Domestic energy and occupancy: a novel
post-occupancy evaluation study
..............................................................................................................................................................
Catalina Spataru 1 *, Mark Gillott 1 and Matthew R. Hall 2
1
Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering, Institute of
Sustainable Energy Technology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK;
2
Division of Materials, Mechanics and Structures, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
.............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
The main purpose of this paper is to present a robust methodology for quantifying the correlation
between domestic energy consumption and occupant behaviour patterns, in response to various
technological interventions, by using a test house whose performance and occupants are fully
monitored and recorded. The E.ON Research House is one of the seven ‘Creative Energy Homes’ which
are experimental eco houses, designed and constructed to various degrees of innovation and flexibility
on the University of Nottingham campus. The E.ON House is a replica of a typical 1930s three-bed
semi-detached property, which is representative of many of the existing houses in the UK. The objective
of this study is to determine the most efficient way to refurbish it, within 3 years to reach a ‘zerocarbon’ standard. The house is occupied by a family (father, mother and a daughter) and is fully
monitored in order to get real-time occupancy data for energy use, environmental conditions and
occupant location. The post-occupancy evaluation study includes environmental monitoring (using a
network of temperature, humidity and indoor air quality sensors), electricity (using whole house,
circuit and appliance meters), energy associated with space and water heating. The occupancy patterns
and space use are analysed using a real-time location system (supplied by UBISENSE) with ultrawideband radio-frequency technology to track patterns of space usage in the house for time and
location. The objective of post-occupancy study is to evaluate the relationships between occupancy and
energy usage, as well to diagnose the performance and energy efficiency.
*Corresponding author:
catalina.spataru@
nottingham.ac.uk
Keywords: energy-efficient dwellings; environment; post-occupancy evaluation
Received 20 January 2010; revised 13 May 2010; accepted 26 May 2010
................................................................................................................................................................................
1 INTRODUCTION
Buildings are major consumers of energy and therefore they
are major contributors to the increase in green house gases
leading to climate change. The heat, light and power in our
buildings are primarily based on fossil fuel-derived energy and
so estimates suggest that this accounts for nearly half of the
nation’s total energy consumption and therefore a similar proportion of our CO2 emissions. According to the Building
Research Establishment (BRE), 30% of the total CO2 emissions
in the UK are from the housing stock [1,2].
In the UK, currently 1% of the total building stock is new
housing. Two-thirds of the existing housing stock will still exist
in 2050 [3], from which 55% of the total existing stock being
built before thermal regulations (UK Building Regulations Part
La) were fully exercised [4]. These figures suggest that the existing older housing stock requires considerable modification to
help reach the UK Government target—to reduce the CO2 emissions by 80% by 2050 (based on 1990 levels), supported by a
more efficient usage of power, light and heat in residential areas.
In order for the government to reach its target by 2050, it
must invest in the refurbishment of the old stock homes while
being committed to its programme of building new houses for
the UK citizens with low energy consumption standards. A UK
‘Code for Sustainable Homes’ (CfSH) has been introduced in
2007. The Code states minimum/basic requirements and includes
targets to reduce emissions of CO2 in dwelling and construction.
The solution of the existing situation is to develop and
assess cost-effective measures for reducing carbon emissions
from ageing domestic properties, as well as to find affordable
routes for the existing home owners to reduce their energy
consumption and adapt their properties to meet sustainable
contemporary lifestyles. In order to explore the options for
converting the existing old homes stock and to bring them to
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157
# The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
doi:10.1093/ijlct/ctq020
148
Domestic energy and occupancy
net zero-carbon emissions, the University of Nottingham and
the energy company E.ON (UK) built in the university campus
a three-bed semi-detached replica 1930s house that is a
common typology of home within the UK’s existing dwellings
(Figure 1).
The aim of the project is to test various solutions to
enhance energy efficiency and reduce the carbon footprint,
while considering the costing of these methods. The project
consists of three major phases which gradually get the building
to surpass the requirements set by the UK Building
Regulations Part L (2006). Phase 2 will implement, 25%
reductions and Phase 3 will modify the house to reach an
equivalent Level 6 of the CfSH—the current UK ‘zero-carbon
standard’. The principles, methods and the implemented
measures applied to this house could be proposed for millions
of homes in the UK. The occupants are responsible for 27% of
the total CO2 emissions due to their energy consumption [5].
Therefore, a complete post-occupancy evaluation (POE) study
will be performed during each phase to determine the house
performance and occupants’ behaviour will be monitored to
determine their response to the implemented measures. The
POE study presented in this paper is an ongoing research and
this paper is an introduction to the general scope of the
project and its related research.
2 THE CASE STUDY DESCRIPTION
The replica 1930s house base case initially has no cavity wall/
loft insulation, timber-framed single-glazed windows, open fire
places, a 15-year-old boiler and tungsten bulb lighting. The
house is occupied by a family (father, mother and their
6-year-old daughter) and is fully monitored in order to get
real-time occupancy data for energy usage, environmental conditions and occupant location. The occupancy patterns and
space use are recorded using a real-time location system (supplied by Ubisense) with ultra-wideband (UWB) radiofrequency (RF) technology to track the patterns of space usage
Figure 1. The E.ON 2016 Research House.
in the house for time and location. The environmental monitoring is taken through a network of temperature, humidity
and indoor air quality sensors within the house. Electricity use
is monitored using whole house, circuit and appliance meters
(including lighting).
The objective of this study is to determine the most efficient
way to refurbish it to reach a ‘zero-carbon’ standard in terms
of capital investment and carbon reductions. In order to
explore the options for converting the existing old homes
stock, a full testing programme is considered. The relationships
between occupancy and energy usage and energy efficiency of
the building services will be evaluated. In parallel with this,
thermographic images are taken and experiments (leakage test,
co-heating test) are performed in the house after each phase of
refurbishment, to allow the testing of different aspects including thermal performance and air.
The study is a systematic collection and evaluation of
information and data relating to occupant behaviour (i.e. occupancy patterns and space use) including water and electrical/gas
energy consumption, indoor air quality, relative humidity and
internal and external dry bulb air temperature measurements.
This facilitates the accurate analysis of occupancy patterns and
space use and will ensure no external influences or changes in
behaviour that may/may not influence the total or partial
energy use, e.g. changes in occupancy, personal habits, room
use etc. This study will help in taking the right decisions in retrofitting older houses, potentially reducing property owner’s
future costs, increasing occupants’ satisfaction and by ensuring
energy efficiency and comfort measures installed today can
adapt to future changes in climate.
In domestic buildings, the occupants exert complete control
of all appliances in the house and they can behave as they like,
not as in the office environment where there are restrictions
and rules in place. The factors which influence energy consumption in domestic buildings are: the number, age and sex
of the occupants [6], occupants’ behaviour [7 – 9], the time
spent in the house by each occupant, building location, design
and size, type of heating systems and controls [10], appliances
efficiency [11], income [12] and interest in energy use,
comfort, costs and impact on the environment. As a result of
these factors, the consumption can vary significantly for the
same type of house, but with different occupants’ behaviour,
different type of houses in a different type of climate. Various
studies showed that the occupants’ behaviour has a major role
on the total energy consumption, and by changing their behaviour, the consumption can be reduced by 10 – 30% [8,13].
POE studies have focused primarily on commercial buildings, but these studies can also be used in domestic buildings.
Case study examples of POEs can be found in Preiser et al.
[14]. The outcome from such a study is usually the creation of
new knowledge about aspects of building performance. The
three phases of the POE process model are [12]: planning, conducting and applying. The POE study of the E.ON Research
House consists of monitoring and managing data collection
and analysing them. Findings and review of the outcomes will
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157 149
C. Spataru et al.
be presented after each phase of refurbishment. The final phase
is the important one because it must utilize the identified solutions for the problems and recommendations made.
The project consists in three phases: Phase 1 when the
house was initially constructed after the 1930s Building
Regulations, followed by the second and third phase when
various updates to the house will be made. For each phase, the
energy rating was calculated by using the Standard Assessment
Procedure (SAP). Energy performance is indicated by the
energy consumption per unit floor area, energy cost rating and
environmental impact (EI) rating.
3 SAP EVALUATION OF THE E.ON 2016
RESEARCH HOUSE FOR VARIOUS PHASES
The SAP calculations generate figures for carbon dioxide emissions and energy costs associated with a building, measuring
Table 1. SAP ratings.
SAP
Energy costs
SAP ¼ 0
SAP ¼ 100
SAP ¼ 100 þ
Maximum energy costs
Zero energy costs
Building is a net exporter of energy
Source: [16].
Figure 2. Screenshot image of the SAPPER version 8.0.
150 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157
the fuel efficiency of the heating systems and thermal efficiency
of the building fabric (i.e. how well it retains heat). It is linked
to the cost of energy required for space and water heating
systems, lighting and ventilation operation. SAP estimates the
energy performance of dwellings, method adopted from
the BRE’s Domestic Energy Model [15] and incorporated into
the Building Regulations (Part L) to assess energy performance
and carbon emissions (www.odpm.gov.uk). A scale of 0 to 100
is used to show the level of energy efficiency; the higher the
SAP number the better the performance and the lower the
operational costs (Table 1). A rating above 100 would demonstrate that the dwelling is theoretically a net exporter of energy.
The SAP ‘rating’ of a building is given by using a specified
standard method to calculate the annual energy costs for space
heating, water heating, ventilation and lighting [16]. Factors in
the calculation include dwelling type, construction materials,
heating system and level of insulation. Ratings are calculated in
order to not be affected by differences in the number of people
in the building, the floor area, the ownership of domestic
appliances or the geographical location of the building.
The EI rating is based on the associated carbon dioxide
emissions from the use of energy, working on the same rating
1 to 100—the higher the number the less EI. Various input
data regarding energy usage, building envelope and systems are
required to produce a reasonable output statement of energy
and performance of the dwelling. Figure 2 shows a screenshot
of the SAP software used in the assessment of the E.ON 2016
Research House.
Domestic energy and occupancy
Table 2. Estimated energy use, carbon dioxide emissions and fuel costs
(Phase1).
Current (per year)
Energy use
Carbon dioxide emissions
Lighting
Heating
Hot water
2
624 kWh/m
13 tonnes
£109
£1573
£260
Table 3. Estimated energy use, carbon dioxide emissions and fuel costs
(Phase 2a).
Potential (per year)
2
618 kWh/m
13 tonnes
£54
£1592
£260
3.1 Phase 1
The initial phase which is a replica of a 1930s house has a
50 mm brick and block cavity wall construction with no insulation (U-value 1.90 W/m2 K), uninsulated suspended timber
floor (U-value 1.05 W/m2 K), uninsulated timber frame roof
(U-value 0.837 W/m2 K), pitched, rafter and purlin roof with
clay tiles and breathable membrane with no insulation (U-value
4.0 W/m2 K), original timber-framed single-glazed windows
(U-value 5.5 W/m2 K) and open fire places. For this phase, the
building achieved an SAP rating of 23 (band F) and the EI
rating of 18 (band G). The estimated energy use, carbon dioxide
emissions and fuel cost of this dwelling is shown in Table 2.
3.2 Phase 2
During Phase 2, the aim is to reach equivalent Level 3 of
CfSH. This phase was subdivided into two phases: Phase 2a
and Phase 2b.
3.2.1 Phase 2a
Phase 2a involved modifications, recommended by the UK
Carbon Emissions Reduction Target Scheme, which were
already available and used. The modifications considered were:
A class appliances have been replaced the existing appliances,
the tungsten lighting have been replaced with low-energy light
bulbs, cavity wall insulation and loft insulation have been
added, the single-glazed windows have been changed with
timber double-glazed windows and the chimney flue has been
blocked. A loose, glass mineral wool insulation suitable for
cavity wall injection was considered, while for roof a rolled
glass mineral wool insulation product available in sizes to suit
typical roof joist spacing with a depth of 300 mm was used.
The modifications considered, resulted in a much better performing building, achieving an SAP rating of 50 (band E) and
the EI rating of 42 (band E). The estimated energy use, carbon
dioxide emissions and fuel cost of this dwelling is shown in
Table 3.
These results show that the improvements done in Phase 2a
can save the occupier more energy and be more
environmental-friendly; however, it still does not meet the
current new build standards of performance.
From the assessments performed (insulation and glazing), it
was found that the most beneficial upgrade is from insulating
the roof and the cavity as there is a significant increase in SAP
rating. This suggests that the initial upgrades to a house of
Current (per year)
Energy use
Carbon dioxide emissions
Lighting
Heating
Hot water
2
355 kWh/m
7.2 tonnes
£52
£780
£244
Potential (per year)
355 kWh/m2
7.2 tonnes
£52
£780
£244
similar condition of the E.ON 2016 Research House should
include modifications to the thermal envelope, which should
result in significant reductions in carbon dioxide emissions
associated with space heating. By fitting a room thermostat,
the SAP and EI rating will increase with two points.
3.2.2 Phase 2b
The house will be refurbished to achieve an equivalent Level 3
of the CfSH, a 25% improvement in carbon emissions compared with a new build property complying with Part L of the
2006 Building Regulations. These modifications consist of
insulation of the floor, external insulation and rendering, use
of a whole house mechanical ventilation heat recovery system,
low flush toilet and water but. The SAP rating achieved is 74
(band C).
3.3 Phase 3
The final stage of the project is to bring the house to equivalent Level 6 of the CfSH (the zero-carbon emissions standard).
The U-value of the walls must be improved to 0.11 W/m2 K
adding extra resistance to heat transfer, the air permeability
reduced to 1 m3/h/m2, at 50 Pa indoor/outdoor air pressure
differential, through draught proofing and sealing around
openings. An extension to the rear and side of the property
(Figure 3) will be constructed to create a thermal barrier for
the external wall, and significantly increase the roof area to
allow for a 4 kW PV array. Rain water harvesting will be considered and used for toilets, washing machine and outside
taps. A 2 kW wood pellet boiler could be installed in the existing coal store, to provide the space heating requirements.
Figure 3 shows a computer-generated image of the E.ON 2016
Research House Phase 3 including the installation of PV panels
on the new roof extensions.
Considering the improvements from previous phases plus
adding PV and a 2kW wood pellet boiler, the SAP rating
achieved is 96 (band A) and the EI rating of 101 (band A).
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Occupancy monitoring system: equipment and
commissioning
The barriers and challenges of carbon-reduction technologies
will be identified and practical assessments of the
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157 151
C. Spataru et al.
Figure 3. Computer-generated image of the E.ON 2016 Research House—
Phase 3 (Source: Marsh Grochowski Architects).
Figure 4. Image with the type of sensor used in the E.ON 2016 Research
House.
opportunities, implications and costs involved in modifying
the existing old dwellings assessed. The energy usage and how
it related to the occupant behaviour is an important aspect in
such a study, because the comfort is decided by the users.
Interviews, questionnaires and surveys will be evaluated the
occupants’ comfort and respond to the implemented technologies and changes.
The occupancy pattern is tracked using an UWB RF technology, provided by Ubisense. The tracking devices used
consist of a system that utilizes a network of static sensors
(Figure 4) positioned around the house (as depicted in
Figure 5), which pick up the 3D location of compact tags
which are carried by the occupants.
Each tag (Figure 6) has an ID number which is allocated in
the system. When each tag moves into the proximity range of
the sensors positioned strategically in a room, the sensor
would detect the unique ID of the tag and in turn update the
tag’s location with the dedicated software that continuously
runs on a server PC.
The battery life of the tag lasts up to 4 years. Each Ubisense
tag will be asked to generate a UWB pulse up to 10 times a
second and these signals are received at the sensors and the
angle of arrival (AOA), as well as the time difference of arrival
(TDOA) between two sensors calculated [17]. Person position
(wearing a tag) can be calculated from any two pieces of information: TDOA and one AOA or two AOAs, so that the tag is
located from at least two sensor readings with an accuracy of
up to 15 cm. The more the sensors readings, the more accurate
the measurements are.
The development of the application consists of a few fundamental steps [17]: install the sensors, then create a schema object,
Figure 5. Screenshot image of the Ubisense 2.1.2 with the locations of the sensors in the E.ON Research House.
152 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157
Domestic energy and occupancy
measures and using interviews and questionnaires assess occupant’s behaviour with different heating systems.
5.1 Performance evaluation using quantitative data
Figure 6. Image with the tag used by the occupants of the E.ON 2016
Research House.
connect it as a client to the appropriate schema server and register events. A C# application in Visual Studio was created to place
all the tags in a list view in order to record the location of each
person within the house and the spatial relationship. The information about occupants’ location actions are logged by the
reader program to a.*csv file (a comma separated file).
4.2 Environmental, energy, gas and water usage—
monitoring system—equipment and commissioning
Different sensors can be used to monitor the indoor environmental conditions [18 – 20]. In the E.ON 2016 Research House,
more than 100 sensors are logging exactly how much electrical
power, gas and water the family has consumed and the dry
bulb air temperature, relative humidity and air quality in each
space. The sensors were distributed throughout the house on
all walls, floors and ceilings to give a complete and continuous
profile of the internal environment. A schematic diagram with
the sensors location in the house (upstairs and downstairs) is
shown in Figure 7.
The sensors were connected through cables up to the server
PC in the study room. The software which gives us these
values is provided by Horizons Control [21] and logged the
data for every five minutes in.txt files. 963 Supervisor Software
v.2 is a Windows-based software package designed to provide a
complete management interface for buildings. It enables the
user to monitor the building and provide acceptable accuracy,
but a limited storage capacity, being able to host on a page a
maximum of 100 sensors.
5 DATA EXAMINATION AND OCCUPANTS
EXPERIENCE
Constant monitoring of indoor climate parameters and water
and energy performance applied to the houses will be
thoroughly analysed before and after each stage of refurbishment. In this paper, the performance and ease of use of different heating systems during winter 2009 (first year of
occupancy/first phase of the project) will be analysed.
Collecting information from the monitoring system about
indoor temperatures is important to assess the energy demand
In order to assess the occupant’s behaviour with different heating
systems, during Phase 1 of the project, the occupants were asked
to use the electrical heaters first and then the central heating
system. February and March are analysed because in these
months the house was occupied for the entire time, the monitoring system was reliable and working properly. The data were
recorded every 15 min for these months in a cumulative manner.
Figures 8 and 9 show the outside temperature, internal
temperature, electricity and gas consumption when the house
was heated with electrical heaters and when was heated with
gas central heating system.
A significant decrease in cost for electricity was observed in
March (during the use of gas central heating system) compared
with February (during the use of electrical heaters). The
average consumption of electricity per day was 45 kWh/day for
February and 5.47 kWh/day for March. The average energy
consumed in a three bedroom two storey house, similar in
structure to the E.ON 2016 Research House, but not to a CfSH
level rating is 58.2 kWh/day.
5.2 Occupants experience with different
heating systems
The family are tracked for different periods of time during the
project in order to cover different heating seasons. An important aspect of POE is the efficiency of space allocation.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between the floor area of each
room and the time spent in each room by the family. Different
heating systems have been used: electrical heaters and gas
central heating system.
The densest occupied spaces when the house was heated
with electrical heaters were dining room and bedroom 2 (the
daughter room). A spreadable occupancy was observed when
the house was heated with the gas central heating system. The
members of the family were asked to leave the tags in the hall
when they live home or they go to sleep. Therefore, the data
for hall upstairs and downstairs are not relevant.
The percentage of each space occupied by the family for
each month is shown in Figure 11.
During the period when the family use the electrical
heaters, the proportions of occupancy per space varies significantly from one space to another (Figure 11a), while during
the use of gas central heating system a more uniform use of
space was observed (Figure 11b).
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The improvement of performance of the existing UK domestic
housing stock is a huge challenge. In order to reach the 2050
target to reduce carbon emissions by 80%, the behaviour of
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157 153
C. Spataru et al.
Figure 7. Schematic map of sensors location (upstairs and downstairs).
the occupant is increasingly important, being responsible for
the energy consumption in the building. Through this study,
technical measures to improve existing stock will be assessed in
terms of their cost-effectiveness and occupant’s behaviour will
be analysed. It is anticipated that future research may lead
towards the investigation of approaches that are aimed at changing their behaviour, e.g. Building Management Systems and
automated systems for building operation.
According to the UK Climate Change Programme, the space
and water heating is responsible for 73% of domestic carbon
emissions. Eighty percent of the total houses in UK are using
gas for domestic heating. Even though, gas-fuelled energy is
one of the biggest source of carbon emissions, it is responsible
for fewer carbon dioxide emissions, relative to the amount of
154 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157
energy it provides, than electricity. To improve the thermal efficiency of the building so that less energy is needed to heat the
property means to improve insulation and replacing the existing heating systems with more efficient ones.
Through SAP calculations, it has been shown that a significant reduction in carbon emissions can be achieved through
various refurbishment measures (e.g. insulation to wall cavity
and loft, heating system improvement, use of microgeneration).
The intervention measure that provides the largest potential
carbon savings is insulation, with a payback period of approximately 3 years, followed by localized supply measures, such as
micro-combined heat and power and ground source heat
pumps. If the SAP rating is raised by 10 points, 3.3 MtC could
be saved per annum. Insulating cavity walls will raise the SAP
Domestic energy and occupancy
Figure 8. February 2009 (heating with electrical heaters).
Figure 9. March 2009 (heating with gas central heating system).
rating by about 10 points, fitting a new boiler with controls
could raise the SAP rating by 10 points more. In order to
achieve the highest energy performance standards, it requires
low carbon energy sources, i.e. microgeneration.
If these measures are implemented to the existing housing
stock in UK, significant reductions in carbon emissions can be
obtained from this sector. To succeed in applying the right
methods, a detailed map of occupant’s behaviour and performance of various technologies within buildings is necessary so
that the impact can be assessed.
This paper presents a methodology for quantifying the correlation between domestic energy consumption, and occupant
behaviour patterns in response to technological interventions
using data that are collected using a real-time location tracking
system. Extensive data logging of indoor climatic variables and
energy consumption, over long periods of time, complements
a complete and robust occupancy evaluation, which can generate many new research questions and understanding.
Ultimately, this could also lead to a better quality of life in
homes in addition to the improved energy efficiency. The data
analysed in this paper are just a small part from the research
undertaken and an ongoing research is being conducted.
This POE study can have a key role in minimizing energy
consumption and helping to bring the existing homes in
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157 155
C. Spataru et al.
Figure 10. Map of intensity of occupation with different heating systems. (a) Electrical heaters and (b) gas central heating system.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the Research
Council UK Energy Programme and E.ON (UK) who funded
this work as part of a wider research project called Consumer
Appealing Low Energy Technologies for Building Retrofit
(CALEBRE).
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Figure 11. Percentage of space occupancy by the family during the use of
different heating systems. (a) Electrical heaters and (b) gas central heating
system.
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same duration, but under progressively enhanced stages of
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156 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2010, 5, 148– 157
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