
different destinations. Are these differences
destination-specific, or individual-specific?
In other words, would a BI visitor go
through the same preplanning process when
deciding to visit Seoul, Korea? A long­
itudinal study would answer this question
and provide deeper insights on tourist
behavior.
A related research opportunity is to
examine tourist behavior over time to the
same location. Eiji has visited BI several
times and he plans to return. A better
understanding of repeat visitors' motivations
and interests would be useful for developing
promotional messages to try increase the
number of destination-loyal visitors. Eiji
clearly has an emotional attachment to
Hawaii. Understanding the cause of Eiji's
obsession with Hawaii is a step toward
developing promotional materials designed
to appeal to a long-term relationship with
the destination. Repeat visitors help reduce
revenue fluctuations as well as provide
valuable word-of-mouth advertising for a
destination. Longitudinal studies of repeat
visitors will show important changes in
motivations and behaviors.
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SUBMITTED: May 25, 2007
FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED:
August 14, 2007
ACCEPTED: August 15,2007
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY