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Dietrich College Honors Theses
Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences
4-2010
Sensational Women: Gender and Domestic
Morality in East Lynne and The Woman in White
Amanda Cole
Carnegie Mellon University
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1
SensationalWomen:
GenderandDomesticMorality
inEastLynneandTheWomaninWhite
AmandaCole
SeniorHonorsThesis
April30,2010
2
Introduction
“Sensationnovels,”akindofnovelcharacterizedbyscandalandmystery,emerged
inthe1860stoentertainandshockVictorianaudiences.Inmanycases,thenovelscontain
incidentsofmurderortheftthatmustbesolvedanddealtwiththroughoutthenovel,and
inothercases,theshockingactsaremoreconcernedwithactionsorbehaviorsofcertain
maincharacters,includingdeceptionandadultery.Whilethesecrimesandtransgressions
areoftenfoundinasensationnovel,thequestionofwhatdefinestheterm“sensation
novel”itselfremainsonlyvaguelyanswered.Itisunclearwhentheterm“sensationnovel”
wasfirstapplied,assourcesdifferinthis,butitseemsthatthegenreexistedmostly
between1860‐1880.1EllenWoodwasoneofthebest‐knownnovelistsinthisgenreinher
day,butshewasbynomeanstheonlywriterofsensationnovels.Others,includingWilkie
Collins(TheWomaninWhite,1859),MaryElizabethBraddon(LadyAudley’sSecret,1862),
CharlesReade(GriffithGaunt,1866),alsowroteprimarilyinthisgenre,andotherwell‐
knownwritersfromthenineteenthcentury,likeDickens,dabbledinwhatcametobe
knownassensationfiction,especiallyintheunfinishedTheMysteryofEdwinDrood[1870].
Intheearly1860s,criticsgenerallydismissedandcondemnedthem,thoughby1864,the
termappearstohavebeenwidelyusedandunderstoodbycriticsandaudiencesalike.2
Neglectedafterthe1880s,“sensationnovels”havebeengraduallyrecoveredbyliterary
andculturalcriticsoverthepast30years.
1PhilipV.Allingham,“TheVictorianSensationNovel1860‐1880”,VictorianWeb,<http://
www.victorianweb.org/genre/sensation.html>. 2EllenMillerCasey,“’HighlyFlavouredDishes’and‘HighlySeasonedGarbage’:Sensationin
theAthenaeum,”inVictorianSensations:EssaysonaScandalousGenre,ed.Kimberly
HarrisonandRichardFantina(Columbus:TheOhioStateUniversityPress,2006):3‐14.
3
Oftensuchcriticsdisagreeaboutwhethersensationnovelsmerelyreflected
Victorianmiddle‐classmorality,orinsubtlewayschallengednineteenth‐centurymoraland
genderdefinitions.Theverdictonsuchquestionsremainsunsettledeventoday.Inthis
essay,Iintendtoexaminethewaysinwhichtwoofthemostwidelyreadsensation
novelists,EllenWoodandWillkieCollins,portraywhatIcall“domesticmorality”and
violationsofit.ThroughtheanalysisofWood’sEastLynne(1860)andCollins’sTheWoman
inWhite(1859),IwillarguethattheVictoriansensationnovelatdifferenttimescouldboth
subvertandconfirmdomesticideologyasitrelatestogenderandmorality,sometimesin
unexpectedways.IwillfirsttrytoindicatethewiderscopeofVictoriandomesticideology
andconductliteratureinwhichIbelievesensationfictionintervenedinimportantways.I
thendevelopaworkingdefinitionofthegenreasitemergedinthe1860s,especiallysince
manyoftheleadingsensationnovelsarenowcomingbackintoprint.MaryElizabeth
Braddon,forinstance,wasoneofthemostwell‐knownVictoriansensationnovelists,and
LadyAudley’sSecretremainspopulartodayinprintaswellasinarecently‐releasedfilm
basedonthisnovel,securingitsplaceasanimportantworkbothinthenineteenthcentury
andnow.3MyreadingsofEastLynnandTheWomaninWhiteinthesecondhalfofthis
paperwillarguethatthegenreofsensationfictioncannotbereadunilaterallyaseither
entirelysupportingoractivelyunderminingVictoriandomesticideology,butratheras
interrogatingthatframeworkofvaluesinsometimesstartlingways.
3LadyAudley’sSecret,TV,DirectedbyBetsanMorrisEvans(BFSEntertainment:2000).
4
I.
GenderandDomesticMoralityinVictorianEngland
Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,theportrayalofawomanasawifeand/or
motherdominatedfemalecharactersinmanypopularworksaswellasseriousworksof
literature.Evensensationnovels,withtheirflawedwomencharacters,depicttheideal
womanasawife,mother,andloyalcompaniontoherspouse.Itiswhenwomendeviate
fromtheseestablishednormsthattheyaredepictedasvillainousandoftenpunishedby
eitherothercharactersorbyfate.
TounderstandthesocialcharacterofVictorianmorality,itisimportanttonotefirst
thatexpectationsdifferedbysocialclassforbothmenandwomen.Thedomesticmorality
discussedhereappliestomiddleandupperclasswomen,whowereexpectedtoremainat
homeandfilltherolesofwifeandmother,andnottowomenintheworkingandlower
classes.Thiswasachangefromtheeighteenthcentury,whenwomenwereoftenseen
outsideofthehomeinthecommunity,performingactsofphilanthropyfortheless
fortunatepeoplearoundthem.BythebeginningoftheVictorianage,womenwere
expectedtoremaininthehomeandspendtimewiththeirchildren.Theywerealso
encouraged,however,tohiregovernessestocarefortheirchildrenandteachthem.4Such
conductindicatedanewer,moremodernviewofchildrensince,priortothenineteenth
century,mother‐childrelationshipswerenotencouraged,asinfantmortalityrateswere
highandchildrenoftendiedatyoungages,eveniftheymadeittochildhood.5
Withinthehousehold,womenwereexpectedtodisplaykindnessandcharity,often
inwaysthatconformedtoChristianideals.AsJudithFlanderswrites,“Thehomewasa
4JohnTosh,A Man's Place: Masculinity and the Middle-Class Home in Victorian England
(Bury St Edmunds: St. Edmundsbury Press Ltd., 1999) : 20.
5JudithFlanders,InsidetheVictorianHome:APortraitofDomesticLifeinVictorianEngland
(New York: W.W. Norton, 2003) : 6.
5
microcosmoftheidealsociety,withloveandcharityreplacingthecommerceand
capitalismoftheoutsideworld”(Flanders2003,6).SarahStickneyEllis,aninfluential
Victorianconductliteraturewriter,confirmstheimportanceofkindnessinwomen:“then
ask,forwhat[woman]ismostvalued,admired,andbeloved…Inanswertothis,Ihave
littlehesitationinsaying—forherdisinterestedkindness.”6Elliswroteseveralconduct
manuals,mostofwhichfocusedonaparticularwoman’srole,suchasdaughterormother,
ratherthanbroaderrulesforwomeningeneral.NancyArmstrongindicatesinherbook
DesireandDomesticFictionthatthenineteenth‐centuryidealwomancametobedefinedby
conductliterature,ratherthanconductliteraturemerelyreflectingthestateofwomenin
society.7Inherarticle“Nobody’sAngels:DomesticIdeologyandMiddle‐ClassWomenin
theVictorianNovel,”ElizabethLanglandbuildsonArmstrong’sfindings,focusingonthe
ideaoftheangelinthehouse,thedeclineofconductliterature,andtheemergenceofnew
socialritualsanddiscursivepractices.8
Theimportanceofwomeninthehouseholdtranscendedsimplekindness,however,
andextendedtoeveryaspectofdomesticlife.JohnRuskin,theperiod’smostimportant
moralphilosopher,wrotethatwomenwereeitherallgoodorallbad,andiftheywerebad,
thenthehouseholdwouldhavenopeace.9Women,then,hadheavyburdenswithinthe
home.Theywereresponsibleforthechildrenandtherunningofhouseholdaffairs,
6SarahStickneyEllis,The Women of England: Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits (New
York: D. Appleton & Co, 1843) : 42.
7NancyArmstrong,DesireandDomesticFiction(New York: Oxford University Press, USA,
1990).
8ElizabethLangland,“Nobody’sAngels:Domestic Ideology and Middle-Class Women in the
Victorian Novel”, PMLA 107.2 (1992): 291.
9JohnRuskin,SesameandLilies[1864](Chicago:Scott,Foresman,andCompany,1920):
120‐121.
6
includingbudgets,spendingthriftily,andhiringservants,butevenbeyondthat,women
wereheldresponsibleforthetemperamentofthehouseandthepeacethere.
Therelationshipsbetweenmenandwomenarealsoimportantwhendiscussingthe
roleofwomeninsocietyandinthehousehold.Womenwereresponsibleforaffairswithin
thehome.Itwasawife’sjobtorunthehouseholdefficientlyandfrugally(Langland2002,
291).Wiveswerenotsupposedtohaveleisuretime,butrathertokeepbusywiththe
children,therunningofthehousehold,andtheirmatrimonialdutiestotheirhusbands.
Men,ontheotherhand,werethevisiblepartofthefamilyandwereexpectedtorepresent
thefamilyinpublic.Ahusband’sdutylayoutsideofthehome,forthemostpart,andhewas
thebreadwinnerforthehousehold(Tosh1999,18).Womenweresupposedtobeobedient
andrespectfultotheirhusbandsassubordinates,notequals(Langland1992,294).These
importantdomesticrelationshipsandguidelineshelptodefinewhatisherecalled
“domesticmorality”asitstoodwhenthenewsubgenreofVictorianfiction,the“sensation
novel,”emergedinthe1860s.
II.
VictorianSensationNovelsasaGenre
Criticsoftenhavedifficultyagreeinguponasingledefinitionforthesensationnovel
genre.Muchofthedebatecentersaroundwhatitwasthatsensationnovelsweremeantto
portrayandexamine.Weretheyessentiallynovelsportraying“sensational”behaviors
involvinggender,class,ormorality?Evenwithinthesecategories,thereisoften
disagreementtoday,andsomeofthesequestionsarerootedinthefirstVictoriancritical
responsestothisgenre.CriticswritingintheToryperiodicalsQuarterlyReviewand
Blackwood’sEdinburghMagazinesuspectedthegenrenotonlyofpanderingtopopular
7
appetites,butofintimatingadarkundersidetocontemporaryEnglishlife.Inhis1863
essay“SensationNovels”fortheQuarterlyReview,HenryManselcondemnssensation
novelsasagenrewhoseattractionsheattributestoappetitesforthrillsstimulatedbythe
machineryofpopularVictorianreading:“periodicals,circulatinglibraries,andrailway
bookstalls.”ButforManselthenewgenrehasaspecialfeaturethatsinglesitoutfrom
otherVictorianfictionlikehistoricalnovels:“Thesensationnovel,beitmeretrashor
somethingworse,isusuallyataleofourowntimes.Proximityis,indeed,onegreatelement
ofsensation.”10By“proximity”Manselmeansthatthesensationnovelwassensational
primarilybecauseitrepresentsEnglishsocietyinthereader’sownpresenttime:
Wearethrilledwithhorrors,eveninfiction,bythethoughtthatsuchthings[as
secretpoisonings]maybegoingonaroundusandamongus....Themanwhoshook
ourhandwithaheartyEnglishgrasphalfanhourago—thewomanwhosebeauty
andgracewerethecharmoflastnight,andwhosegentlewordssentushomebetter
pleasedwiththeworldandourselves—howexcitingtothinkthatunderthese
pleasingoutsidesmaybeconcealedsomedemoninhumanshape,aCountFoscoor
aLadyAudley!(47)
ItisominousforcriticslikeManselthat“sensationnovels”aresuggestingallisnotwellin
thecontemporaryEnglishlife,asifitsplacid,prosperoussurfacewereconcealingdark
motivesandsecretpassionslurkingwith.
Inher1862Blackwood’sMagazineessay“SensationNovels,”MargaretOliphant
placedthegenreatahigherlevel,comparingittosuchprecursorsasNathaniel
Hawthorne’sTheScarletLetterorexcitingromanceslikeEdwardBulwerLytton’sZanoni
10HenryMansel,“SensationNovels”[1863]inTheNineteenth‐CenturyNovel:ACritical
Reader,ed.StephenRegan(NewYork:Routledge,2001):47
8
andotherfictionfeaturing“magicandsupernaturalism.”11WhatmadeWillkieCollins’sA
WomaninWhite“entirelyoriginal”amongsuchnovels,however,wasthathedispensed
withthesupernaturalaltogetherand“boldlytakesinhandthecommonmechanismsof
life.”HeradmirationforCollins’originalitydoesn’t,however,lessenthedisturbingfactthat
hehasthus“givenanewimpulsetoakindofliteraturewhichmust,moreorless,findits
inspirationincrime,and,moreorless,makethecriminalitshero.”(44)Torycriticslike
OliphantandMansellmayhavedifferedinhowaccomplishedthesensationnovelcould
become,butbothsawthenewsubgenreofEnglishfictionmakingmorallysubversive
identificationsbetweenavidreadersandanti‐socialprotagonists.
Sincethe1970s,revivedcriticalinterestinsensationfictionisfarlessone‐sidedin
definingandinterpretingthegenre,butitrenewsthecontroversyoverwhetherornot
sensationnovelsupstagedtraditionalmoralidentificationsbetweenreadersand
characters.Somecriticsthinksensationnovelsreinforceacceptedgenderroles,andothers
thinktheysubvertsuchroles.InWilkieCollinsandOtherSensationNovelists,Nicholas
Ranceoutlinesthisargumentandthenobservesthattherewerebothconservativeand
radicalorreformistsensationnovels.12Rance’sviewsseemtobesupportedbythe
readingsIwillpresentbelowoftwosensationnovels.Itisimpossibletodeclarethatall
sensationnovelswillalwaysleaninonedirectionortheother,especiallysincetheauthors
havesuchvaryingbackgroundsandideas.Inthecaseofgender,itisveryimportanttonote
whichcharactersareportrayedasbeingvillainous—isitthecharacterswhoviolateorthe
oneswhosustaindomesticmoralityanditsgenderroles?
11MargaretOliphant,“SensationNovels”(1862)inRegan,ed.,TheNineteenth‐Century
Novel:ACriticalReader:41.
12NicholasRance,WilkieCollinsandOtherSensationNovelists(Cranbury:Associated
UniversityPresses,1991):5.
9
Indefiningthegenre,currentcriticstendtofocusontwomainquestions:the
importanceofthedomesticsphereinsensationnovels,andthefusionofthenewgenre
fromothergenres.InherintroductiontoVictorianSensations,KimberlyHarrisonargues
that“sensationnovelstakeastheirsubjectthedomesticsphere,”somethingNancy
ArmstrongalsosuggestswhenshebrieflydiscussessensationnovelsinDesireand
DomesticFiction.13Themoralstandardsbywhichcharactersarejudgedheretendtoreflect
standardssetbywritersofconductliteraturelikeSarahEllis.Muchofthesensationnovel’s
plottakesplacewithinthehouseandbetweenhusbandsandwives,bringingthesensation
novelevenfurtherintothedomesticsphere.
Thehybridnatureofsensationnovelsisalsocommonlydiscussed,andcriticsoften
citebothgothicnovelsanddomesticrealistnovelssuchasCharlotteBronte’sJaneEyreas
sourcesforthegenre—thussuggestingasignificanttensionbetweenearlierVictorian
realismandtheoutlandishplotsandcharacter‐portrayalsinthesensationnovel.Inhis
article“WhatIsSensationalAboutthe‘SensationNovel’?”PatrickBrantlingerclassifiesthe
sensationnovellargelyasaformofdomesticrealismwithelementsofmystery,buthealso
writesthatthesensationnovelispsychologicalinnature.Brantlingerfurtherarguesthat
thenewpopulargenrewasstronglyinfluencedbytheemergenceofsensationaljournalism
anddetailedreportingofcriminaltrialsinnewspaper.14RichardNemesvariexploresthis
ideabynotingthatmuchofthetensionwascausedbytheassumptionthatsensation
novels(asManselhadmaintainedinQuarterlyReview)werenotalegitimateartform,but
13KimberlyHarrison,“Introduction,”VictorianSensations:xv.
14PatrickBrantlinger,“WhatisSensationalAboutthe‘SensationNovel’?”Nineteenth-
Century Fiction 37.1 (June 1982): 2-3.
10
ratheralessacceptableformofwriting.15Inaddition,somecriticshavesuggestedthat
sensationnovelswereinfactanewresponsetothedominanceofrealistnovelsbefore
them.
Withtheseusefuldistinctions,wecanobtainaclearerpictureofwhatthesensation
novelis,andhowweshouldexamineit.Inwhatfollows,Iwillexaminetheportrayalsof
women,particularlytheportrayalsofwomenasvillainsthroughoutthesenovels.Both
theiractionsandtheresponsesofotherstotheiractionswillbesignificantinthisanalysis,
andforthepurposeofthispaper,sensationalactswillbethosethatevokeasurprisedor
horrifiedresponsefromtheothercharactersaswellaspresumablyfromreaders.
III.
EllenWoodandEastLynn
EllenWood(1814‐1887)wroteover30novelsandover100shortstories,and
editedthemagazineArgosy.Herworklargelyfallsintothecategoryofsensationnovels,as
theyincludedelementsofmystery,crime,anddeceit.Shewasoneofthemostpopular
novelistsofthenineteenthcentury,especiallyofthe1860s,andher1861novelEastLynne
wasamongthebest‐sellingnovelsoftheage.16
Wood’sownnovelscontainedmanyelementsfromexistinggenres,suchasgothic
novelsanddomesticfiction,aswellastopicsthatinterestedsocietyatthetimethatshe
waswriting;forexample,subjectslikebigamyandwomentestifyingattrialswerebeing
15RichardNemesvari,“JudgedbyaPurelyLiteraryStandard:SensationFiction,Horizonsof
Expectation,andtheGenericConstructionofVictorianRealism”inHarrison,ed.,Victorian
Sensations:16.
16MichaelFlowers,“TheEllenWood(Mrs.HenryWood)Website”
<http://mrshenrywood.co.uk>.
11
talkedaboutatthetime,andWoodincludedtheminhernovels.17Heraudiencewaslargely
middleclassandfemale,aswasthecasewithmostsensationnovels.18Whenshebegan
writingin1851,shedidnotimmediatelystartwithnovels,butratherwithstories
containingreligiousthemes.Herfirstnovel,DanesburyHouse,waswrittenin1860fora
writingcontest,whichshewon,andisastronglymoralisticpro‐temperancenovelaboutan
alcoholicnurse,Mrs.Glisson,whokillsthebabyshecaresforbyoverlookingitsmedicine
carelesslyandinsteadfeedingitlaudanum.Sinceitwaswrittenforatemperance‐message
contest,thenovelinitselfmaynotnecessarilysuggestthatWood’sownviewsagreedwith
thenovel.ThemainevidenceforWood’smoralviewpointisherson’sclaimthatshewas
stronglyconservativeandintendedforhernovelstoencouragemoralitybyportraying
vividactsofimmorality.19
Atfirst,WoodhadtroubletryingtopublishEastLynne.HarrisonAinsworth,the
editorofNewMonthlyMagazinewhohadpublishedhershortstories,refusedtoallowher
towriteanovelforhim,whichhelatertoldherwasparadoxicallybecausehelikedher
shortstoriestoomuchtoacceptanovel.20Hedideventuallyallowtheserializationofthe
novel,butwhenWoodattemptedtopublishitinbookform,sheencounteredmoretrouble.
Thefirstpublishertowhichshetookthenovelrejecteditonthebasisofnegativefeedback
fromtheirreader,butaccordingtoWood’sson,Charles,shewassurethatthebookwould
beasuccess.Thesecondlikewisedeclinedtopublishit,butthethirdpublisher,Richard
17KayBoardmanandShirleyJones,PopularVictorianWomenWriters(NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress,1990):167.
18AndrewRadford,Victorian Sensation Fiction (Readers' Guides to Essential Criticism) (New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009): 10.
19CharlesWood,quotedinWilkieCollinsandOtherSensationNovelists,NicholasRance
(Cranbury:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1991):5.
20CharlesWilliamWood,MemorialsofMrs.HenryWood(London:RichardBentleyandSon,
1894):206.
12
BentleyandSon,acceptedthebookforpublication.Lookingbackwithwhatweknownow,
wecanconcludethatWood’sintuitionwascorrect,orthatherhopewaswell‐founded,as
EastLynnesoldextremelywellatthetimeandhasbeenrepublishedtoday.21Over4
millioncopiesofWood’snovelswereprintedby1905accordingtopublicationdatafound
inthatyear’seditionofthesecondseriesofJohnnyLudlow.22ThesamedatastatesthatEast
Lynnehadsold800,000copies;TheChannings(1862)sold300,000copies;andevenher
shorterJohnnyLudlowstorieshadbetween20,000and45,000copiespublished,varyingby
series.RichardBentleyandSon,whichwasbasedinLondon,publishedthemajorityofher
novels(andalsopublishedthoseofWillkieCollins).
HersuccesswithEastLynneledtohertakingovertheeditorshipforArgosyby
1867,afamilymagazinethathadrecentlybeenexposedtoscandalasaresultofthe
publicationofCharlesReade’sracynovelGriffithGaunt.InArgosysheserializedmanyof
herworksandcontributedshortstoriesanonymously.Woodwroteandpublishedatleast
onenoveleachyearbetween1861and1873,with1874beingthefirstyearinwellovera
decadethatshedidnothaveanyworkspublished.23Likemostothernovelistsinthis
period,herworkstendedtoappearinserializedforminmagazines,varyingwitheach
story,butincludingArgosy,NewMonthlyMagazine,andBentley’sMiscellany,thenina
three‐volumeprinteditionforthebookmarket..
Wood’sabilitytoproduceavastnumberofworkswasinpartduetothefactthat,
afterthepopularityofEastLynne,readersdemandedmorenovelsandsheagreedtowrite
21Asidefromsellingwell,Wood’sEastLynnewasalsoconvertedintotwoplays,which
wereperformedonstageduringherlifetime.
22Publicationdata,JohnnyLudlow,SecondSeriesbyEllenWood(NewYork:TheMacmillan
Company,1905):464.
23MichaelFlowers,“TheEllenWoodWebsite”,<http://mrshenrywood.co.uk>.
13
them.Accordingtoherson,shedidnotrealizehowmuchworkshewasagreeingtoatthe
time,andsheworkedforninehourseachdaytocompletethenovels,asshewouldnotgo
backonherpromisetowritethenovels(Wood1894,231).Later,aftershehadfinishedthe
initialordersforbooks,shechoseherengagementsmorecarefullyandwroteonlywhat
sheknewshecouldwritewithouthavingtoomuchstressorbeingoverworked.
Duringhercareer,Wood’sworksoftenreceivedhighpraisefromcritics,andEast
Lynnewasespeciallylauded.Onecriticpraisedherattentiontorealitywhenwritingcourt
scenes,includingalltheappropriatepartsofatrial(Wood1894,241).Otherspraisedher
charactersaswererealisticandlikeable.Onereviewer,HamiltonHume,commendedher
onbeingabletomaintainsuspenseandplotinEastLynne,andtohave“servedtheinterests
ofmoralityinholdinguptosocietyamirrorinwhichitmayseeitselfexactlyreflected”
(quotedinWood1894,243‐244).Despitethefactthathernovelscontainedhighly
immoralacts,criticsseemedtouniversallyviewitasconveyingsupportofVictorian
domesticmorality.Byshowingsocietytheimmoralthingsthatitdoes,theythought,she
couldencouragemoremoralbehavioramongherreadership.Asherfirstsensationnovel
and,indeed,probablythefirstnovelthatshewrotewithonlyherowngoalsandbeliefsin
mind,EastLynneisanimportantworkinheroeuvre.
EastLynnefeaturestwofemalecharacterswhobothplayasignificantroleinthe
plotandevokeshockandsurpriseinthereader:LadyIsabelVaneandBarbaraHare.On
thesurface,thesetwocharactersarevastlydifferent.Isabelshocksthenovel’sother
charactersbyleavingherhusbandforanotherman,whileBarbaraseemstobea
respectableyoungwoman.Firstappearancescanbemisleading,though,andbylooking
closely,wecanseethatBarbarahascommittedherfairshareofwrongdoingsthroughout
14
thenovel.IsabelandBarbaraaredifferentinmorewaysthanone,andsomeoftheir
differencesstemsfromtheirdifferentbackgrounds.Isabelwasbornintoanaristocratic
familywhileBarbaraisthedaughterofarespectablemiddle‐classjudge.Thisclass
differenceseemstopointtoIsabelasthecharacterwhowillcommitwrongs,but,again,
judgingthecharacterstooearlywouldbeamistake.
InEastLynne,thetwomainstorylinesarefocuseddistinguishablyonIsabeland
Barbara.Throughthethreepartsofthenovel,Isabelemergesasafocalpointand,asa
villainouscharacter,shedrivespartsofthestoryforward.Atthebeginning,sheis
orphanedandleftwithnothing,forcedtolivewithherauntanduncle.Herauntmistreats
herandsheisquicklymarriedtoMr.ArchibaldCarlyle,arespectedlawyerinWestLynne.
Theirmarriageisrelativelyhappyandtheyhaveseveralchildren,butIsabelisunhealthy.
Whilesheisawaytorecover,shehappenstomeetFrancisLevison,amanshehadknown
beforehermarriage.Later,hecomestovisitWestLynneand,aftertellingIsabelthather
husbandwasmeetingsecretlywithBarbaraHare,sherunsawaywithhim,abandoningher
family.ShebecomespregnantwithLevison’schild,butshortlyafterherdivorceismade
final,heleaveshertoassumehisnewly‐inheritedtitle.Shehasthebabyoutsideof
marriage,butinatrainaccident,thebabyiskilledandsheislefthorriblydisfigured,
unrecognizablebythosearoundher—oneofthenovel’smost“sensational”moments.She
ispronounceddead,andCarlylemarriesBarbara.Meanwhile,Isabelassumesthename
“MadameVine”andgoestoworkasagovernessforherownchildren.Afterhereldestson
dies,shebecomesillanddiesofheartbreak,butnotbeforeinformingCarlyleofhertrue
identity.
15
Meanwhile,asecondandmoremysteriousplotinvolvingBarbaraprovidesa
differentkindofshockandsurprise.Barbara’sbrother,Richard,isaccusedofkillingaman
inthepast,butheclaimsheisinnocent.HemeetssecretlywithBarbarafromtimetotime,
andeventuallytheygetCarlyleinvolved.Theyworktogethertosolvethemysteryofwho
killedtheman,tryingtofindamancalled“Thorn”whomRichardremembers.Eventually,
theyfindThorn—butThornturnsouttobeFrancisLevison.Coincidenceslikethisone
weretypicalofsensationnovelsandlentthempartoftheirmelodramaticquality.Inthe
end,justiceisservedandRichard’snameisclearedofthemurdercharge.
Bothhalvesofthestoryserveanimportantpurpose.First,becausetheyareboth
containedwithinthesamenovel,theytendtosupportBrantlinger’sdefinitionofa
sensationnovelasonethatcontainsbothdomesticrealismandfeaturesofcrimefiction.24
Second,thevillainLevisonisanarrativevillaininbothrealms—hecausesthefallofIsabel
andisthemurdererofthefatherofthewomanhewassecretlyhavinganaffairwith.Each
newrevelationinthemurdercaseisasurprisetothereader,takingtwistsandturnsalong
theway,evengoingsofarasintroducinganothercharacterbythenameofThorn.Isabel’s
violationofdomesticmoralitycreatesinheralesservillain,butonewhoisrepeatedly
scornedandcriticizedthroughoutthenovel.
ThereissomedebateoverwhatWood’sportrayalofIsabelmeans.DeborahWynne
arguesthatIsabelisvillainousbecausethenovelitselfattemptsto“championthemiddle
class.”25Isabel’sshockingbehaviorsuccessfullyinspirespositiveideastowardmiddle‐class
domesticmorality.AndrewMangham’sargumentthatthenovelshowsthe“shortfalls
24PatrickBrantlinger,“WhatIsSensationalAboutthe‘SensationNovel’?,”Nineteenth‐
CenturyFiction37(1982):2‐3.
25DeborahWynne,quotedinAndrewMangham,ViolentWomenandSensationFiction
(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2007):132.
16
inherentinbourgeoismasculinity”isaninterestingone,butitdoesnotexplainthemale
characters’actionsveryclearly(Mangham2007,132‐136).WhileArchibaldCarlyledoes
keepsecretsfromhiswifeandfailtoreassureheroftenenoughthatheisdevotedtoher,
hisactionsarenotsomethingtobeblamedfortheactionsofhiswife.Herownparanoia
andlackofproperbourgeoisdomesticityseemtocauseherfall,andCarlyleisshowntobe
avictimofheractions,notamanlackinginproprietyhimself.
Isabel’scharacterisreallythemostshockingofanycharacterinthebook.Sheis
shockingnotonlybecauseofheractions—leavingherhusbandforanotherman,bearing
illegitimatechildren,anddisguisingherselftoworkundetectedinherhomeasagoverness
—butalsobecauseofherclassorigin.Isabelwas,atthebeginning,asociallyrespected
womanandafaithful,loyalwife,indeedthe“perfect”ladywithperfectexpectationsatthe
beginningofhermarriage.Shedidnotmarryforlove,butratherexpectedthatlovewould
comeovertime,asshegottoknowherhusbandbetter.26Aftertheirmarriage,Isabel
becomespossessiveandoftenjealousofBarbara,withwhomCarlylespentagreatdealof
timebecauseofherbrother’slegalperil.Atonepoint,IsabelaccuseshimoflovingBarbara
andnother:“YouneverlovedBarbaraHare?”Heresponded,“Lovedher!Whatisyourhead
runningon,Isabel?Ineverlovedbutonewoman:andthatoneImademywife”(Wood
1860,140).Isabel’sjealousyprovedtocauseherproblemslater,aswell,butbesidesher
jealousy,shelackedtheskillsandtalentsnecessarytobeahousewife,havingbeen
accustomedtoalifeofluxuryratherthanoneofpracticality.WhenMissCarlyleasksherto
helpmaketablenapkins,Isabelexclaimsthatshecannotbecauseshedoesn’t“understand
26EllenWood,EastLynne[1860](NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1984):114.
17
thatsortofwork”(142).MissCarlyle,andlikelythenovel’sreader,believesIsabel’s
idlenesstobesinful.
Thisideathatidlenessinthehouseholdisasinisworthexploringfurther.Women
inVictorianEnglandwereexpectedtoruntheirhouseholds,andIsabel’sinabilitytodothis
positionsheralreadyasaviolatorofVictoriandomestictraditionandnormalcy.Later,after
Isabelgoestoworkasagovernessinherhome,Barbaraconfidesinherwhatshethinksa
mother’sdutyis:
Now,whatItrustIshallnevergiveuptoanother,willbethetrainingofmychildren.
Lettheoffices,properlypertainingtoanurse,beperformedbythenurse—of
coursetakingcarethatsheisthoroughlytobedependedon.Letherhavethe
troubleofthechildren,theirnoise,theirromping;inshort,letthenurserybeher
placeandthechildren’splace.ButIhopeIshallneverfailtogathermychildren
roundmedaily,atstatedandconvenientperiods,forhigherpurposes:toinstillinto
themChristianandmoralduties;tostrivetoteachthemhowbesttofulfiltheo
bligationsoflife.Thisisamother’stask—asIunderstandthequestion;letherdo
thisworkwell,andthenursecanattendtotherest.Achildshouldneverhearaught
fromitsmother’slipsbutpersuasivegentleness;andthisbecomesimpossible,ifshe
isverymuchwithherchildren(341).
Barbara’sexplanationofamother’sdutiesreferspointedlytoIsabel’sconduct.WhileIsabel
hasnotbeenavailabletoteachherchildrenthesethings,perhapsevenmoreimportantis
herowninabilitythroughoutthenoveltofulfillherdomesticobligations.Sheisunableto
careforherhouseholdorherfamilyandeventuallyabandonstheideaofdomestic
devotionaltogether,insteadrunningoffwithanotherman.Hereventualtransformation
18
intoateacherandcaregiver(asagoverness)redeemsheronlysomewhat,sinceshehadso
clearlyfailedatherdutiesasawifeandmotherbeforeelopingwithLevison.
Isabel’sjealousyfinallygetsthebestofherwhenLevisonconfirmshersuspicions,
orsoshethinks,ofherhusband’sloveforBarbara.Heclaimstohavewitnessedaprivate
meetinginthestreetandsuggeststhatCarlyleisunfaithfultoIsabel(226‐27).Sheagrees
torunoffwithhim,devastatedbyherhusband’slackofloyalty.Levisontricksher,knowing
thatshedidnotreallywanttoleaveherhusband,byclaimingtopresentproofofCarlyle’s
infidelity:“Beavengedonthatfalsehound,Isabel.Hewasneverworthyofyou.Leaveyour
lifeofmisery,andcometohappiness”(227).ThisdeceptionsealsIsabel’sfateandshe
agreestoleavethehometobewithLevison,neverknowingthetruthaboutthemeeting
betweenherhusbandandBarbara.
AlthoughIsabelleavesherhusbandforanotherman,sheinitiallylookslikeavictim,
leavingadisloyalhusbandforamanwholovesherandwantsonlythebestforher.Soon,
though,welearn,throughherownadmission,thatIsabelisnotonlyavictim.Inafightwith
Levison,hetellsherheisnottheonlyoneatfaultforherdownfall,andshesays,“Don’tI
knowit?HaveInotsaidso?”(248)Becausesheadmitsherguilt,shebecomesanagent
ratherthanavictimandistherefore,tothenovel’sreadership,morevillainousinher
violationsofdomesticmoralcodes.WhileIsabeldoesnotbreakanylaws,shedoesviolate
thenormsofthesocietyinwhichshelivesbyleavingherhusbandandhavingan
adulterousaffair,whichresultedinanillegitimatechild.Isabel’sactionsarealsoworse
becausesheknowstheyarewrong.Sheisconcernedabouttheillegitimacyofherchildand
haseveryintentionofmarryingLevison,makingthesituationmorehonorable,buthe
insteadrunsbacktoEngland,leavingheralonetohaveherchild.Oncehereturns,she
19
regainshersensesandsendshimaway(241,248).Shefinallyrecognizesthatheractions
werewrongandregretsthem.AftersendingLevisonaway,shebeginsthinking:“[S]hehad
repentedofthefalsestepforherhusband’ssake,andlonged—thoughitcouldneverbe—
tobebackagain,hiswife.”(249)
EventhoughIsabelmustnecessarilybeshowntobethevillainhere,shedoes
inspirepityfromreaders.Sheadmitsthatshewasresponsibleforheractions,butbecause
shehaslostsomuchandbecauseshewastrickedintoleavingherhusband,weareleft
feelingasthoughweshouldsympathizewithher,eventhoughheractionswere
reprehensibleaccordingtodomesticmoralstandards.AsLynPykettargues,thenovel
encouragesusbothtopityandtocondemnIsabel.27Thisdoesnot,however,meanthatthe
novelinanywaysubvertsmiddle‐classdomesticmorality.Rather,itisawarningnottobe
likeIsabel.Onepitiesherbecauseshehasmadethesechoicesandhasgonedownthe
wrongpath,butitisnotapitythatinspiresadismissalofthemoralitysheviolates.Itis
ratheronethatinspiresonetoconformtotherulestoavoidhersituation.Inaddition,part
ofthereasonthatIsabelcanbepitiedisthatsherepentsandunderstandsthatwhatshe
doesiswrong.Byrepenting,eventheimmoralvillainisabletoconfirmthatthedomestic
moralstandardsarelegitimateandshouldbeupheld.
Isabelisjudgedthroughoutthebookbynearlyeveryothercharactershecomesinto
contactwith,includingbothstrangersandherownfamily.Whenheruncle,LordMount
Severn,comestoseeherfollowingthedepartureofLevison,hecriticizesherdecisionto
leaveherhusband.“[I]fevermanlovedhiswife,helovedyou.Howcouldyousorequite
him?”heasks(254).Later,afterthetrainaccident,Isabelisworkingasagovernessfora
27LynPykett,quotedinMangham,ViolentWomeninSensationFiction:129.
20
familywhenAfyHallijohn,thesisterofheroldmaidandthedaughterofthemanRichard
Hareisaccusedofkilling,showsuptovisit.Isabelasksheraboutherformerlife,
pretendingtohaveknowntheCarlylesinpassing,andwhenaskedwhethershehasever
metLadyIsabel,Afyreplies,“NotI.Ishouldhavethoughtitdemeaning.Onedoesnotcare
tobebroughtintocontactwiththatsortofmisdoinglot,youknow”(329).Afyalsotells
herthatherdaughterwasnolongercalled“Isabel,”butinsteadwascalledbyhermiddle
name,“Lucy.”(239)ThenamechanceoccursbecauseCarlylehasfoundhiswife’snameso
painfulanddistastefulafterwhatshehaddonethathecouldnotbeartohavehisdaughter
called“Isabel.”Onlyrarelydoesanyonespeakwellofheraftersheleaves,buteventhen
theyspeakofhowmuchtheylovedherwhenshewasthere,notcondoningheractionsin
anyway,eventhoughsomepeoplefoundthemunderstandableattimes.Joyce,oneofthe
maidsatEastLynne,says,“Shehasgoneandtakenthelifethatwasnotherstotake,andI
sayshehasbeendriventoit.”(234).
Isabellivesherlifeindisgraceafterviolatingtherulesofdomesticmoralityand
runningoffwithFrancisLevison.Whilenothingthatshedoesisquiteillegal,shesuffers
becauseofheractionsuntilshedies.Sheishorriblydisfiguredinatrainaccident,but
worseforheriswatchingherhusbandlovesomeoneelse,andwatchinghersondie
withoutbeingabletotellhimthatsheishismother.NothinggoodcomestoIsabelafter
leavingherhusband;sheisleftpoor,alone,anddisfigured,symbolsofherwrongdoings.
Othercharacterswhocanbeseenasviolatorsofthesemoralcodesdonotsufferinthe
samewaysthatshedoes,buttheiractionsareviolationsofdomesticmoralityjustthe
same.
21
BarbaraHare,forexample,appearstobetheperfectdaughter.Shetakescareofher
motherandshieldsherfatherfromnewsthatwouldbetooshockingforhim.Sheispolite
andkindand,tomostpeople,shedoesnotseemtoviolateanysignificantrules.Thefirst
signsthatBarbaraisdoingsomethingwrongarethemomentsshespendswithherbrother,
whohasbeenoutlawedfromWestLynneandwho,ifcaught,willbehangedforcommitting
murder.Shehelpshimhidewhenhevisitsandkeepsthesecretfromherfather,knowing
hewoulddisapprove.Whileitispossibletoseeheractionsasnoble,riskingherownsafety
tohelpamanshebelievestobeinnocent,thesecrecyshowsthatsheknewshewasdoing
somethingthatwasnotquiteright.Shedisobeyedherfatherinmeetingwithherbrother,
andmoreover,byharboringafugitive,shebrokethelaw.This,however,isnotthekey
elementofBarbara’sviolationofdomesticmorality.Thatcomesinachaptertitled
“Barbara’sMisdoings,”whichalreadysuggeststhatthereissomethingwrongwith
Barbara’sbehavior.
Inthischapter,welearnthatBarbarahasrefusedtomarryeverymanwhohas
askedher.Thishasangeredherfather,whoisupsetthatthepeopleofWestLynnegossip
abouther.ThischapteralsoputsherincontrastwithIsabel.Barbarasaystoherfather,“I
likehimasanacquaintance,papa.Notasahusband”(252).Whereatthebeginningofthe
book,IsabelappearsasaperfectmemberofVictoriansociety,recognizingthatherdutyto
marrycamebeforeherloveforherhusband,Barbaraalwayshashermindsetonmarrying
forlove.Herfatherisangeredbythisidea,andhetellsherthatshedoesnotneedtolikea
manasahusbanduntilheisherhusband(261).ThisscenebetweenBarbaraandher
fathershowsusthattheideaofmarriageisanimportantone,andmarryingforloveisnot
alwayspossibleordesirable.IsabelmarriedCarlyle,knowingthatshedidnotlovehimyet,
22
butBarbararefusedtomarryanyoneuntilCarlyleaskedher,havingdecidedthathewas
thebestchoiceforherinadvance.Byfailingtomarryandcontinuallyrefusingproposalsof
marriage,Barbaraalsoviolatestherulesofdomesticmorality.Whilesheisnotshunnedor
barredfromlocalsociety,sheisfrequentlygossipedaboutintown.Accordingtoherfather,
everyonehasbeensayingthatshecouldnotbemarriedbecauseofwhatherbrotherhad
done,andthishasbroughtshametothefamily,thoughnotinquitethesamewaythat
Isabelbroughtshametohers.
Thesetwowomenmayhavevastlydifferentpersonalitiesandsocialbackgrounds,but
bothofthemviolatetherulesofdomesticmorality.Inallowingbothofthesewomentobe
seenasviolatorsofdomesticmorality,Woodisabletoemphasizetheimportanceof
adheringtotherules.Isabelmayviolatethosetermsmoreovertlybycommittingadultery
andabandoningherchildren,byhavinganillegitimatechild,andbydisguisingherselfso
thatshecouldworkasagovernessinherownhousehold.Inaddition,Isabelviolatesthe
rulessetforthbyVictorianconductliteratureforwomen,ignoringtherulesforhergender.
BecauseIsabelisthesubjectofgossipandiscastoutfromsociety,Woodconfirmsthatthe
rulesshouldbefollowedthroughhercharacterization.Barbara’sviolationscomeinthe
formofsecrecyanddisobedience,andmoreimportantly,indenyingmarriageproposals
repeatedlyfornopracticalreason.Bothwomenbringdisappointmentandshametotheir
families,evenifnottoequaldegrees,andbothwomenknowthattheyaredoingsomething
wrong.Here,Wood’sportrayalofBarbaraemphasizesadifferentaspectofmoralityand
societalexpectations.WhereIsabel’sactionsarewronginamoreunmistakableway,the
novel’sclearimplicationthatBarbara’sactionsarealsotendstoreveal,Ithink,Wood’s
adherencetothetenetsofVictoriandomesticmorality..Womenshouldbehaveaccording
23
toalloftherulesofsociety,includingtheseeminglylessimportantones,likeobeyingone’s
fatheroronlyrejectingmarriageproposalsforgoodcause.Isabel’sextremeviolationsare
mostwrong,butBarbara’sindiscretionsandnonconformitytotherulesofhersocietyare
portrayednegatively,aswell.Thewrongdoingscommittedbythesewomencanbeseenas
violationsofbothcontemporarydomesticmoralityandasviolationsofVictoriangender
roles.Isabelgoesoffonherown,leavingherhusbandbehind,andBarbaradefiesthe
ordersofthemenaroundher,makingdecisionsforherself.Bothofthesecategoriesof
indiscretiondecidedlyputthesewomenintotheranksofsensationalwomencharacters.
IV.
WilkieCollinsandTheWomaninWhite
Duringhislifetime,WilkieCollins(1824‐1889)published23novelsinadditionto
variouscollectionsofshortstoriesandarticles.28Despitehisprolificoutput,heisnow
knownprimarilyfortwoworks:TheWomaninWhite[1859]andTheMoonstone[1868],29
andforthelatterhehasbeencreditedwiththeinventionofthemoderndetectivenovel.30
MostofCollins’worksweresensationnovels,buthealsowrotebiographiesaswell.He
publishedhisfirstbook,abiographyofhisfather,in1848andcontinuedwritinguntilhis
deathin1889.TheWomaninWhite,publishedseriallyin1859‐1860inAlltheYearRound
andinthreevolumesbySampsonLow,Son,&Co.,wasbymostcriticalaccountsthefirst
sensationnovel—althoughMargaretOliphantthoughthehadsignificantprecursorsforthe
genreinHawthorne,Bulwer‐Lytton,andevenDickens.WhileOliphantgenerallydisliked
sensationnovels,sheregardedCollinswasthewriterwhodefinedthesensationnovelin
28PaulLewis,“WilkieCollinsBibliography”,
<http://www.web40571.clarahost.co.uk/wilkie/bibliog/books.htm>.
29NormanPage,WilkieCollins(NewYork:Routledge,1974):vi.
30RonaldR.Thomas,“DetectionintheVictorianNovel”,ed.DeirdreDavid,TheCambridge
CompaniontotheVictorianNovel(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001):179.
24
thewaythatcontinuedthroughthe1860suntilthe1880s.ShewritesthatCollins’fictionis
superiortotheseothersensationnovelsbecausehedoesnotrelyonthesupernaturalin
ordertoachieveasensationaleffect,butratherusesshockingactionsthatcouldbe
committedbyanyone.31
InTheWomaninWhite,WilkieCollinsportrayswomenasvillainouscharactersas
wellasvirtuousones,asEllenWooddoes,buthistechniquesandhischaractersarevastly
differentfromthoseinEastLynne.WhilethefemalecharactersinEastLynnearesuspect
becausetheyviolatesocialnormsandignoredomesticmorality,theportrayalsofwomen
inTheWomaninWhitearemuchsubtler.TheaudienceisunlikelytoseemostofCollins’s
womenasvillainous,anditisonlyintheeyesofsomeofthemalecharactersthattheycan
begraspedasvillainsatall.Nonetheless,thebookcanbereadasananti‐womannovel,
sincecommentsaboutthenegativequalitiesofitswomenarescatteredthroughoutthe
book.Oncloserinspection,however,Collins’sstrongfemaleleadsseemtosuggest
otherwise.Infact,throughoutthenovel,thewomenwhoareviewedmostnegativelyare
notthosewhohaveviolatedanysenseofmorality,butratherthosewhohaveobtained
somesortofpowerovermen.
ThestoryofTheWomaninWhitecentersaroundthemysteryofawomanclothed
entirelyinwhiteandaroundahouseholdthatisaffectedbythatwoman.WalterHartright,
adrawingteacher,happensuponthismysteriouswomanonhiswaytoCumberland,where
hehasobtainedapositionasthedrawingmasterfortwoyoungladies,LauraFairlieand
MarianHalcombe,half‐sistersunderthecareoftheirinvaliduncle,Mr.Fairlie.Walterfalls
secretlyinlovewithLaura,andshewithhim,butafterlearningofherengagementandthe
31MargaretOliphant,“SensationNovels,”39‐44.
25
impendingarrivalofLaura’sfiancé,SirPercivalGlyde,Walterplanstoleavetheposition
andtrytoforgether.AsWalterispreparingtoleave,Laurareceivesananonymousletter
warningheragainstmarryingGlyde,whichwelaterlearncomesfromthewomaninwhite,
AnneCatherick.AnneherselfisanescapeefromanasylumwhohadknownMrs.Fairlie
whenshewasalive,andtheallegationsinherletter—which,whileitmentionsnonames,
isquiteclearlyidentifyingGlyde—havetobeinvestigated.TheallegationthatGlydehad
lockedAnneawayinanasylummustbeinvestigatedbeforehismarriagetoLaura,and
Walterdoeshisbesttohelpsolvetheproblem.WalterandMarianspeakwiththefamily
attorney,Mr.Gilmore,aswellasGlyde’sattorneyandGlydehimself,whosuggeststhatthey
writetoMrs.Catherick,Anne’smother,forconfirmationthatshehadaskedhimtolockher
daughteraway.Afterreceivingthisconfirmation,LauraagreestomarryGlyde,butonly
reluctantly.Assomeonewhoisinclinedtokeeptoherpromisesandalwaystellthetruth,
shetriestohaveGlydebreaktheproposalbytellinghimthatsheisalreadyinlove,buthe
refusestoreleaseher,andtheyaremarried.
Thisisaturningpointinthestory.Untilthispoint,Laurahasmerelybeenaside
character,withmostobservationsandmostconversationstakingplacebetweenWalter
andMarian.Afterhermarriage,though,shebecomesstronger,toacertaindegree,though
stillnotasstrongasMarian.Aftertheirhoneymoon,thecouplereturnstoGlyde’sestate,
whereMarianiseagerlywaitingforhersister.Theyreturnwithguests,CountandCountess
Fosco,Laura’sauntandunclewholivedinItaly.Shortlyaftertheirreturn,Glydetriesto
forceLauratosignadocument,whichwouldgivehimthemoneyheneedstoclearhis
debts,butLaurarefusessincehewillnottellherwhatthedocumentsaysorgivehertime
toreaditonherown.Thisisthefirsttimesheisportrayedasastrongwoman,buther
26
persistenceindenyingherhusbandcontinuesthroughtherestofherinteractionswithhim
—untiltheonetimethatitreallymatters.AfterhediscoversthatLaurahasbeensecretly
meetingwithAnneCatherick,whoknowsamysterioussecretabouthim,Glydedevisesa
planwithCountFosco,whohasbeennefariouslyhelpinghimspyonLauraandMarian
sincetheirreturnhome.AnneandLauradobearastrikingresemblance,andFoscodecides
tokillAnne,pretenditwasLaura,andeffectivelygiveherinheritancetoGlydeandto
himself.Fosco’svillainyissopronouncedthatitwouldbecomeafrequentreferencepoint
forcriticsofsensationfictionlikeHenryManselin1863(seep.25).
Fosco’sfoulplanissetinmotionwhenGlydeconvincesLaurathatMarian,whohas
beensickandconfinedtobed,hasleftforLondonwithFosco,andthatsheiswaitingfor
heratahousealongtheway.BecauseofherloveforMarian,Lauraisconvincedandshe
leaves,onlytobethrownintoanasylumwhileWalterandMarianarelefttosortoutthe
problems,butsheiseventuallysavedandgivenherhappyending.
Theroleofwomeninthisplotisextensive,andwhilemuchofthestoryistoldby
Walter(thenarratorchangesthroughoutthebook),thisisessentiallyaplotfocusedon
women.Manyofthewomeninthenovelappeartobevictimsratherthanvillainsandthe
mentakeadvantageofthemandmanipulatethem,astheywilldoinEastLynne.The
womeninthenovelarequitedifferentfromtheEastLynnegroup,though,andthenovel’s
mentendtoportraywomenashavingsomethingshockinglywrongwiththem—exceptin
thecaseofCountessFoscoand,occasionally,Mrs.Catherick.Therolesofallofthemajor
women—Laura,Anne,Marian,Mrs.Catherick,andtheCountess—areimportantin
establishingthepowerdynamicbetweenmenandwomeninthenovel.Understandingthis
27
powerdynamicwillhelpestablishasenseoffemalevillainyinthosecaseswherewomen
donotreadilysubmittothepowerofahusband.
PerhapsthemostextraordinaryfemaleinthenovelisMarianHalcombe,awoman
describedasbeingverymasculineinherfeatures.32Sheherselfdeclaresadislikefor
womenandputsherselfsquarelyinanon‐femininecategory.Sheisnottreatedlikethe
otherwomeninthebook,butratherasmoreofanequaltomeninmanycases.EvenFosco,
whomanipulateswomenandseesthemasbeingweak,admiresMarian.Whenshe
becomesill,hereadsherjournaltoobtaininformation,andheleavesanoteintheback.He
declaresthatsheisa“sublimecreature”and“magnificent”(330).Heevencomparesherto
himselfinvariousinstancesintheentry(330‐31).Marian’sconsistentrefusaltogiveinto
themenaroundhermarksherasunusual.Sheisalsoanunmarriedadultwomanwithno
money.Shedependsuponhersister,butnotuponanyman.Alargeportionofthestoryis
toldthroughherjournalentries,andheradventurousplansshowherunusualnatureina
veryclearway.SherisksagreatdealforLaura’ssafetyandhappiness.Besidesherown
feats,Marianisrespectedbymen.Hersister’suncle,Mr.Fairlie,despisesallcompany
becauseofhisnerves,buthedoesnotresistMarianinmostthings.Whenhereceivesa
letterfromher,hesaysinhisnarration,“ThemomentIheardMissHalcombe’sname,I
gaveup.ItisahabitofminealwaystogiveuptoMissHalcombe.Ifind,byexperience,that
itsavesnoise.”(334)Marianhaspowerovermen,butsincesheisportrayedasbeing
masculine,sheisnotpointedoutasavillain.Still,thepowersituationheremakeseven
Foscouncomfortable,andheadmiresMarianratherthandespisingher(538‐39).
32WilkieCollins,TheWomaninWhite[1859](NewYork:BarnesandNobleBooks,2005):
35.
28
LauraandCountessFoscoarebestexaminedtogether,astheyaresituatedat
differentplacesinthemarriagepowerspectrum.Laura,oncesheismarried,defiesher
husband,whiletheCountessisapawnofherhusband.Laura’sbehaviorsmakeherappear
tobeastrongerwomanthantheCountess,andsheisoftenportrayedasbeingthevictim.
TheCountess,here,isamuchmoreinterestingcharacterintermsofvillainy.Whileshe
seemstosimplyagreewithherhusbandinmanyrespects,theCountessinspiresastrong
feelingofdislike.Thecharactersinthenoveldislikeher,andsodoesthereader.Sheis,in
manyways,apawnofherhusbandandhasnoagency,andthereforecannotbeconsidered
afullcharacter.Shehasnopowerofherownafterhermarriage,thoughbeforemarriage
shewasaliberal‐mindedwoman(229).Here,thedifferencebetweentheCountessand
Lauraisevenmorepronounced,asLaurais,afterhermarriage,atleast,anagentrather
thanapawn.Thesetwocharactersshowverylittleintermsofthepowerdynamicwith
menthroughoutmostofthenovel,buttheydoprovideaninsightintotherelationof
womentotheirhusbands,withLaurabeingcriticizedbythemenforheroutspokenness
andtheCountessbeingpraisedforherobedience.Thispairprovidesacontrastforthe
reader.Neitherwomanhaspowerovermen,butLauraisnotcompletelypowerlessinher
ownlife,whichmakesheramorecompellingcharacterthantheCountess,whosimplygoes
alongwithherhusband’sschemes.
AnneCatherickandhermothertrulychallengethemale‐dominatedrealmofpower.
TheybothprovideathreattoGlyde,butthroughagreementswithMrs.Catherick,Glyde
hascometobelievehertobesafe.Anne,ontheotherhand,stillholdsasecretofGlyde’s,
onethatcouldbeusedagainsthimatanytime.BecauseAnnehasthispower,Glydefeels
thathemusttakeaction.Heisconstantlyinsearchofherthroughoutthenovel,seekingher
29
desperatelyinordertoputherbackintotheasylum,wheresheposesnorisktohim.By
takingawayheragencyanddiscreditingher,Glydeseekstoprotecthimselffromthesecret
sheknows.ItisthissecretthatgivesbothAnneandMrs.Catherickpower—andalsogives
LauratheappearanceofhavingpowertoGlyde.Whenawomanfindsouthissecret,Glyde
doeshisbesttohaveherdiscreditedorsilencedthroughwhatevermeanspossible.His
crueltystemsfromaperceivedthreat,whichcomesfromwomenhavingthepowerto
controlhim.AnneCatherickacknowledgesthisinherconversationwithLaura.Shesays,
IfyouknowhisSecret,hewillbeafraidofyou…Hemusttreatyoumercifullyforhis
ownsake.…Youarehelplesswithyourwickedhusband.Yes.AndImustdowhatI
havecometodohere—Imustmakeituptoyouforhavingbeenafraidtospeakout
atabettertime.…IoncethreatenedhimwiththeSecret,andfrightenedhim.You
shallthreatenhimwiththeSecret,andfrightenhim,too.(275‐76)
AnneurgesLauratoseethat,byknowing“theSecret,”Laurawillgainpowerwithinher
marriage.Thissecret,thispoweroverGlyde,frightenshimenoughtolockAnneaway,and
eventuallytokillherandlockLauraupinstead.Mrs.Catherickknewthesecretfirstand
hadpoweroverhim,butthroughamutualagreement,shebecamesafefromhisfearful
wrath.Herpowerinthecommunityandheractionsdroveherhusbandtoleaveherandto
livesomewhereelse,awayfromher,leavingMrs.Catherickessentiallysingleandpowerful
inherownright.
Thesewomenallprovideinsightintothedisturbanceofthehouseholdstructure.
Theyhaveveryfewindiscretionsandviolateveryfewrulesofthedomesticmoralcode,but
theyarestillessentiallyinviolationofthecode,withtheexceptionoftheCountess.The
manofthehouseshouldbeobeyed,astheCountesstellsuscountlesstimesthroughoutthe
30
novel,andsheistheonlywomaninthenoveltoobeyaman.Marianisfreeofanyone’s
controlandLauradisobeysherhusband;bothAnneandMrs.Catherickhavepowerover
Glydeandanswertonoman.Thesewomenareimportanttothediscussionofaviolationof
domesticmoralitybecausetheydohavesomepowerovermen,oratleastoverthemselves,
andtheydonotfollownormalhouseholdprocedureregardingmen.Onlytwoofthe
women,LauraandtheCountess,aretrulymarriedandlivingwiththeirhusbands,andof
those,onlytheCountessobeysherhusbandandispowerless.Themajorityofthewomen
inthenoveldisobeyanddisrespectthemeninthenovelthattrytocontrolthem,adding
themtothelistofdomestically‐immoralfemalecharactersinsensationnovels.
V.
Conclusion
InbothEastLynneandTheWomaninWhite,womenarerepresentedinwaysthat
seemtoviolateVictoriandomesticmorality,whetherthroughasheddingofproperconduct
orthroughthereversalofgenderroles.Inbothnovels,womendefytheideal,leaving
behindtheideaofbeinggoodwivesandmothersandinsteadinvokingalternatelifestyles.
Whilethewaysinwhichthevariouswomencharactersdothisdiffer,thecommonresultis
thattheyareviewedasalmostvillainous,thesortofwomenthatmendespiseandother
womengossipaboutbehindcloseddoors.Itisthesewomen,andnottheirpositively
portrayedcounterparts,thatthisprojectseekstoshedlighton.
Bothnovelsstudiedherecontainwomenwhoviolatethesestandards,butalso
womenwhoconformtothem.Ineachbook,thetonebehindthesewomenisdifferent.For
example,inEastLynne,BarbaraHareappearstobetheidealwifeandmother,goingsofar
astotellIsabelherphilosophiesonbeingawifeandmother,mirroringexactlythe
31
definitionsofVictoriandomesticmoralitydefinedearlierinthispaperandbynumerous
criticalsources.InTheWomaninWhite,however,theCountess,whoisseeminglythemost
loyalandwell‐behavedwifeinthesenovels,isportrayedasbeingavileandvillainous
creaturewhobetraysotherwomen.Whilethenovelsportraywomenequallyinviolationof
thedomesticmoralcode,thetonesoftheirnarrationarequitedifferent,lendingdifferent
meaningstoeachnovelandtellingussomethingdifferentabouthowwomenwere
perceived,atleastbythesetwoauthors.AsNicholasRancepointedout,thereareboth
conservativeandradicalsensationnovels,andhere,Ithink,wehaveanexampleofeach.
InEastLynne,boththereaderandtheothercharacterswithinthenovelcould
identifythedomesticandmoralfailingsofIsabelVane.Sheranoffwithanotherman,
leavingherhusbandandchildrenbehind,andtriedtomakeupforherfailuresby
returning,disguised,asagovernessforherchildren.Thecharactersandaudience
understandthatwhatIsabelhasdoneiswrong,andwhileshedoesredeemherselfslightly
byshowingthatsheunderstandsthatshehasdonewrong,sheneverfullyreturnstothe
acceptedfemalepositioninVictoriansociety.LynPykett’sreadingofthenovel,whichputs
Isabelinapositionofavillainweshouldcondemnwhileaskingustopityher,isclosely
alignedwiththisone.WhilewecannotapproveofIsabel’sbehavior,wedofeelthather
situationissomethingtobepitied.Barbara,however,strikesusastheidealwife,following
allconventionsandspoutingthemofftoanyonewhowilllisten.Sheobeysherhusband,
remainswithinthehome,anddoesnotspendmoneylightly.Shehaschildrenofherownin
additiontocaringforIsabel’schildren.BarbaraisEllenWood’sportraitoftheidealwoman
andwife.Noonewithinthenovelsaysanythingbadabouther,withtheexceptionofher
father,whothinksthatsheistoostubbornandshouldnotrefusesomanyoffersof
32
marriage.Thecontrastofthesetwowomenprovidesapictureofboththegoodandbad
sidesofVictorianfemininity,identifyingboththeidealandtheworstsortofwoman.
TheportraitsinTheWomaninWhite,however,arealmostentirelyopposite.Itisthe
womenwhodefythenormsofVictoriansocietywhoareadmiredandwhosufferbecause
ofthe“ideal”sortofwoman,whichisfoundintheCountess.Marian,whodefiesallofthe
domesticmoralstandardsofthetime,istheheroineofthenovelandremainsstrong
throughout,evenwhenconfrontedwithmalehostility.Sheisasinglewomanunderthe
controlofnoman.Shehasnochildrenorattachmentstoanymenandsherefusestobe
controlled.Sheroamsthetownofherownfreewillandtreatsmenasequalsratherthan
superiors.Inthisnovel,sheisidealizedasthebestsortofwoman.Lauraisshownasbeing
strongonlywhenundertheinfluenceofhersister,especiallyafterhermarriage.Countess
FoscoisperhapsthemoststronglycriticizedbyCollins.Sheisobedienttoherhusbandand
discardedherviewsaboutwomen’srightsoncemarried.Sheis,however,portrayedinthe
leastfavorablewayofallofthewomen.Becausethecharacterswhoareshowntobe
villainsinthisnovelarearistocraticratherthanmiddle‐class,itcanbesaid,likeEastLynne,
tosupportmiddle‐classmorality,asDeborahWynnearguesinthecaseofWood’snovel.
Thisisespeciallytrueofthemalecharacters,asthemiddle‐classmaninthenovel(Walter)
issuccessfulandhelpsthewomenescapetheclutchesofGlydeandFosco,thevillainous
aristocraticmen.Thewomenarenotaristocratic,butthefactthattheyarenotseenas
villainsdespitetheirviolationsofconventionaldomesticmoralityisimportantin
determiningCollins’views.
Theportraitsofwomenwithinthesenovelsperhapssuggesttheauthors’ownviews
ofwomenwithinVictoriansociety.Collinsidealizesthestrong,independentwoman,
33
tossingasidetheviewthatbeingagoodwifeandmotheristheonlyimportantfactorin
determiningawoman’sworth.Hischaractersinteractwitheachotherinwaysthatalso
clearlyshowthepowerdynamicsbetweenahusbandandwife,butalsobetweenmenand
womeningeneralinthecaseofAnneCatherickandPercivalGlyde.Menhereperceive
powerfulwomenasathreat,butthesemendonotprosperbyhavingthewomentakenout
ofthepicture.Rather,Glydeendsupdyingbecauseofhisfearofwomen’spoweroverhim
whenhetriestostopanyoneelsefromlearninghissecret.Itisthemanwhorespects
womenandtreatsthemasequalsthatprevailsandfinallymarriesthewomanheloves.By
puttingLauraandWaltertogetherintheend,Collinsmayalsobesuggestingthatmarrying
forloveratherthanmoneyorconvenienceisbetter.Laura’smarriagetoGlydedidnotend
wellandwasbaseduponapromiseshemadetoherfather.Afterhisdeath,though,shewas
abletomarryWalter,givingherahappyending.Overall,Collins’portraitsofwomenare
favorableanddiscouragetheone‐dimensionaltraditionalismoftheconductliterature’s
domesticmorality.
Wood’sviews,ontheotherhand,seemtosuggestabeliefintheconventionalsortof
domesticmoralityevenwhensheherself,inacareeraswriterandeditor,didnotconform
tothesestandards.InEastLynne,Isabelsuffersbecauseofherdeviationsfromthe
acceptednorms,whileBarbara,whoconformstothemperfectly,prospers.ItisIsabelwho
isdisfigured,wholosesherchildren,whodiesofheartbreak.Barbaralivesahappylife
withinherhome,observingallproprieties.WoodcreatesafemaledomesticvillaininIsabel
and,whilethereadercansympathizewithhersomewhat,itisdifficulttoavoidagreeing
withthecriticismsthataboundthroughoutthenovelregardinghercharacterandher
actions.ThisportrayalofwomenisverydifferentthanCollins’s,placingthenon‐liberated
34
womaninthepositionofbeinggoodandthewomanwhodefiesconventionasbeingbad.If
theseare,infact,Wood’sviewsofwomen,sheherselfasanauthorwouldnotfallwithinthe
theVictorian’sdomesticallyacceptablecategory,butratheramorenegativeone.Asa
womanwhoownedamagazineandwrotenovels,shedidnotremaininthehome,but
followedherowninstinctsandbehavedmorelikeMarianinTheWomaninWhite,doingas
shepleasedandworkingtobesuccessfulinthepublicworld.
Whilethebooksarriveatdifferentconclusions,itisimportanttonotethewaysin
whichtheyaddresstheissueofwomeninVictorianEngland.Eachnovelistseemstoargue
thatadifferentkindofwomanistherightkindofwoman,butbothusesimilarstandardsto
judgethesewomen.Thedomesticmoralitycontainedorviolatedwithinthesenovelsis
similarandcomesfromthesameplace.Whiledifferentaspectsofitareshowcasedwithin
eachwork,thesameideasshowupinbothnovels.Theissuesoffemaleindependence,
propermaritalrelations,andawoman’splaceinboththehouseholdandsocietyare
challengedbythewomeninthesenovels,leavingboththereaderandthecharactersto
judgethewomenfortheiractions.Whiletherewasavastquantityofinformationon
moralityandwomen’sbehaviorpublishedduringthenineteenthcentury,thereare
relativelyfewworksfullyexploringgenderrepresentationsanddomesticmoralityin
sensationnovels.Withmorescholarshipinthisarea,morerevelationscanbemadeabout
womenandthewaysinwhichtheywereviewedwithintheirsocietythroughtheeyesof
theheroinesandvillainsofthesenovels.
35
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