private aviation 101 I
PRIVATE AVIATION 101
ANSWERS TO YOUR QUESTIONS ABOUT PRIVATE AVIATION
FOREWORD
As the world’s most experienced private aviation company, there is no
one who knows more about private aviation than NetJets®, the worldwide
leader in private aviation. We are often asked to explain the basics of
flying privately, including operating principles, the mechanics of flight, and
aviation terminology. We invite you to explore the basics and learn about
the advantages offered by NetJets. Private Aviation 101 explores subjects
ranging from the entire flight experience to preflight, landing, and everything
in between. No matter what your level of interest is, we hope you enjoy the
journey – courtesy of NetJets.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preflight 4
Inside the flight deck 8
Inside the cabin 10
Before departure 12
Flight basics 16
Aviation weather 22
Takeoff and climb 24
Cruise 28
Descent 32
Landing 34
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PREFLIGHT
NETJETS SUPPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
If you fly commercially, private aviation may seem like a
To support every flight, NetJets utilizes
new world to you. Flying privately provides many more
state-of-the-art operations centers in
options giving you the flexibility to choose airports closer
both the United States and Europe.
to your final destination, set your departure time based
Every flight goes through a rigorous
on your schedule, and choose your meals based on your
series of safety checks. Chief Pilots
preferences.
assigned to a specific aircraft type
oversee every aspect of flight within
What happens behind the scenes before my flight?
that aircraft type to ensure that our strict
To complete a flight safely, many aviation professionals and
operating standards are met. NetJets
specialists must be involved. Once a flight is booked and all
also employs full-time FAA-approved
details are confirmed with your private aviation provider, your
meteorologists, FAA-licensed aircraft
request is typically reviewed by an aircraft dispatcher and a
dispatchers, and many other aviation
flight plan is then developed. Flight plans for each individual
specialists to ensure the safety and
flight are filed with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) so
comfort of every flight. Finally, our
the flight will be under the supervision of the Air Traffic Control
dual-release system means that NetJets
(ATC) system. Flight plans generally include information
aircraft are not approved for flight until
such as departure and arrival locations, estimated flight
both the pilot-in-command and an FAA-
time, alternate airports in case of bad weather, route to be
licensed aircraft dispatcher double check
followed, rule under which the flight will be flown (instrument
all aspects of the flight and agree that the
or visual), pilot’s name, and number of passengers. The
flight can be completed safely.
aircraft dispatcher is responsible for considering and analyzing
each of these items when creating the flight plan to ensure a
safe and comfortable flight. These topics will be discussed in
greater detail throughout this book.
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PRIVATE AVIATION 101
PREFLIGHT
What does it take to become a private jet pilot?
NETJETS PILOT REQUIREMENTS
Pilots must complete hundreds, if not thousands, of hours of
NetJets’ stringent requirements dictate
schooling and flight training before they can fly complex aircraft
that each of our pilots must have
such as modern private jets. Many private jet pilots obtain
a minimum of 2,500 hours of flight
their initial training through aviation schools, universities, or the
experience, including 500 hours at the
military. After the initial training, pilots usually gain additional flight
controls of multi-engine aircraft and 250
experience by working as flight instructors, flying cargo planes, or
hours flying on instruments. In addition,
serving as co-pilots. After gaining approximately 1,500 hours of
NetJets requires an ATP certificate and
flight experience, most pilots begin the process of obtaining the
first-class medical certificate. NetJets
highest level of pilot certificate available – the Airline Transport
also requires each pilot to have an
Pilot (ATP) certificate.
FAA-issued type rating for the jet type
they fly. A type rating is an FAA-issued
endorsement in addition to the pilot’s
license which allows a pilot to be the
pilot-in-command of a specific type of
aircraft.
NETJETS PILOTS FLY ONLY ONE
AIRCRAFT TYPE
All NetJets pilots (pilot-in-command
and first officer) fly only one specific
aircraft type in the fleet. In addition, the
aircraft within each fleet are equipped
with identical flight decks so that, when
a pilot reaches for a particular control,
it is always in the same place in the
Can pilots fly more than one type of aircraft?
flight deck and the likelihood of error is
Some aircraft providers allow their pilots to fly several different
reduced dramatically.
aircraft types. This means that each time they operate a
different aircraft type, they must readjust and adapt to the
different equipment and safety features from aircraft to aircraft.
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PREFLIGHT
NETJETS TRAINING
What is a flight simulator and how does it help with pilot
The training never stops for a NetJets
training?
pilot. In addition to classroom training
A flight simulator is a highly advanced training device used
and in-flight training, NetJets pilots
by pilots to practice flying in conditions that would be too
attend simulator training twice per year
dangerous or impractical to duplicate in real life. Experiences
using only the highest level of full-
in the most advanced type of simulator (full-motion flight
motion flight simulators available.
simulators) are extremely realistic and can be designed to
duplicate almost any possible real life situation. Training in a
THE NETJETS FLEET
full-motion flight simulator ensures that the pilots are prepared
The NetJets worldwide fleet currently
to handle any situation that may occur during a real flight.
includes 15 types of private jets ranging
from light cabin jets to large cabin jets.
The diversity of the NetJets fleet gives
our Owners the flexibility to purchase
a NetJets ShareTM, NetJets LeaseTM, or
Marquis Jet Card® in the aircraft type
that best suits their typical travel profile.
All NetJets Owners and Marquis Jet
Card Owners are able to request an
aircraft type for a particular mission that
is different from the type they own, with
downgrades guaranteed and upgrades
subject to availability.
Are all private jets basically the same?
Private jets are designed and built for a wide variety of
missions. They range from light cabin jets which usually seat
a maximum of 7 passengers to large cabin jets seating up to
14 passengers. Some aircraft types are perfectly suited for
shorter flights such as New York to Miami or Los Angeles to
Seattle, while others are designed to connect the continents
with non-stop capability on flights such as San Francisco to
Tokyo or New York to Moscow. In addition, some private jets
are designed for high-speed flight while others are designed to
operate at small airports with short runways. There are nearly
50 different types of private jets in production today, and each
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has its own unique set of characteristics and capabilities.
PREFLIGHT
What is a Fixed Base Operator (FBO)?
NETJETS ONSITE REPRESENTATIVES
Most private aircraft depart from and arrive at Fixed Base
NetJets staffs our most popular
Operators (FBOs). An FBO is a service center at an airport that
destination FBOs with onsite Guest
offers services including aircraft fueling, cabin supplies, and
Services Representatives to ensure
aircraft maintenance. FBOs are generally located away from
our Owners’ travels are as smooth as
the main commercial airline terminals and offer a much less
possible. In addition, at some of our
congested and hassle-free way to begin and end your flight.
most popular airports, NetJets has
FBOs typically include a passenger lounge, crew lounge, and
invested in facilities reserved exclusively
sometimes even restaurants and catering suppliers.
for NetJets Owners and Marquis Jet
Card Owners.
NETJETS MAINTENANCE
With access to more than 7001
jets worldwide combined with our
maintenance expertise, NetJets is well
equipped to respond quickly to any
maintenance event that may occur.
Our fleet size allows us to keep our jets
positioned throughout the United States
and the world, ensuring that, if an
unscheduled maintenance event should
occur, we are able to respond quickly and
provide another nearby jet to complete
the flight. The NetJets maintenance team
consists of over 200 federally-licensed
How can aircraft maintenance affect my flight?
maintenance technicians who assist in
All aircraft have a schedule for required maintenance, and
maintaining our aircraft to the highest
operators work to complete this scheduled maintenance
level possible. In addition, the aircraft
during times that will least affect their customers. However,
manufacturers have created specialized
as with all complex machinery, there are instances when
response teams dedicated to supporting
unscheduled maintenance events occur on aircraft. These
NetJets aircraft. These teams are on call
unscheduled maintenance events may lead to flight delays as
24 hours a day, 365 days a year and
the operator works to fix the problem or bring in a replacement
are prepared to respond to any type of
aircraft to complete the flight. Depending on the size of an
maintenance issue.
operator’s fleet, their maintenance department’s ability to
respond to occurrences in real time, and the severity of the
Includes aircraft under management by Executive
Jet® Management (EJM).
1
maintenance issue, delays could be anywhere from a few
minutes to several hours.
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INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK
NETJETS SAFETY
Modern business jets have flight decks (cockpits) outfitted
At NetJets, safety starts before a new
with the most advanced equipment available. To a casual
jet rolls into our hangar. Each new jet
traveler who may be expecting a flight deck full of dials,
comes equipped with a state-of-the-
switches, and knobs, the modern private jet flight deck may
art flight deck. Some of the advanced
appear to be a scene out of a futuristic movie. The next time
safety features found on NetJets aircraft
you fly, be sure to take a look up front and see what type of
include:
avionics are on the aircraft.
•T
raffic Alert & Collision Avoidance
Systems (TCAS II) is designed to help
What types of instruments are found in the flight deck?
prevent mid-air collisions and near-
The flight deck is the area of the aircraft where the pilots manage
collisions. TCAS II is an advanced
the flight. The flight deck includes all of the instruments the pilots
program that supplies the pilots with
need to navigate the aircraft, communicate with Air Traffic Control
audible instructions on how to avoid
(ATC), and monitor the aircraft’s systems. Most modern private
traffic.
jets use advanced and state-of-the-art technology known as a
•E
nhanced Ground Proximity Warning
System (EGPWS) is a system that
helps the pilots avoid flying into rising
terrain. The system monitors trends in
the aircraft’s movement and alerts the
flight crew if the aircraft’s current flight
trend may bring it in close proximity to
mountains or other rising terrain.
“glass” flight decks – a series of screens that display multiple
sets of information and are much easier to read and use than the
former round dial instruments. Glass flight decks consist of Primary
Flight Displays (PFDs) and Multi-Function Displays (MFDs).
• PFDs provide flight instrumentation and navigation
information such as airspeed, altitude, and heading.
• MFDs provide other information including engine
instrumentation, weather radar, and safety instruments
such as Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System
(TCAS) and Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning
System (EGPWS).
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INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK
What type of flight instruments are on an aircraft?
Since an aircraft operates in a three-dimensional atmosphere, the pilot needs special instruments to obtain the
necessary flight information in order to conduct a safe flight.
•T
he pitot-static instruments operate on the principle of pressure differential to provide speed, rate of climb
or descent, and altitude. These instruments include airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.
•T
he gyroscopic instruments use gyroscopic principles to provide the aircraft’s rate of turn, attitude (which
displays the position of the aircraft in space), and heading (which displays the direction in which the aircraft is
flying). These instruments include turn coordinator, attitude indicator, and heading indicator.
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INSIDE THE CABIN
NETJETS IN-FLIGHT MEDICAL
Modern private jets combine unmatched comfort with many
RESPONSE
of the latest communication and entertainment offerings.
Every NetJets aircraft is equipped with
Private jets are typically configured to seat between 7 and 14
state-of-the-art emergency medical
passengers, and many aircraft include leather seats (many of
supplies from MedAire, an International
which recline to a fully flat position for sleeping), fully-enclosed
SOS company, including specially
lavatories, Wi-Fi, individual video monitors, satellite radio,
designed lifesaving medical kits,
in-flight telephones, full galleys, and much more. The private jet
emergency oxygen, automated external
can truly be thought of as an “office in the sky.”
defibrillators (AEDs), and descriptive
medical manuals. NetJets flight crews
How is food prepared on a private jet?
receive extensive training in the use of
Large private jets are equipped with full galleys that allow
these aviation-specific medical supplies,
a flight attendant to prepare basically any type of meal,
and in responding to medical issues.
including hot meals, as long as it is requested in advance.
In the event of an in-flight medical
For smaller jets, passengers may choose from a variety of
issue, the NetJets flight crew connects
cold food options from local caterers. Generally, the aircraft
directly with MedAire to speak with
is permanently stocked with snacks, water, coffee, tea, soda,
critical care doctors who are dedicated
and alcoholic beverages.
to providing comprehensive medical
support. When necessary, MedAire helps
Why do my ears “pop” when I’m flying?
arrange medical assistance utilizing local
Modern private jets have pressurized cabins to allow their
emergency services that meet the plane
passengers to breathe normally at high altitudes. Jets are
when it lands.
designed to fly at these altitudes to maximize their speed,
range, and fuel efficiency and also to fly above weather and
NETJETS CATERING
turbulence. One side effect of pressurization is that there may
We work with premier aviation caterers
be a temporary pressure differential between the air in your
around the world to provide our Owners
ears and the air in the aircraft’s cabin. Your ears “pop” when
with top quality meals during their flight.
the pressure is equalized.
NetJets Owners and Marquis Jet Card
Owners complete an Owner Profile which
details their preferences regarding food,
beverages, music, and movies so the
aircraft is stocked with the amenities of
their choice for each flight. With NetJets,
your catering needs can be customized
for each flight.
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NSIDE THE CABIN
Can my pet travel with me?
Yes. Many people choose to fly privately because it affords them the opportunity to bring their pets in the cabin.
Some private jet operators allow pets in the cabin as long as they are restrained in accordance with FAA regulations
for taxi, takeoff, and landing. If your pet is small or an anxious flier, it is advisable to keep the pet in a pet carrier for
the duration of the flight. Dogs not in a carrier must occupy their own seat and be secured with a seat belt or special
dog harness during taxi, takeoff, and landing.
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BEFORE DEPARTURE
Boarding a private jet is a very different experience from
boarding a commercial aircraft. Rather than waiting in line for
your seat row to be called and then walking down a jet bridge
and waiting for other passengers to be seated before you can
get to your seat, boarding a private jet is a comfortable and
pleasurable experience. Generally, one of the pilots greets
the passenger(s) in the passenger lounge of the Fixed Base
Operator (FBO), verifies their identification, and informs them
that the aircraft is ready for boarding. Then, the pilot takes
the luggage and loads it into the baggage compartment of
the aircraft while the passengers walk up the stairs and into
the aircraft. Some private jets have baggage compartments
that are accessible in flight should the need arise. Once
the passengers are onboard, the flight crew gives a safety
overview and then the aircraft begins to taxi to the runway.
For many people, this sequence of events is commonplace,
but there are many extremely intricate details that must be
completed for an aircraft to depart.
What do the pilots do immediately before a flight?
Before the aircraft departs, the pilots are required to do a
preflight check to make sure the aircraft is in sound working
condition. The pilots follow a checklist that includes close
inspection of the aircraft systems and the main components of
the aircraft. Only after the checklist is completed and the flight
crew is satisfied that all systems are in proper working condition
is the flight cleared to depart.
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BEFORE DEPARTURE
Do all airports have control towers?
You may be surprised to learn that the large majority of
airports in the United States do not have control towers.
Generally, only large airports frequented by heavy commercial
airline traffic and the busier general aviation airports have
control towers, and, in many cases, these operate for only a
portion of the day. Many of the airports that are frequented by
private jets are much less busy than the airports commercial
airlines use and, therefore, do not require a control tower.
•C
ontrolled airports have an operating control tower.
All aircraft in the vicinity and on the ground at controlled
airports must follow instructions provided by the Air
Traffic Controller.
•U
ncontrolled airports require the pilots to selfannounce their intentions to other pilots in the airport
vicinity using a radio. The pilots are also responsible
for determining the active runway and how to enter
and exit the traffic pattern by obeying established FAA
regulations.
How many runways do airports have?
Generally, the busier the airport, the more runways it will have.
Since aircraft are affected by winds during takeoff and landing,
runways are usually built in the direction of the prevailing
winds. Some airports have multiple runways aligned in
different directions to best adapt to shifts in wind.
What are airport identifiers?
Most airports have both a three- and four-letter identifier
which is a unique code used to identify each airport. Airlines
typically use the three letter codes while most general aviation
operators use the four letter codes. For airports in the United
States, the four letter code generally consists of a “K” before
the three letter code. For example, the three-letter identifier for
Teterboro Airport is TEB and its four-letter identifier is KTEB.
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BEFORE DEPARTURE
How are runways named?
Runways have a two-number identifier on each end. These
numbers are derived from the runway’s direction in degrees
relative to magnetic north. For example, if the runway identifier
is 09, it means that the aircraft will take off or land at a heading
of 90 degrees or due east. If the runway identifier is 27, it
means the aircraft will take off or land at a heading of 270
degrees or due west. The runway identifiers represent the
direction in which the aircraft will be heading while taking off
on that runway. For this reason, each strip of pavement is
actually two runways because each end of the runway has a
different name.
Why do we sometimes taxi onto the runway and not move
for a while?
Sometimes an aircraft is instructed by an Air Traffic Controller
to taxi into position and hold. This usually happens when the
airport is experiencing a high level of traffic. For example, an
aircraft may have just landed and may still be on the runway
from which your aircraft will depart, or another aircraft may
have just departed ahead of yours. Air Traffic Controllers need
to keep a safe distance between all aircraft to minimize the
effect of wake turbulence generated by other aircraft. Wake
turbulence (also called wingtip vortices) is created when an
aircraft is generating lift and can be hazardous to other aircraft
flying on the same path and in close proximity.
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BEFORE DEPARTURE
Can Air Traffic Control delay my flight?
NETJETS WORKS TO MINIMIZE AIR
Due to flight demand, the National Airspace System (NAS)
TRAFFIC CONTROL DELAYS
frequently runs near the limit of its capacity. When adverse
Private aircraft do not operate on a
weather occurs, not as many flights can take off and land,
fixed schedule like the commercial
further limiting capacity and leading to delays. Since the
airlines do. Therefore, the demand on
NAS is a national system, adverse weather or other adverse
the system created by these aircraft is
conditions in one large metropolitan area may lead to delays
not as predictable. To minimize delays
at other airports hundreds of miles away because planes
caused by uncertainties, NetJets
cannot stay on schedule. Business aviation users may
Owners and Marquis Jet Card Owners
also experience delays during NAS peak times such as the
are encouraged to notify their Owner
morning and evening rush hour out of large cities, holidays,
Services Team as soon as they decide
special events (e.g., Super Bowl), and weekend traffic along
to use an aircraft so that the flight plan
the East Coast and at Colorado’s ski airports when demand
may be entered into the system as early
is greater than the capacity to support the number of flights.
as possible. Arriving at the airport 15
Flying on private jets allows the use of less congested airports
minutes before the arranged departure
which may reduce potential delays.
time is also important so that ATC has
the highest predictability of where and
How much luggage can I bring on my flight?
when the aircraft will be operating in
Baggage capacity varies greatly from one type of private jet
the system and can account for the
to another, so it is best to ask your operator this question well
demand appropriately.
in advance of your flight. Most private jets have adequate
baggage space to accommodate at least one or two suitcases
per passenger, but baggage volume is not the only factor
to consider. All aircraft have certain limits to the weight of
baggage that can be safely carried onboard. Additional items
such as skis, golf clubs, surfboards, hunting and fishing gear,
and/or artwork may limit the amount of other luggage that can
be stored on the aircraft. Again, it is always best to provide
your operator with a detailed list of the luggage and other
items you plan to bring on a particular flight as far in advance
of the flight as possible. This will give them adequate time to
determine if all items can be carried on the aircraft or if other
arrangements will be needed. Please note that the FAA does
not permit hazardous materials onboard.
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FLIGHT BASICS
Flying is so commonplace these days that it is amazing to
think that just over 100 years ago, flight in an airplane was
simply a dream. Today, for many, flying is a necessity. A
series of events must occur for an aircraft to fly safely. This
section discusses the basic components of an aircraft and
the nuances of flight.
What are the main components of an aircraft?
There are five main components that make up an aircraft:
• The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft.
• The empennage is the tail of the aircraft. It consists of
two flight control surfaces: the elevator and the rudder.
The elevator pitches or steers up and down, and the
rudder yaws or steers from right to left.
• The wings are the primary lifting surfaces for the
aircraft. The airflow over the wing surface generates the
vast majority of lifting force necessary for flight.
• The powerplant or engine generates the power or
thrust for the aircraft. Private jets generally have two
engines.
• The landing gear allows the aircraft to take off, land,
and taxi and also provides shock absorbers to enable
smooth landing and takeoff. The newest business jets
usually have a type of landing gear known as “trailing
link” which allows for smooth landing and taxiing.
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FLIGHT BASICS
How does an aircraft fly?
Flight is made possible by a concept known as pressure differential. Aircraft wings are designed to create a pressure
differential between air above and air below the wing. Due to the shape of the wing (known as an airfoil), air flows
faster above the wing and slower below the wing, creating a difference in pressure known as Bernoulli’s Principle.
Bernoulli’s Principle states that, as a fluid travels faster (air is technically a fluid), its pressure drops. The lower
pressure above the wing and consequent higher pressure below the wing allow an aircraft weighing thousands of
pounds to rise like a graceful bird.
s
Empennage
Powerplant (engine)
Fuselage
s
s
Wing
Wing
s
s
Landing Gear
Landing Gear
Landing Gear
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FLIGHT BASICS
What do aviation terms such as lift and drag really mean?
For an aircraft to fly straight and level, four basic aerodynamic forces must be in equilibrium: lift, gravity, thrust, and
drag. Lift is simply the force generated by airflow over the wings that acts opposite of gravity which is the force
constantly pulling all objects toward the center of the earth. Drag is a negative force which acts against the thrust
generated by the aircraft’s engines. Drag can be thought of as the resistance of the air against the forward motion of
the aircraft. All portions of the aircraft create drag; it is an unavoidable trait of any object moving through air. When
an aircraft is flying straight and level, the opposing forces balance each other; lift equals gravity and thrust equals
drag. However, the aircraft uses imbalances between these forces to accelerate, climb, and descend.
s
Lift
s
s
Thrust
Drag
s
Weight (Gravity)
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FLIGHT BASICS
How does a jet engine work?
There are four basic steps that explain how a jet engine works:
Step 1: Air is drawn into the engine through a large fan at the
front of the engine.
Step 2: Behind the initial fan is a series of smaller rotating
blades. These rotating blades compress the air and force it
into the combustion chamber.
Step 3: Once the air is compressed and enters the chamber,
the air and jet fuel mix together and are ignited. The burning
gases rapidly expand and are forced out the rear of the
engine, producing “thrust.” The thrust pushes the aircraft
forward.
Step 4: As the exhaust gas exits, it passes through the turbine
which spins a drive shaft to provide the rotational motion
to the compressor, which in turn draws in more air and the
entire sequence is repeated. In addition to feeding air to the
compressor, the large fan at the front of the engine feeds
air through bypass ducts around the compressor to join the
exhaust jetstream in the tailcone. This bypass feature is what
distinguishes a turbofan from a turbojet and it allows the
turbofan to be much more fuel efficient and quiet.
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FLIGHT BASICS
What are all those moving parts on the wing?
The next time you are on an airplane, if you are seated over
or slightly behind the wings, you will be able to watch the
different parts of the wings work especially during takeoff
and landing. The main parts of the wings include flaps, slats,
spoilers, and ailerons.
• F
laps allow the pilot to change the shape of the wing.
Flaps can be extended to increase the wing surface
area, creating additional lift. The more curved the wing
is and the more surface area it has, the more lift it will
create. Flaps are most often used during landing and
takeoff so the aircraft can fly at a slower speed during
an approach or help generate lift during a departure.
•S
lats are located on the front of the wing and are
designed to optimize airflow over the upper surfaces
of the wings. They help aircraft fly more slowly during
critical phases of flight, allowing the aircraft to takeoff
from and land on shorter runways. Some aircraft do not
have this component.
•S
poilers, as the name implies, spoil lift. These devices
are attached to the top of the wing and block the airflow
on the upper surface of the wing, thus destroying the
lifting tendency. Spoilers are used to control sink rate
during descent and are also sometimes used for roll
control.
•A
ilerons are movable portions of the wing used for
banking and turning. The ailerons are located on the
outer section of the wings, and ailerons on both wings
work together to turn or roll the aircraft. When an aileron
on one side of the aircraft moves down, the aileron on the
opposite side of the aircraft moves up. The wing that has
the aileron down will experience more lift than the other
wing and will rise. This motion rolls the aircraft into a turn.
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FLIGHT BASICS
Why does an aircraft need so many different parts?
Since aircraft operate in three dimensional space while in the air, they need several specialized systems to
maneuver. The ailerons, rudder, and elevator allow aircraft to move and turn through the air. Ailerons allow the
aircraft to roll from side to side. The rudder allows the aircraft to yaw, or turn from left to right. Finally, the elevator
allows the aircraft to pitch the nose up or down. These three systems work together to allow the aircraft to ascend,
descend, and turn in order to reach its destination.
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AVIATION WEATHER
There are many types of weather that may impact your flight.
A general understanding of these phenomena and how they
affect aircraft operations may help your travel plans run
smoothly and increase your comfort in flight.
Thunderstorms can be hazardous to aircraft due to high
winds, hail, and their generally unpredictable nature. Pilots,
Aircraft Dispatchers, and Air Traffic Controllers put a lot of time
and effort into trying to avoid storms, which can lead to air
traffic delays. When multiple storms develop in a region, the
storms block local air routes. Air Traffic Control centers must
then begin to delay aircraft trying to fly through the affected
areas. These delays have the greatest affect on high traffic
areas such as New York and Chicago. Additionally, windshear,
a sudden and unpredictable change in wind direction and/or
velocity, may be caused by thunderstorms. Since it can cause
a sudden loss of altitude, windshear is most dangerous to
aircraft during the critical phases of flight (including takeoff
and landing) and when the aircraft is flying slowly and low to
the ground.
Tropical weather in the Atlantic Ocean begins in early June
and peaks in the fall. Such weather has the potential to greatly
impact the accessibility of affected areas. To ensure the safety of
passengers, operators may temporarily suspend operations in areas
where tropical storms and hurricanes are forecast to make landfall.
Fog causes low cloud base and reduced visibility that can
limit flight operations due to the more stringent operational
requirements (instrument flight rules) for operating in these
conditions. The morning hours are affected most often, but
fog often lasts well into the afternoon. Some of the popular
airports most affected by fog include those located in
Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and San Francisco.
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AVIATION WEATHER
Snow and ice can be a major challenge for aviation. Snow
NETJETS METEOROLOGY
and ice on the aircraft require de-icing so they do not adversely
DEPARTMENT
impact the ability of the plane to fly, and they may cause
NetJets maintains a staff of full-time
departure delays. De-icing is required because ice on the wing
meteorologists. Using state-of-the-
or other surfaces of an aircraft can lead to increased weight and
art equipment to obtain and interpret
reduced lift capability. Ice on the wing actually changes the shape
data directly from the National Oceanic
of the wing and changes the way the air flows over the wing,
and Atmospheric Administration’s
which can lead to a dramatic loss of lifting capability. Reduced
satellites, NetJets meteorologists give
visibility and cloud bases during snowfall limit the use of some
our pilots and aircraft dispatchers
airports, especially those in mountainous areas.
up-to-the-minute weather forecasts.
Our pilots and aircraft dispatchers
Runway plowing is required when there is snow on the
use this information to plan the safest
ground. Private jets frequently fly in and out of small airports
and most comfortable routes and to
that have limited facilities and/or equipment. Some of these
make mid-course corrections when
airports may not have the ability to plow regularly. Snow or slush
advisable. NetJets meteorologists are
on the runway may cause dramatic increases in the length of
constantly monitoring the paths of
runway required for landing and takeoff. The adverse weather
snow storms, tropical storms, and other
may lead to runway condition restrictions that result in an
weather patterns, working with our flight
unusable runway or airport closures that last for days at a time.
operations group to protect the assets
of our Owners and to ensure that all
Mountain weather ranging from a major Rocky Mountain snow
aircraft in the NetJets fleet are moved
storm or a localized snow shower activity in Jackson Hole, can
away from danger. What’s more, the
cause last-minute changes, delays, or diversions due to the low
NetJets Meteorology department has
visibility and/or poor runway conditions.
received approval from the FAA to be an
FAA source of weather information for
Jet streams are high-speed, narrow air currents found at
our pilots, just like an FAA Flight Service
altitudes above 35,000 feet. The jet stream flows from west
Station. There are only a handful of
to east across North America at speeds typically in excess of
flight departments in the world that
130 mph during winter months. When flying from east to west,
have this FAA approval.
these strong headwinds caused by the jet stream may result
in turbulence and/or extended flight times that may lead to
additional fuel stops. Conversely, flying west to east along the
jet stream will reduce the overall flight time.
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TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
For many passengers, takeoff and climb are the most exciting and interesting portions of any flight. There are
many situations during takeoff and climb that may inspire questions.
Do high altitude/mountain airports cause performance problems for aircraft?
There are several factors that affect the runway performance of an aircraft. Among these factors are airport
elevation, temperature, weight of the aircraft, winds, and runway condition (dry, wet, icy, etc.). As air increases in
temperature, its density decreases. This is particularly problematic for aircraft departing from high elevation airports
because the air is already less dense at higher elevations. The less dense the air is, the more runway length aircraft
require to take off. This is because the aircraft’s engines are less efficient and the wings generate less lift when
the aircraft is operating in less dense air. Often, this “hot and high” scenario may lead to an aircraft requiring more
runway length to take off than is available at a particular airport. If this is the case, weight must be removed from
the aircraft to safely take off on the available runway length. Reducing weight can be accomplished three ways:
removing passengers, removing luggage, and/or removing fuel. If fuel is removed, there may not be enough fuel
remaining onboard to reach your final destination nonstop, making a fuel stop necessary.
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TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
What does “climb gradient” mean?
NETJETS WEIGHT REQUIREMENTS
A climb gradient is distance covered vertically during climb
At NetJets, our FAA-licensed aircraft
divided by the distance covered horizontally over the ground
dispatchers calculate the weight for
during the same time, usually presented as a percentage. Climb
each flight using the “short form” which
gradients are used to ensure an aircraft climbs fast enough to
assumes an average combined weight
avoid any obstacles that may be in the vicinity of the airport,
for each passenger and their luggage.
even if weather conditions are such that the obstacles cannot
If the calculations on the short form
be physically seen by the pilots. Climb gradient requirements
show that the weight may be close to
assume the worst-case scenario of an aircraft having only one
the acceptable limits, the dispatcher
engine available for climb. If the weather is such that a more
then uses the “long form.” The long
restrictive climb gradient must be met for a given departure, it
form uses the actual weights of the
may lead to the aircraft requiring an additional fuel stop due to
passengers and luggage for a more
weight requirements to meet the gradient.
precise calculation to ensure that the
flight can be completed safely.
Can the weight of my luggage impact the flight?
Weight can have a dramatic effect on aircraft performance.
Each aircraft has a specific weight limit (maximum takeoff
weight) which that cannot be exceeded. If the combined
weight of passengers and luggage is particularly heavy for a
certain flight, the pilots and aircraft dispatcher may determine
that off-loading fuel is required to keep the aircraft under
the maximum takeoff weight. This could lead to additional
refueling stops. Alternatively, some baggage may be removed
and shipped separately to reduce weight. In addition, weight
has a direct impact on the aircraft’s takeoff and landing
distance. In general, the heavier the aircraft is, the more
runway length it requires for takeoff and landing. Depending
on other environmental factors such as temperature, winds,
and runway condition, additional weight could lead to an
aircraft not being able to use a particular airport.
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TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
Why do some aircraft need more runway length to take off than others?
There are several factors that determine the runway length needed for an aircraft to take off, but the most important
are weight, wing design, and engine thrust. Generally speaking, the heavier an aircraft is, the more runway length it
requires to take off. The effect of weight can be offset somewhat by wing design and engine thrust. If the wing of an
aircraft is relatively straight rather than swept-back, this allows the aircraft to take off at lower speeds and therefore
requires less runway distance. In addition, more engine thrust allows the aircraft to accelerate faster and take off in
less distance. The straight wing design and higher-thrust engines are helpful for takeoff performance, but they can
have different effects in other phases of flight. For this reason, aeronautical engineers try to find the best possible
balance of all components when designing a new aircraft.
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TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
Right after the aircraft takes off, why do I hear a knocking
noise and feel a sinking sensation?
The knocking noise you hear is actually the landing gear
retracting up into the aircraft. Later, you may also hear the
flaps retracting back into the wing. The sinking sensation
is caused when the pilot reduces the thrust on the engines.
The engine power must be reduced during the initial climb
because the engines cannot run at takeoff power for more
than a few minutes. When the power is reduced, the aircraft
feels as if it is sinking or slowing down dramatically.
Should I be concerned about turbulence?
Simply put, turbulence is air in motion that interacts with the
aircraft. All aircraft are built with turbulence in mind, and the
wings of the aircraft are made to be flexible to handle these
forces. Due to the high altitudes at which they fly, private jets
are usually able to avoid turbulence and provide a smoother
ride. However, turbulence is often unavoidable during climb
and descent. While it may be a nuisance at times, turbulence
is an expected part of most flights. Aircraft are designed
to withstand it, and pilots are trained to handle it. In case
of unexpected turbulence, passengers should wear their
seatbelts when not moving around the cabin.
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CRUISE
Cruise is the portion of the flight spent flying level and not
climbing or descending. Cruise is usually the longest portion
of the flight when most passengers settle in to enjoy the
entertainment amenities and catering, conduct business, or
simply get some much needed rest.
How high do private jets fly?
Private jets typically cruise between the altitudes of 37,000
feet and 45,000 feet, which is above most airline traffic
and adverse weather. Cruising at these high altitudes is
advantageous because the skies are less crowded, and there
is generally less turbulence.
How fast do private jets fly?
Most private jets cruise somewhere between 480 miles per hour
and 560 miles per hour. The speed is dependent on several
factors such as cruising altitude, traffic, and air traffic control
restrictions. One of the fastest private jets, the Cessna Citation X,
cruises at a maximum speed of 590 miles per hour. Most
commercial airliners cruise around 500 miles per hour.
What does “Mach” mean?
The term “Mach” is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach.
Generally, Mach is used to refer to the ratio of actual speed to
the speed of sound. For instance, if an aircraft is traveling at
half of the speed of sound, we would say it is traveling at Mach
0.5, and an aircraft traveling at twice the speed of sound would
be traveling at Mach 2. An interesting fact relating to the Mach
number is that the speed of sound actually varies depending on
the temperature of the air. As you probably know, air temperature
decreases as altitude increases, so an aircraft flying at Mach 0.7
at 25,000 feet would actually be flying faster than an aircraft flying
at Mach 0.7 at 41,000 feet.
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CRUISE
Why does it take so much longer to get from New York
NETJETS TRANSOCEANIC
to Los Angeles than from Los Angeles to New York?
CAPABILITY
Winds can have a dramatic effect on aircraft during all
Several aircraft types in the NetJets
phases of flight. When flying from east to west across
fleet are capable of transoceanic
the Unites States, aircraft are typically flying into the wind
flights. NetJets has the most
(called a headwind). When flying from west to east, aircraft
international operations experience in
typically have wind behind them helping to push them along
the private aviation industry. NetJets
(called a tailwind). A headwind has the effect of decreasing
has flown to more than 170 different
ground speed and the overall range capabilities of an
countries.
aircraft. Conversely, a tailwind leads to increased range and
groundspeed. Considering an east-west city pair, the total
flight time is generally longer on the east-to-west leg than
on the west-to-east leg. An aircraft may be capable of flying
west to east nonstop for a particular city pair due to the
tailwind but may require a fuel stop from east to west due to
the corresponding headwind.
Are private jets able to fly across oceans?
Yes. In fact, there are many private jets capable of long-range
transoceanic flights. Not all aircraft, however, are able to fly for long
distances over water. Although an aircraft may have the capability
to fly from one point to another over a large body of water, safety
regulations may prohibit such a flight due to the aircraft’s inability to
return safely to land should an emergency occur.
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CRUISE
NETJETS INTER-PROGRAM
What does “cabotage” mean?
EXCHANGE
Each commercial aircraft operator, such as NetJets, is
With programs in the United States and
registered in a specific country. Cabotage refers to a foreign
Europe and with more jets capable of
commercial operator transporting passengers or goods
international travel than all other private
between two points within a country other than its country of
jets companies combined, NetJets
registry. Most countries discourage (by imposing burdensome
is truly a worldwide operation. For
fees or application/waiting periods) or disallow foreign-
flights within Europe, NetJets Owners
registered commercial operators from carrying passengers
and Marquis Jet Card Owners in the
between two points within their boundaries. Cabotage
U.S. program can minimize cabotage
rules vary from country to country. Additionally, in fractional
restrictions by taking advantage of the
ownership programs such as NetJets, its individual Owners
inter-program exchange with NetJets
may be eligible to operate their own flights as a private owner,
Europe
potentially bypassing these restrictions. Please check with
1
your operator for cabotage rules specific to the country within
NETJETS FLIGHT PLANNING
which you are considering traveling.
For increased safety, all NetJets
flights are dispatched with an IFR
How do pilots know where they are going when they are
flight plan. By doing so, all flights are
flying through clouds?
under the supervision of the FAA’s Air
The answer to this question lies with the flight rules aircraft
Traffic Control system.
must follow. There are two types of flight rules under which an
Flights operated by NetJets Transportes Aéros, SA,
a Portuguese/EU registered air carrier.
1
aircraft may operate:
• Visual Flight Rules (VFR) require certain minimum
weather conditions (visibility, which is the distance
that can be seen horizontally, and ceiling, which is the
altitude of the lowest cloud layer) be met in order to
conduct flight operations. Depending on the airport
environment in which the aircraft is operating, the
visibility and ceiling requirements will vary.
• Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) provide guidance for
pilots to fly not only in visual conditions but also through
clouds, rain, or other atmospheric conditions. These
conditions are referred to as Instrument Meteorological
Conditions (IMC). IMC describes a condition where the
pilots do not have visual cues outside of the aircraft.
The pilots use navigational aids and instruments in the
flight deck to execute the flight safely. These rules must
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be followed when weather is below VFR minimums or
anytime when flying above 18,000 feet.
CRUISE
What types of flight instruments are used to navigate in IMC?
To navigate in instrument airspace and/or under Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), pilots use enroute charts
which provide the locations of navigational aids and flight routes. There are numerous types of navigational aids
positioned throughout the world which help guide pilots to their destinations, usually by using a radio frequency.
The enroute charts are basically highway maps of the sky that allow the pilots to fly from point A to point B using
navigational instruments. It is possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any point desired due to advances
in aircraft navigational radio receivers, the development of aeronautical charts which show the exact location of ground
transmitting stations and their frequencies, and refined flight deck instrumentation. In addition, many modern aircraft use
global positioning satellite systems to help them navigate with precision.
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DESCENT
NETJETS FUEL RESERVES
Descent refers to the portion of flight when the aircraft
The NetJets Operations Department
begins to reduce altitude and head back toward the earth.
analyzes the performance of each
Descent usually begins approximately one half hour before
aircraft type in our fleet and derives
landing, depending on the actual conditions of the flight.
a standard minimum fuel reserve to
There are many important details relating to the descent
be used on all flights for that specific
portion of a flight.
type of aircraft in accordance with
FAA regulations. At the discretion of
Why do aircraft sometimes fly in circles before landing?
the Pilot-in-Command, contingency
When planes circle before landing, they are in a holding
fuel may be added to the fuel
pattern. A holding pattern is a repeating route that an
reserves for known or anticipated
aircraft flies until notified by Air Traffic Control to approach
situations such as arrival at high
and proceed to landing. Holding patterns are used when
density airports or when an alternate
airport operations are unexpectedly delayed due to weather
airport may be required.
conditions, traffic, or runway unavailability.
What are fuel reserves?
As an added safety measure, aircraft carry fuel in addition to
the fuel required for each specific flight. This fuel is known as
the fuel reserve and is required by FAA regulations. Before a
flight, the pilot and dispatcher calculate the fuel required for
the flight and then add the reserve fuel to the flight fuel. The
fuel reserve is always carried and is meant to be used only in
an emergency.
What is an alternate airport?
If the weather is forecasted to be Instrument Meteorological
Condition (IMC) at a destination airport, the pilot and aircraft
dispatcher are required to plan for an alternate airport which
will have better weather than the instrument approach
minimums. This is one reason why aircraft carry additional
fuel onboard in case landing at the destination airport is not
possible due to weather conditions.
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DESCENT
What is a slot?
A slot is a reservation to arrive at or depart from a specific airport at a specific time. The FAA administers slots for
safety reasons. They are implemented to control the rate of arrivals and/or departures when the airport’s demand
exceeds its capacity.
Which airports require slots?
Some airports use slot reservations year-round while others use them during special events and peak travel times
based on anticipated traffic and/or weather. During high demand periods including holidays and weekends around
school vacations, obtaining slots can be challenging. Most people want to land during the same narrow windows of
time, whether flying privately or commercially.
How do you obtain a slot?
Slots are assigned by the FAA through a random lottery process. Commercial airlines receive their slots first, and
then the remaining slots are put into a “lottery” for all of general aviation. Those slots become available exactly 72
hours prior to the requested arrival time. Since all general aviation companies and private parties are vying for the
same slots at the same time, the slots are usually taken within seconds of being released. Slots are not confirmed
until 24 hours prior to the day of travel.
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LANDING
Landing is one of the most exciting phases of flight. Many
of the same events that take place during takeoff also occur
during landing but in the reverse order.
How do aircraft land in adverse weather conditions?
In adverse weather conditions, aircraft must fly under an
instrument flight plan. There are several different types of
instrument approaches, and not all types are available at
all airports. Some of the approaches are more precise than
others and, therefore, can be flown under lower weather
conditions (lower ceiling and visibility). By simply using the
procedures written in the approach charts and reading the
flight instruments, the pilots are able to fly very close to the
runway. If the pilot is still not able to see the runway after flying
the procedure, they follow a missed approach procedure that
allows the aircraft to climb safely out of the airport and avoid
any potential obstacle while exiting.
What does it mean when a runway has a displaced
threshold?
A displaced threshold occurs when a portion of the runway is not
suitable for landing but can be used for taxi, takeoff, or landing
rollout. This situation generally occurs when there is some sort
of obstruction (trees, buildings, etc.) near the end of the runway.
This may affect the aircraft’s ability to operate at an airport since
the entire runway length is not available for landing.
How does weather affect an aircraft’s ability to land?
Weather can play a dramatic role in the operation of an
aircraft. If fog, snow, or very heavy rains are occurring at the
time of arrival or departure, the aircraft may not be able to
operate. Even if the aircraft is able to operate, landing on or
taking off from a runway covered with water, snow, slush,
or ice will cause the aircraft to use more runway length than
would be needed on a dry runway due to the reduced friction
between the aircraft tires and runway.
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LANDING
What happens if a runway has a slope?
Many runways are not completely level, which can affect takeoff and landing performance. When a runway has
an up slope or down slope, it is said to have a runway gradient. Upslope runways provide a retarding force which
impedes acceleration and results in a longer takeoff distance. Landing uphill actually helps as it usually results in
shorter landing distances. Downhill operations have a reverse effect.
What is the Destination Airport Analysis Program (DAAP)?
FAA regulations state that all Part 91(k) and Part 135 (the regulations under which many private aircraft operate)
flights must be able to land within 60% of the available runway length on any given runway. DAAP allows approved
operators to increase the landing requirement to 80% of the available runway, as long as all items on a 22-point “day
of flight” safety checklist can be accomplished for the particular flight. Using DAAP allows operators to access many
of the smaller airports frequented by private aircraft and ensures that they are safe in doing so. Each operator must
have its DAAP approved by the FAA prior to use.
What is that loud noise I hear just after the aircraft lands on the runway?
The noise you hear is created by a system called a thrust reverser. The thrust reverser aids in stopping the aircraft by
directing the exhaust flow of the engines in the forward direction. The forward flow of air creates a loud sound which
is audible just after landing.
We trust that this guide has given you the opportunity to learn more about the exciting world of private
aviation and insight into what goes on behind the scenes to make your NetJets flight comfortable, stressfree, and safe. You may want to keep it handy in order to follow along on future flights. As the worldwide
leader in private aviation, NetJets takes pride in our knowledge and experience, and we appreciate the
opportunity to share that knowledge with you.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
CONTACT NETJETS AT
1-877-NETJETS (877-638-5387)
WWW.NETJETS.COM
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PRIVATE AVIATION 101
Call or visit
877-NETJETS ( 638-5387) I NetJets.com
NetJets Inc. is a Berkshire Hathaway company.
All fractional aircraft offered by NetJets® in the United States are managed and operated by NetJets Aviation, Inc. Executive Jet® Management, Inc. provides management
services for customers with aircraft that are not fractionally owned, and provides charter air transportation services using select aircraft from its managed fleet. Both
of these operating companies are wholly owned subsidiaries of NetJets Inc. All fractional aircraft offered by NetJets Europe are operated, maintained, and crewed by
NetJets Transportes Aéreos, SA, a Portuguese/EU air carrier. Marquis Jet® Partners, Inc. is a wholly owned subsidiary of NetJets Inc. and sells the Marquis Jet Card®.
Marquis Jet Card flights are operated by NetJets Aviation under its 14 CFR Part 135 Air Carrier Certificate. All statistics are accurate as of July 2012.
©2012 NetJets Inc. NetJets, Executive Jet, Marquis Jet, and Marquis Jet Card are registered service marks.
BPA101-12