Age and Ageing 2016; 45: 287–292
doi: 10.1093/ageing/afv203
Published electronically 18 January 2016
© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society.
All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal
adjustment in older people over 5 years:
a latent profile transition analysis
NATHALIE BAILLY1, GUILLAUME MARTINENT2, CLAUDE FERRAND1, KAMEL GANA3 , MICHÈLE JOULAIN1,
CHRISTINE MAINTIER1
1
Address correspondence to: N. Bailly Tel: (+33) 0 247366722. Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Background: previous research has shown that tendencies to tenaciously pursue goals (TGP) and flexibly adapt goals (FGA)
relate to well-being of older people.
Objectives: this study aimed to identify subpopulations of elderly people with different coping profiles, describe change in
participants’ profiles over time and determine the influence of coping profiles on well-being over a 5-year period.
Methods: latent profile transition analysis (LPTA) was used in a three-wave longitudinal data collection measuring flexibility,
tenacity, depression, self-rated health and life satisfaction among an elderly population over 65 years old.
Results: three coping profiles were identified. Profile 1 was characterised by participants with high flexibility and tenacity
scores, Profile 2 with moderate flexibility and low tenacity scores and Profile 3 with low flexibility and moderate tenacity scores.
Results indicate stability of these profiles over time, with Profile 1 being the most adaptive in terms of ageing well.
Conclusion: high flexibility and tenacity in older people is a stable coping profile that is associated with successful ageing.
Keywords: ageing, flexible goal adjustment, tenacious goal pursuit, latent profile transition analysis, well-being, older people
Introduction
The dual-process framework proposed by Brandtstädter and
colleagues [1, 2] addresses the dynamics of goal striving
throughout the life span and thus allows a better understanding of the adaptation processes as people age. This model
distinguishes two basic modes of reducing discrepancies
between desired and factual situations or developmental outcomes. First, tenacious goal pursuit (TGP) involves striving
for goals with commitment and determination, engaging in
assimilative processes to modify the environment to achieve
one’s goals. In contrast the second mode, flexible goal adjustment (FGA), involves pursuing goals with flexibility and
disengaging from goals when necessary, engaging in accommodative processes to adjust to constraints and modify goals
when there are obstacles [2]. Since Brandstadter and Renner’s
proposal [3], FGA and TGP have regularly been used in
studies on coping with blocked goals due to ageing [4–7].
Previous research has suggested that FGA and TGP are important for well-being beyond the age of 65 years [4, 8, 9] and
contribute to successful ageing [2, 6]. With age, when goal
pursuit exceeds resources, switching from the tenacity to the
flexibility mode helps to regain an overall sense of efficacy
and preserve integrity and continuity, despite functional
declines and losses [1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 11]. Nevertheless, coping
profiles could be indicated by an individual reporting one
mode rather than the other, high levels of both or little use
of either. However, the literature provides conflicting reports
about the links between tenacity and flexibility and how together or separately they contribute to successful ageing.
Some authors have suggested that high scores on both modes
is maladaptive, possibly because people who tend to use both
strategies are faced with the dilemma of choosing between
holding on or letting go. Indeed, the two coping tendencies
could be in opposition, with a tendency to maintain commitments even against obstacles opposing the tendency to
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Department of Psychology, University François Rabelais, Tours, Centre 37000, France
Center of Research and Innovation on Sport, University of Claude Bernard Lyon I—EA 647, Lyon, France
3
University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
2
N. Bailly et al.
disengage from goals or to downgrade their importance [12].
On the other hand, some authors have concluded that
people with high scores on FGA and TGP do particularly
well, because they adapt more efficiently to changing circumstances [6, 13]. For Kelly et al. [14], it seems that TGP may be
the most beneficial to well-being when combined with a
degree of flexibility.
Most studies have considered FGA and TGP as distinct
coping tendencies, and their combined effects remain
unknown particularly over the long term. Therefore, this
study aimed to (i) identify the older person’s coping profile,
(ii) identify change of coping profiles over time and (iii) highlight effects of coping profiles on well-being. More specifically, this study focused on three specific indices of well-being:
life satisfaction, depression and health evaluation.
Participants and procedure
This research used data from an ongoing longitudinal study
on adjustment to retirement initiated in 2001 (Wave 1 (2001)
data were analysed previously by Alaphilippe et al. [15]) by a
team of researchers at the University of Tours (France), and
which followed a non-institutionalised older cohort. The data
used in this article were collected at three time points: 2007
(T1, n = 544), 2009 (T2, n = 419) and 2012 (T3, n = 378).
After 5 years, we reported a loss of 30% of our participants. The main reasons for attrition were non-response
(71%), impossible to locate (22%) and death (7%). The
Measures
FGA and TGP were assessed using a French version of
Brandtstädter and Renner’s [3] TGP and FGA scales [16].
Each dimension contains 10 items that are rated on a
5-point Likert scale. The internal consistency was deemed
good: 0.76 (2007), 0.72 (2009) and 0.77 (2012) for the
Table 1. Sample characteristics and descriptive statistics
2007
Total
sample
2009
Profile 1
Profile 2
Profile 3
Total
sample
2012
Profile 1
Profile 2
Profile 3
Total
sample
Profile 1
Profile 2
....................................................................................
Age, M (SD)
Male, % (n)
Marital status, % (n)
With partner
Without partner
Years of education, M (SD)
Financial satisfaction,d M (SD) [1–4]
Health evaluation,e M (SD) [1–5]
Number of diseases,f M (SD)
Depression symptoms, M (SD) [0–15]
Life satisfaction, M (SD) [7–35]
Flexible goal adjustment, M (SD) [1–5]
Tenacious goal pursuit, M (SD) [1–5]
76.5 (4.6) 76.1 (4.2) 76.4 (4.7)
39.8 (99)
54 (47) 33.6 (42)
56.6 (141)
43.4 (108)
10.2 (2.5)
3 (0.7)
3 (0.6)
2.4 (1.5)
2.2 (2)
26.8 (6.5)
3.7 (0.5)
2.9 (0.6)
58.6 (51)
41.4 (36)
10.9 (2)
3.2 (0.7)
3.7 (0.9)a
2 (1.5)
1.3 (1.4)a
28.9 (4.2)a
3.9 (0.5)a
3.5 (0.4)a
58.4 (73)
41.6 (52)
9.9 (2.7)
3 (0.6)
3.3 (0.8)b
1.9 (1.4)
2.2 (1.6)b
26.8 (7.1)b
3.7 (0.5)
2.6 (0.4)c
78 (5.3) 78,6 (4.7) 78 (4.3) 78.5 (4.7)
27 (10)
–
54.7 (47)a 33.3 (42)b
45.9 (17)
54.1 (20)
9.7 (2.7)
2.8 (0.7)
2.8 (0.9)c
2.6 (1.5)
4.4 (2.8)c
22 (6.9)b
3.6 (0.5)b
2.9 (0.5)b
53.8 (134)
46.2 (115)
–
3 (0.6)
2.9 (0.5)
2.5 (1.7)
2.4 (2.3)
26.4 (6.4)
3.7. (0.5)
3 (0.5)
58.1 (50)
41.9 (36)
10.9 (2)
3.2 (0.6)
3.7 (0.8)a
2.1 (1.6)
1.3 (1.4)a
28.8 (3.7)a
3.9 (0.4)a
3.4 (0.4)a
54.8 (69)
45.2 (57)
9.9 (2.7)
2.9 (0.7)
3.3 (0.8)a
2.1 (1.4)
2.2 (1.8)b
26.1 (4.5)b
3.7 (0.5)b
2.6 (0.3)b
80 (5.2) 81.5 (4.7) 80.9 (4.3) 81.8 (4.9)
27 (10)
–
54.5 (47)a 31.9 (52)b
40.1 (15)
59.9 (22)
9.7 (2.6)
2.8 (0.7)
2.7 (0.9)b
2.3 (1.3)
5.9 (2.5)c
21.7 (5.5)c
3.5 (0.4)b
2.7 (0.3)b
53 (132)
47 (117)
–
3 (0.6)
2.9 (0.6)
2.5 (1.7)
2.7 (2)
25.9 (6.7)
3.7. (0.5)
3 (0.6)
58.1 (50)
41.9 (36)
10.9 (2)a
3.1 (0.6)a
3.7 (0.9)a
2.6 (1.8)
1.3 (1.4)a
28.8 (3.7)a
3.9 (0.4)a
3.4 (0.5)a
50.3 (82)
49.7 (81)
9.9 (2.7)b
2.9 (0.6)b
3.0 (0.9)b
2.4 (1.5)
3.4 (2.8)b
25.1 (5.1)b
3.6 (0.5)b
2.6 (0.4)b
M, mean; SD, standard deviation; [min–max].
a,b,c
A series of MANOVAs was performed independently the three waves with age, sex (male = 1; female = 2), marital status (with partners = 1; without partners = 2),
years of education, financial satisfaction, health evaluation, number of diseases, depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, flexible goal adjustment and tenacious goal
pursuit entered as the dependent variables to explore difference between coping profiles. Significant differences between coping profiles were reported at P < 0.005
(Bonferonni adjustment).
d
Financial satisfaction was assessed by the question: ‘How would you describe your present financial situations: Very dissatisfied (1), Dissatisfied (2) Satisfied (3) and
Very satisfied (4)’.
e
Health evaluation was assessed by the question: ‘In general, would you say your health is very poor (1), poor (2), good (3), very good (4) and excellent (5)?’.
f
Number of diseases was evaluated with the Multidimensional Functional Assessment Questionnaire (Pfeiffer, 1975). This scale use a list of 26 common diseases in
older persons (such as diabetes, chronic bronchitis, hypertension, arthritis, gastrointestinal diseases, cardiovascular diseases and cancer). The number of illnesses was
measured by the total number of diseases reported by each participant.
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Materials and methods
analysis of the potential impact of attrition revealed no major
significant differences between participants who completed
2007 measures and those who dropped out of the study
before 2012. (There were no significant differences in LS,
GDS, FGA and TGP between participants who completed
the 2012 assessment and those who dropped out of the
study before 2012. Nevertheless, participants who dropped
out reported poorer self-rated health (P = 0.012) than the
others.) As a whole, 249 participants who completed the
three waves were included in the analysis. Characteristic of
participants are presented in Table 1. Our sample was similar
to French national averages (INSEE, 2005) in terms of sex
and marital status, but respondents had generally completed
more years of education (M = 10.2, SD = 2.5) than expected
for people in this age bracket. All the participants lived independently in their own homes. As indicated in Table 1, our
participants were satisfied with their financial situation and
considered their health as ‘good’. They had fewer diseases
across the three waves. The most frequent diseases encountered over the 5 years were arthritis (57%), hypertension
(27.5%), gastrointestinal diseases (22.3%) and cardiovascular
diseases (18%).
TGP and FGA in older people over 5 years
TGP scale and 0.78 (2007), 0.69 (2009) and 0.75 (2012)
for the FGA scale.
Concerning Health evaluation, we used a single-item selfrating of overall health ranging from 1 (very poor) to 5 (excellent) [17]: ‘In general, would you say your health is very poor,
poor, good, very good or excellent?’
‘Life satisfaction’ (LS) was measured using the Satisfaction
with Life Scale [18], which consists of five items rated on a
7-point Likert scale. In the present sample, the internal consistency of the LS was deemed good: 0.78 (2007), 0.86
(2009) and 0.85 (2012).
‘Depression’ was measured using the GDS-15 [19, 20].
This is the first depression screening measure to have been
developed for, and validated among, older people [21, 22].
The internal consistency of the GDS in this study was
deemed good: 0.78 (2007), 0.80 (2009) and 0.76 (2012).
We used a latent profile transition analysis approach to test
our hypotheses (for details Supplementary data, Appendix
Method 1, available in Age and Ageing online) [23, 24]. First, a
series of measurement models (from one to five classes) was
tested for each wave to determine which model provided the
best fit at each wave [25]. Second, a latent profile transition
analysis was used to describe participants’ change in coping
profiles over time [23, 24]. Third, life satisfaction, perceived
health and depression at 2009 and 2012 were also included
as distal outcomes (i.e. their means were estimated for each
coping profile membership) (see Figure 1). (Although to the
best of our knowledge, there is no theoretical background
regarding the causal impact of life satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive symptoms on flexibility and/or tenacity,
we nevertheless explored these relationships. Specifically, a
series of latent profile analyses was performed to test: (i) the
influence of life satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive
symptoms gathered in 2007 on 2009 coping profiles controlling for life satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive
symptoms gathered in 2009; and (ii) the influence of life
Results
In light of the results of the latent profile analyses and
because the three coping profiles were meaningful in terms
of conceptual interpretability, a three-class solution was selected for both 2007 and 2009 (for details, see Supplementary
data, Appendix Table 1, available in Age and Ageing online).
For 2012, a two-class solution was selected based on the
results of the latent profile analyses and on the conceptual interpretability of the two coping profiles. The estimates of
coping indicators were used to differentiate and add substantive meaning to the coping profiles [24] (see Table 2).
Descriptive labels for coping profiles were: Profile 1 (n = 87,
87, and 86 for 2007, 2009 and 2012, respectively) in which
participants reported high FGA and TGP scores; Profile 2
(n = 125, 126, and 163) in which participants reported moderate FGA scores and low TGP scores; and Profile 3 (n = 37
and 37 for 2007 and 2009) in which participants reported
low FGA scores and moderate TGP scores.
Concerning the change of coping profile over time, the
transition probabilities indicate that individuals’ coping
Figure 1. Latent profile transition analysis model.
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Data analyses
satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive symptoms
gathered in 2009 on 2012 coping profiles controlling for life
satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive symptoms
gathered in 2012. Given that the results of these latent profile
analyses clearly rejected this direction of causality, the final
model uniquely considered the influence of coping profiles
on life satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive symptoms. The results of the latent profile analyses are available
on request from the second author. Given that the final longitudinal model (see Figure 1) already involved a large
number of variables, it was impossible to control within the
latent profile transition analyses all the variables previously
described. However, based on the posterior membership
probability provided by the latent profile transition analysis,
we also explore whether participants from different coping
profiles differed on the variables studied (Table 1).) All the
analyses were conducted using Mplus Version 7 [25].
N. Bailly et al.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of coping profiles and their
influence on life satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive
symptoms
Descriptive statistics of coping profiles
Coping profiles
Profile 1
n = 87
Profile 2
n = 125
Profile 3
n = 37
3.89
3.41
n = 86
3.89
3.41
n = 86
3.89
3.41
3.72
2.60
n = 126
3.72
2.60
n = 163
3.66
2.62
3.54
2.79
n = 37
3.54
2.79
........................................
2007
Flexible goal adjustment
Tenacious goal pursuit
2009
Flexible goal adjustment
Tenacious goal pursuit
2012
Flexible goal adjustment
Tenacious goal pursuit
2007 coping profiles
28.82 (0.47) 26.07 (0.51) 21.59 (1.07)
3.65 (0.11) 3.37 (0.10) 2.52 (0.12)
1.20 (0.15) 1.98 (0.16) 6.75 (0.62)
2009 coping profiles
2012 outcomes
Life satisfaction, M (SD)
Perceived health, M (SD)
Depression, M (SD)
28.43 (0.55) 26.37 (0.49) 18.61 (0.92)
3.66 (0.13) 3.26 (0.10) 2.34 (0.15)
1.30 (0.18) 2.10 (0.15) 7.73 (0.35)
M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
strategies tended to be stable over time (for details, see Supplementary data, Appendix Table 2, available in Age and
Ageing online). Specifically, participants from the 2007 Profiles 1, 2 and 3 had probabilities of 0.96, 0.95 and 0.83, respectively, of still being classified within the same coping
profile in 2009. Similarly, participants from the 2009 Profiles
1 and 2 had a probability of 1.0 of still being classified within
the same coping profile in 2012. In addition, participants
from 2009 Profile 3 (a profile that disappeared in 2012) were
all classified in Profile 2 in 2012.
Concerning the influence of coping profiles on life satisfaction, perceived health and depression, results of the latent
profile transition analysis indicate that participants from
Profile 1 reported higher scores of life satisfaction and perceived health and lower scores of depression 2 or 3 years
later than participants from the other two coping profiles.
Furthermore, participants from Profile 2 were more likely to
report higher scores of life satisfaction and perceived health
and lower scores of depression than participants from Profile
3 2 or 3 years later (see Table 2). (In order to rule out the
possibility that older people from distinct coping profiles
simply continued to have similar levels of life satisfaction,
health evaluation and depressive symptoms at future followup than those already experienced at baseline, we performed
a series of multiple regression analyses in which each of the
six distal outcomes (i.e., life satisfaction, health evaluation
and depressive symptoms in 2009 or 2012) was regressed on
the two dummy variables representing coping profiles and
on the baseline level of each of the six outcomes (i.e. life satisfaction, health evaluation and depressive symptoms in 2007
290
Discussion
This study is unique in considering the combined effects of
flexibility and tenacity over time and related to well-being
using latent profile transition analysis. It highlights the existence of three profiles of coping in the first two waves. The
first profile includes 35% of our participants and is characterised by participants with high scores on flexibility and tenacity. In line with previous studies [6, 14], our results indicate
that individuals who were high in both flexibility and tenacity
experienced lower levels of depression, higher levels of life
satisfaction and had good self-rated health. As a consequence, it is the profile that is most adaptive in terms of
ageing well. In our older sample, the second profile is predominant (50%) and concerns participants with a moderate flexibility score and a lower tenacity score. Within
Brandtstädter’s framework, lower tenacity scores in ageing
processes are the consequence of uncontrollable and irreversible situations that commonly occur in ageing. This
profile also concerns individuals with moderate flexibility
scores, thus explaining why it is less adaptive in terms of depression, life satisfaction and health than Profile 1. Finally,
the last profile, which disappears in 2012, is the least
common (15%) and is characterised by participants with
moderate tenacity scores and lower flexibility scores, representing the worst profile in terms of well-being. It should be
noted that all the profiles scores for flexibility are higher than
those for tenacity. According to Brandtstädter’s model, this
result highlights the crucial role of flexibility in old age.
Nevertheless, our results support the idea that tenacity is
more beneficial to well-being when combined with a high
degree of flexibility (Profile 1). It is argued that this is
because individuals high in both tenacity and flexibility can
enjoy the positive benefits of goal pursuit without experiencing the detrimental effects of persevering them in ineffective
or blocked courses of action.
Regarding the evolution of the profiles, our results highlight that individuals’ coping profiles tended to be stable over
time: profiles were relatively similar in 2007, 2009 and 2012.
Previous studies have used larger samples to explore the shift
from tenacity to flexibility [26, 27]. The age range of our participants was 68–95 years, and the study period was 5 years
that may have been insufficient to demonstrate how coping
strategies change throughout the lifespan.
Although this study provides additional information on
the intricate and controversial link between flexibility and
tenacity, some methodological limitations should be mentioned. Firstly, even if analysis of the potential impact of
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Influence of coping profiles on outcomes
2009 outcomes
Life satisfaction, M (SD)
Perceived health, M (SD)
Depression, M (SD)
or 2009). The results provide strong evidence that coping
profiles significantly predicted health evaluation, life satisfaction and depressive symptoms at a later time point (i.e., 2 or
3 years later) over and above the variance accounted for by
health evaluation, life satisfaction and depressive symptoms
measured at baseline. The results of the multiple regression
analyses are available on request from the second author.
TGP and FGA in older people over 5 years
Key points
• Flexibility and tenacity are important components of
well-being, but their combined effects are controversial.
• Coping profiles of older people over time are unknown.
• Three coping profiles were identified over 5 years in older
subjects and these were linked to well-being.
• Coping profiles were stable over time.
• Profile 1 with high flexibility and tenacity scores is the most
adaptive in terms of life satisfaction, health and depression.
Supplementary data
Supplementary data mentioned in the text are available to
subscribers in Age and Ageing online.
Conflicts of interest
None declared.
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functional disabilities. Nevertheless, a more representative
sampling (with more complete clinical data such as functional capacity, medication or cognition impairment) should be
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Received 23 March 2015; accepted in revised form
18 November 2015
© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Geriatrics Society.
All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
Using the capability approach to understand
the determinants of subjective well-being
among community-dwelling older people
in New Zealand
POLLY YEUNG1, MARY BREHENY2
1
School of Social Work, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
School of Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
2
Address correspondence to: P. Yeung. Tel: (+64) 6 9516514. Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Background: as the longevity of the population increases, attention has turned to quality of life of older people as a component of healthy ageing. The objective of this study was to use Welch Saleeby’s model of the capability approach to explore the
determinants of subjective well-being among older people.
Methods: this analysis used data from a sample of older people, aged 50–87, from 2012 wave of the New Zealand Longitudinal
Study of Ageing (NZLSA) (n = 2,793). Structural equation modelling was used to examine the relationships between the commodities (number of chronic conditions reported, physical and mental health), and personal and environmental factors (economic living standard and discrimination), on the capabilities of older people to achieve well-being.
Results: the findings supported Welch Saleeby’s model. Capabilities mediated the relationship between commodities and wellbeing, indicating that increasing the range of real opportunities available to older people is a key step in increasing well-being.
Age and gender were also found to be significant moderators of these relationships. The relationship between economic living
standards and well-being was weakest for the oldest participants, but experiences of discrimination had a stronger effect on
well-being in this age group.
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