USING THE COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY MODEL FOR
Course Design
JOYCE MARIE KINCANNON
C HAPTER 1
Designing a
Learning
Environment
The Community of Inquiry Model was
developed by Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, and Archer. This framework combines the constructs of teaching, cognitive, and social presence to create a meaningful learning experience for a like
minded group of people through discourse and collaboration. For an
in-depth description of their research, go
to communitiesofinquiry.com
This course design process uses the Community of Inquiry
model as its foundation. As seen in the diagram, the steps
in designing a course overlap and are seldom linear. Each
aspect of course design — Social, Cognitive, and Teaching
Presence —can be considered and planned but must be interwoven when the course is taught.
S ECTION 1
Cognitive Presence
Cognitive Presence
“Cognitive presence is defined in terms of a cycle of practical
inquiry where participants move deliberately from understanding the problem or issue through to exploration, integration and application. The issue revealed consistently in
the research findings is that it appears that inquiry invariably has great difficulty moving beyond the exploration
phase.” (Garrison, 2007)
E SSENTIAL Q UESTIONS
1. What do you expect students to know and do
by the end of the course?
2. What processes (writing, research, lab reports,
critique,...) do you want students to practice?
3. How can objectives and a topic list frame a
course design plan?
4. How do you define interaction as an
instructional concept?
5. In what ways are your students actively
thinking about and processing the
information?
6. How do you have your students respond?
2
Cognitive Presence is the extent to which learners are able to
construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection
and discourse. Creating knowledge is better done collaboratively. Create the opportunity for your students to collaborate
and communicate about the things they are learning. Be a curator of the best resources available. Use focus questions to introduce a video, website, or reading so students are aware of
the importance and relevance of the information they’re viewing.
As teacher, develop activities where these steps take place:
1.
The process of learning begins with a question about a
shared topic of interest. The problem is recognized and
current knowledge described.
2.
Divergence of perspectives and understanding is communicated among the students.
3.
4.
5.
Then students investigate and reflect on the ideas and information presented through multimedia in the course.
Students exchange information and brainstorm possible
solutions during the application of the ideas through discourse about real problems.
They begin to construct meaning from the new ideas
through cycles of reflection and interaction.
By connecting ideas, creating solutions, and coming to
conclusions, meaning is constructed, and learning established.
Interaction
Regular and responsive interaction among students is developed through active learning strategies, reciprocity, cooperation, collaboration, and emphasizes time on task.
* Online Course Design and Teaching Practice
Fosters a Robust Intellectual Community
Quality online course(s) must provide the opportunity for participants to collaboratively develop and regularly engage in a
knowledge-centered, but relationship-based online community in which faculty and students flourish through rich exchanges of ideas and perspectives that characterize scholarly
life.
Knowledge Centered Environments
Knowledge-centered environments focus on content that is organized around big ideas or core concepts. You can:
• help students organize knowledge.
• promote the idea that new information should make sense
in context.
• promote learning one’s way around the discipline.
• promote the qualitative as well as quantitative understanding.
*Six Guiding Principles for Online Course Design and Teaching Practice
http://wp.vcu.edu/6principles/
3
When students and teachers are engaged in creating the
"shared" understandings, they are learning to be a part of the
knowledge society.
The challenge of the knowledge-centered dimension of learning is to balance knowledge construction activities with activities that help students develop the suite of mental tools
needed for this task. Basic skill development is an important
dimension of knowledge building. When these skills are
placed in the larger context of authentic learning tasks, they
are acquired more efficiently.
Use Course Goals and Topics to Organize Content
When course goals intersect with students’ personal learning
goals, the development of self-directed learning practice is supported. Each element and activity in your course should connect directly to one of your course goals or outcomes. Name
your course units from the topics in the learning outcomes.
Create a consistent layout of information within each of those
units so students know where to find information and resources. Consider using consistently named folders to organize information and activities inside each unit, like the examples in this table.
Example One
Example Two
Example Three
Preparation
Readings and media
Case Description
Interaction
Assignments
Analysis
Evaluation
Quizzes and Tests
Problem Sets
Project Components
Readings
learning about the topic. The Interactions folder organized the
activities for the module. Readings, videos, group work, discussions, assignment instructions and other interactions were explained. The Evaluations folder contained tests, graded essay
instructions, and other assessments. It also included reflection activities which evaluated learning from the student’s perspective and a way for students to give evaluation feedback
about the value of the activities and instructor support in the
module.
Choose the folder organization that best fits your teaching
strategies. Rather than naming modules Week One, Week
Two - name them by the topic they represent. This allows students to find information more easily when they might want
to refer back to an earlier activity. Overlay time last.
Example One is from work done at St. Leo’s University. Faculty there collaboratively developed the “P.I.E.” model for consistently organizing information and activities in their online
courses. Each module had the same folders of information.
Preparation contained the learning outcomes, a task list, key
questions, tutorials, and any other content necessary to begin
4
Include an Orientation module and Summary module to begin and close your course. Calendars, To Do lists and consistent due days and times are helpful organizers for students
learning to manage their time differently online.
Notice the use of “essential questions” in this design process
document. These are the essential instructional design questions you must answer when designing your course. Choose to
include in your course each instructional strategy that is most
appropriate to your unique professional perspective and your
students’ learning needs.
Use the information design concepts of Consistency, Relevance, Adjacent, Proximity to organize your content. Use essential questions to frame your own course and help your students know what they should focus on learning. Begin each
learning activity by listing the relevant learning outcomes and
key focus questions for that activity. This helps your students
know the purpose and relevance of the activity.
*Online Course Design and Teaching Practice Encourages Active Learning
Learning online is not a spectator sport. Active learning involves regular interaction with content, with other students,
and with the instructor. Structuring opportunities for learners
to share and discuss ideas, collaborate on projects, and generate content can promote active learning online.
*Six Guiding Principles for Online Course Design and Teaching Practice
http://wp.vcu.edu/6principles/
Crisis Points Theory
Dissonance between established knowing and new information is created as students learn. “Crisis Points” are moments
during your course when students are most likely to need support and assistance. … If these crisis points can be identified
in advance, you can make sure that you have a plan in place to
mitigate student problems and avoid a lot of frustration in the
process. [University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee]
What causes stress and anxiety during the semester? When
do they happen? - For you and your students?
Example: During approximately the 3rd week of the semester
students realize the enormity of what they must do and learn.
Panic ensues. Be prepared to communicate help during that
point.
Which unit tends to be most difficult for your students to
learn? How can you help?
Is there an annual campus activity when students just won’t
be focusing on classes? Schedule the due date of major projects at another time.
Your travel to conferences, publishing deadlines, end of term
grading affect your available time. Note them in your course
calendar when having projects due.
Determine the best time of day to schedule your presence in
the course. Develop a regular habit of being present at certain
times each day, most days… to connect and communicate.
5
Many students study during the late hours. Have due dates at
noon rather than midnight when no technical or assignment
help is available. Instead have things due when you will begin
to grade.
Summary activities can be reflection or peer assessment of
projects, papers, and presentations. Include these peer critiques as another way to establish their shared learning.
Content Presentation
How will you present content?
Curating of exemplary resources, materials, and media supports students’ information literacy and learning. Choose the
best examples rather than an overwhelming list of materials.
Do you have a clear set of content resources to present each
of the topics and subtopics of your course content?
Do you have specific learning purposes for using these resources?
What are your strategies for students' practice and interaction with this content?
Do your resources and activities provide for a range of students' learning styles?
How do you evaluate websites and media for use as content
resources? Share your process with your students.
Have you contacted Library staff for help finding relevant,
easy-to-distribute, and accessible media for online students?
Do you have media projects in mind for a production staff to
produce? Do you want to learn to make your own multimedia?
Do you have opportunities for guided and independent practice?
Do you use questions to help students focus on the important
concepts of a reading, slideshow, video or website?
When you ask students to read, provide focus questions and
key concepts so students know what they need to learn from
the reading. This is helpful when you assign a movie, web resource, slide show, or any content resource. Tell students why
they should take the time to read [or view] the information
and what they might learn from the resource.
What questions are the ones you would ask yourself as an expert when reading the content? Teach them your problem
solving questions. Share how you approach a problem as an
expert. Help them become critical thinkers about this content.
How would you like them to critique it? Tell them.
Have you used case studies and specific practice problems?
Have you included peer review as part of your strategies?
Comparing their own work to others' helps students see different perspectives. Evaluating others' work gives them practice
6
evaluating their own. They become aware of exemplar work as
well. Often the review is not as helpful to the one whose work
is being evaluated as it is to the evaluator. It is still a valuable
strategy.
Keller’s Motivation Theory
Attention. Increase perceptual arousal with the use of novel,
surprising, incongruous and uncertain events. Increase inquiry arousal by stimulating information seeking behavior;
pose or have students generate questions or a problem to
solve. Maintain interest with variety.
Relevance. Emphasize relevance of learning the specific content to increase motivation. Use concrete language and examples with which students are familiar. Provide examples and
concepts that are related to learners' previous experiences and
values. Present goal orienting statements and objectives. Explain the utility and value for both present and future uses.
Confidence. Allow students to develop confidence by enabling
them to succeed. Present a degree of challenge that allows for
meaningful success under both learning and performance conditions. Show the student that his or her expended effort directly influences the consequences. Generate positive expectations. Provide feedback and support internal attributions for
success. Help students estimate the probability of their success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation
criteria.
Satisfaction. Provide opportunities to use newly acquired
knowledge or skill in a real or simulated setting. Provide feedback and reinforcements. Maintain consistent standards and
consequences for task accomplishments. Manage reinforcement: keep outcomes of learner's efforts consistent with expectations.
Knowles Adult Learning Theory
The need to know — adult learners need to know why they
need to learn something before undertaking to learn it.
Learner self-concept — adults need to be responsible for their
own decisions and to be treated as capable of self-direction
Role of learners' experience — adult learners have a variety of
experiences of life which represent the richest resource for
learning. These experiences are however imbued with bias
and presupposition.
Readiness to learn — adults are ready to learn those things
they need to know in order to cope effectively with life situations.
Orientation to learning — adults are motivated to learn to the
extent that they perceive that it will help them perform tasks
they confront in their life situations.
7
S ECTION 2
Teaching Presence
KEY QUESTIONS
1. What strategies will you use to assess your
students' learning?
2. Have you included a rubric for students to use
for self-assessment of their work?
3. Are your assessment strategies clearly
connected to course goals and outcomes?
4. Have you included self-reflection activities for
your students?
5. Are your assessments “authentic?”
Teaching presence is a significant determinate of student satisfaction, perceived learning, and sense of community. Before
your course begins, the design and organization of course materials, and your choices for content, activities, and assessments create your presence in your course.
Once the activity begins, your communication with your students is the most important part of the course. Facilitating discourse and sharing personal meaning creates presence. As you
help your students stay on task, nudge those who are not as
active as needed, answer questions so students don’t get stuck
while attempting to do assignments, and ensure the comments in discussions are accurate and on the right track, you
create presence. Sometimes direct instruction is necessary.
Your regularly heard voice lets your students be confident that
if they need help it will be available. Your active involvement
enables checks on students’ understanding before moving on
to learning the next concepts.
The skills by which teachers mediate and navigate meaning
making are at the heart of what it is to be a teacher. Teachers
provide narrative guidance … because they are able to assimilate digressions, repeat points, and tie up threads in a highly
interactive way that takes account of the individuality of learners, the social context, relevant artifacts, and the environment. They are able to elicit knowledge from students and respond to them, to initiate, confirm, evaluate, reformulate, and
give feedback. They provide… the guided construction of
knowledge. …learners are able to get the story straight. (Plowman,
2005, p.74)
8
A teacher’s work is the mediation of learning. This is achieved
by the ways in which a teacher presents content (selfgenerated or through another medium, either talk or text) and
then acts on the various ways in which learners respond.
Assessment-centered Environments
Your formative and summative assessments keep students
aware of their own progress. They also help you know what
next steps you must take to support your individual students’
learning. Including reflection activities create a habit for your
students to ask themselves what they have learned and where
they need to focus their own study.
What strategies will you use to assess your students' learning?
*Online Course Design and Teaching Practice Promotes Reflection
Encouraging learners to think about what and how they are
learning can promote understanding. Creating online learning
opportunities that include formative assessment, selfevaluation and journaling are some ways to support reflection.
What types of strategies exemplify authentic assessment?
“A form of assessment in which students are asked to perform
real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of
essential knowledge and skills” -- Jon Mueller
Assessment-centered environments help students’ thinking to
become more visible so that both they and their teachers may
assess and revise their understanding. Provide opportunities
for formative feedback and revision, which can enhance adaptive expertise and transfer knowledge.
"...Engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance,
in which students must use knowledge to fashion performances effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas
of or analogous to the kinds of problems faced by adult citizens and consumers or professionals in the field." (Wiggins, 1993, p.
229).
9
"Performance assessments call upon the examinee to demonstrate specific skills and competencies, that is, to apply the
skills and knowledge they have mastered." (Stiggins, 1987, p. 34).
Learners actively create knowledge and meaning through experimentation, exploration, and the manipulation and testing
of ideas in reality.
Do include resources and examples for students who may not
have a clear understanding of such assessments as essays, abstracts, summaries, self-reflections, critiques, peer reviews,
substantive discussions, book reviews, and other specific
types of writing?
Do you have direct links to the campus writing center?
Authentic Assessment Resources
http://jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox/
Online students do have help available through the writing
center.
What is your policy on student collaboration, cheating, and
plagiarism?
Collaboration, shared goals, and teamwork are powerful
forces in the learning process.
Explain for your context when students should collaborate
and when they should work independently. Use specific examples of plagiarism to assure your students know when and
how to cite others’ work, including images.
Interaction and feedback from others assist in determining
the accuracy and application of ideas. (Palloff & Pratt, 2007, p. 16)
Do you have a timeline for your assessments?
Are your expectations for student performance and submission requirements clearly defined in your instructions?
Did you describe what excellent work looks like for projects,
assessments, and discussions?
Have you included a rubric for students to use for selfassessment of their work?
Are your assessment strategies clearly connected to course
goals and outcomes?
Flexibility in mediating content enables teachers to provide coherence for learners by framing activities and relating them to
the students’ personal experiences as well as to other parts of
the curriculum. Your narrative guidance and construction are
essential to your students’ learning. (Plowman, 2005)
*Online Course Design and Teaching Practice Provides Prompt and Meaningful Feedback
Prompt and consistent feedback is a critical element of learner
success. Timely and meaningful feedback helps students know
where they stand and what actions, if any, must be accomplished to meet stated learning objectives. This practice of engaging in both formative and summative assessment can facilitate learning and growth in the online environment.
10
6 Keys to Engaging Students Online
http://campustechnology.com/articles/2012/05/31/6-keys-to
-engaging-students-online.aspx Richard Rose
1.
Don’t Expect Constant Validation
2.
Work Hard to know Your Students
3.
Accept the Loss of Complete Control
4.
Be Prepared to Work Really Hard
5.
It’s Not Just a Day Job
6.
Don’t Become Isolated
*Six Guiding Principles for Online Course Design and Teaching Practice
http://wp.vcu.edu/6principles/
11
S ECTION 3
Social Presence
KEY QUESTIONS
1. Have you clarified your communication
expectations?
In the online classroom, it is the relationships and interactions among people through which knowledge is primarily generated. You have to establish yourself as a “real” person. Interaction and collaboration are critical to community development. The keys to the creation of a learning community and
successful facilitation online are simple: honesty, responsiveness, relevance, respect, openness and empowerment... Students must be able to speak and debate their ideas without
fear of retribution from any source and should be encouraged
to explore and research topics that may not be an explicit par
of the curriculum or agenda. (Palloff and Pratt, 2007, p. 22)
2. Which communication tools will you use with
your students?
3. How will you introduce your self to your class?
4. Are synchronous meetings necessary for the
course goals?
5. How will you set a climate of safety?
12
Courses are Conversations!
Have you clarified your expectations and indicated your preferred tools for communication between and among you and
individual students, you and the entire class, and students to
students? The design of the course can assure that various
communication channels are utilized.
•
Email: Is it used as primary tool for one-to-one interaction?
•
Phone: Do students provide contact information for collaboration?
•
Introductions: Do your introductory activities help create student cohorts and a sense of learning community?
•
Discussions: Do the discussion activities include clear
guidelines about your expectations for type and number of
postings?
•
Group organization: Have you established groups for collaborative projects and student-to-student discussion? Have
you helped groups decide how they will communicate?
•
Wimba, blogs, wiki, Facebook, chat, twitter: When and
how are these social media tools used for communication? Are
synchronous meetings necessary for the course goals?
•
Grades: Are student grades and comments easily accessed? Is feedback from the instructor apparent?
•
Calendar: Are due dates obvious? Do you have an established policy about late work?
•
Tasks: You or your students can create task or “to do”
lists for the course or for each module. Do you intend to remind students about due dates in your course?
*Online Course Design and Teaching Practice Uses
Digital Technologies to Support and Enhance Learning
All online courses are mediated by and dependent upon digital technologies for course creation, access to course content
and media, as well as facilitating all aspects of learner interaction. Meaningful selection and use of digital tools is a complex
process that lies at the intersection of technology, content and
pedagogy.
Create Social Presence
Social presence is defined as the ability of learners to project
themselves socially and affectively into a community of inquiry. Building it into the structure of the course can facilitate
the process. A sense of belongingness to the group can be realized through the creation of a shared social identity between
group members. From this perspective, social presence is a
function of the cognitive representation of the group by group
members and not the interpersonal bonds between group
members. Furthermore, specific design features and characteristics of the online learning environment can be utilized to
13
achieve and maintain this shared group identity. Your involvement and expertise is critical.
Safety
One cannot project one’s real self and establish social presence unless one has a feeling of safety. Your students have a
reasonable expectation that their input will not be ridiculed or
result in their prejudicial or unfair treatment. Create an atmosphere of cooperative interdependence — the opportunity for
engagement, for thoughtful dialogue, and self-reflection.
Interaction to Learn
• Student with content
• Student to student
• Student with instructor
• Student with self
*Online Course Design and Teaching Practice Respects Diverse Talents and Ways of Learning
There is no single path to learning. Online courses that acknowledge diverse talents establish a climate that welcomes
multiple perspectives. Universal design for learning (UDL)
can serve as a lens to inform content selection, communication media, and interaction options.
*Six Guiding Principles for Online Course Design and Teaching Practice
http://wp.vcu.edu/6principles/
14
Credits
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005) Understanding by Design. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Rose, R. (2012). 6 Keys to engaging students online. Campus Technology.
http://campustechnology.com/articles/2012/05/31/6-keys-to-engaging-studentsonline.aspx
Deihl, W., Kincannon, J., Nugent, J., Watwood, B. (2012). Six Guiding Principles
for Online Course Design and Teaching Practice. http://wp.vcu.edu/6principles/
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based
environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and
Higher Education, 2 (2–3), pp. 87–105
http://communitiesofinquiry.com
Graphics
McCarthy, Stephany. (2006). E-Learning Center. Northern Arizona University.
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A framework for research and practice. London: Routledge/Falmer.
Keller, J. M. (1987), Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn. Nonprofit
Management Leadership, 26: 1–7. doi: 10.1002/pfi.4160260802
Knowles, M (1978). The adult learner: A neglected species. (2nd ed).Oxford, England: Gulf Publishing.
Learning Technology Center, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. [email protected]
Mueller, J. (2004).
Authentic Assessment Toolbox.
http://jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox/
Nastanski, M. & Colaric, S. (2008). Design for the Online Classroom: A piece of
P.I.E. In J. Luca & E. Weippl (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2008 (pp. 6023-6030).
Chesapeake, VA: AACE. http://www.editlib.org/p/29217
Plowman, L. (2005). Getting the story straight: The role of narrative in teaching
and learning with interactive media. Cognition, Education and Communication
Technology. Lawrence Erlbaum: Mahwah, NJ
Palloff, R. and Pratt, K. (2007). Building Online Learning Communities: Effective
Strategies for the Virtual Classroom. 2nd Ed. San Fransisco, CA:Jossey-Bass
Stiggins, R. J. (1987). The design and development of performance assessments.
Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 6, 33-42.
15
Climate
Participants must be able to speak and debate their ideas without fear of retribution
from any source and should be encouraged to explore and research topics that may not
be an explicit part of the curriculum or agenda. (Palloff & Pratt, 2007, p. 22)
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Cognitive Presence
is the extent to which learners are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001).
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Social Presence, Teaching Presence
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Community
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Community of Inquiry
An educational community of inquiry is a group of individuals who collaboratively engage in purposeful critical discourse and reflection to construct personal meaning and
confirm mutual understanding.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105. pdf Full Text http://communitiesofinquiry.com/papers
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Cooperative Interdependence
In the online classroom, it is the relationships and interactions among people through
which knowledge is primarily generated. (Palloff & Pratt, 2007, p. 15)
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Crisis Points
“Crisis Points”
a family of phenomena which exhibit "critical" or "crisis" points, at which the character
of some process changes abruptly from one form to another, as some influence
changes gradually. If the character of the process changes past a critical point, then we
see or experience a crisis. … The critical points at which such phenomena emerge are
the "crisis points.”
Dissonance between established knowing and new information.
“Crisis Points”
are moments during your course when students are most likely to need support and assistance. … If these crisis points can be identified in advance, you can make sure that
you have a plan in place to mitigate student problems and avoid a lot of frustration in
the process.
Introduction to Hybrid Courses. Teaching with Technology Today, Volume 8, Number
6: March 20, 2002
by Carla Garnham and Robert Kaleta,
Learning Technology Center,
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
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Essential Questions
However, according to Wiggins and McTighe, essential questions actually have one or
more of the following meanings:
▪
Essential questions are “important questions that recur throughout all our
lives.” They are “broad in scope and timeless by nature.”
▪
Essential questions refer to “core ideas and inquiries within a discipline.”
They “point to the core of big ideas in a subject and to the frontiers of technical
knowledge. They are historically important and alive in the field.”
▪
Essential questions help “students effectively inquire and make sense of important but complicated ideas, knowledge, and know-how — a bridge to findings that
experts may believe are settled but learners do not yet grasp or see as valuable.”
▪
Essential questions “will most engage a specific and diverse set of learners.”
They “hook and hold the attention of your students.” (Understanding by Design,
2005, 108-109)
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Formative Assessment
a variety of strategies to determine student progress toward achieving specified learning goals. As Menken (2000) pointed out, “for assessments to be effective and useful
for educators in instructional practice, they must be deeply entwined with the classroom teaching and learning.” Timely teacher feedback is an essential ingredient of this
process. Think of formative assessment as "practice.
It provides the information needed to adjust teaching and learning while they are happening. In this sense, formative assessment informs both teachers and students about
student understanding at a point when timely adjustments can be made. These adjustments help to ensure students achieve, targeted standards-based learning goals within
a set time frame.
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Reflection
serious thought or consideration; an idea about something, esp. one that is written
down or expressed, active metacognition
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Social Constructivism
...social constructivism reminds us that learning is essentially a social activity,
that meaning is constructed through communication, collaborative activity, and
interactions with others. It highlights the role of social interactions in meaning
making … [and] knowledge construction
(Swan, 2005, p. 5).
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Social Presence
is “the ability of participants to identify with the community (e.g., course of study),
communicate purposefully in a trusting environment, and develop inter-personal relationships by way of projecting their individual personalities.” (Garrison, 2009)
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Summative Assessment
Summative Assessments are given periodically to determine at a particular point in
time what students know and do not know. Summative assessment is an accountability
measure that is generally used as part of the grading process. Because they are spread
out and occur after instruction every few weeks, months, or once a year, summative assessments are tools to help evaluate the effectiveness of programs, school improvement goals, alignment of curriculum, or student placement in specific programs. Summative assessments happen too far down the learning path to provide information at
the classroom level and to make instructional adjustments and interventions during
the learning process. It takes formative assessment to accomplish this.
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Teaching Presence
is the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes (Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001).
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