Contents
The Criteria of Selection .................................................................... 1
Equipment ..................................................................................... 1
Traffic and Parking .......................................................................... 2
Safety ........................................................................................... 2
Publicity ........................................................................................ 2
Supporting Systems ........................................................................ 3
Environmental Issues ...................................................................... 3
Others .......................................................................................... 4
General Introduction to the Five Applicants....................................... 6
The United States of America ........................................................... 6
Mexico .......................................................................................... 7
Nigeria .......................................................................................... 9
Colombia ......................................................................................10
New Zealand & Australia .................................................................11
Past Actions .................................................................................... 12
i. FIFA Security ..............................................................................12
ii. Regional Attempts ......................................................................13
Case Study ...................................................................................... 14
Questions to Consider ..................................................................... 18
References ...................................................................................... 19
FIFA
Background Guide
Topic A: Bidding of the World Cup 2026
The Criteria of Selection
Equipment
A competitive bidder is required to be able to provide well-equipped venues.
Eligible bidders of the World Cup should provide at least 12 immense
stadiums which are capable of possessing 80000 spectators. Besides, Host
City should provide at least four training sites, and the distance should be
within 20 minutes’ drive from the Venue-Specific Team Hotel to the spot.
The Controlled Area is an area (such as temporary parking areas used on
Match Days, open outdoor spaces, entertainment areas or arenas)
determined by FIFA which is located directly adjacent to the Outer Stadium
Perimeter. In this area, commercial activities that are not sponsored by
appointed commercial affiliates are prohibited on Match Days and the days
prior to Match Days，to ensure the smooth implementation of the hosting
and staging of the Matches and to protect the rights of the Commercial
Affiliates.
The abandonment of sporting stadiums is the inglorious corner of the grand
tournament. While masterminding schemes, bidders are encouraged to
come up with brilliant ideas that could not only guarantee normal usage of
the stadiums during the tournament, but also concrete plans on stadiums’
sustainable use after the games. Most of these stadiums are scattered in the
outskirts of cities. The immediate abolition of relevant transportation routes
after the games makes these gyms inaccessible to many people. Besides,
the vast size makes venue management fee incredibly expensive and
recruiting price is thus lifted. The amount of money invested goes down the
drain immediately after the match ends, and the countryside is forever
scarred by their presence. In a press release on the Rio Olympic Games
website, they stated that their emphasis was the better management on the
legacy of the Olympics for the host city. They introduced redeveloped ports,
vibrant cultural attractions, plans for developing schools over the handball
courts after the Olympics, and an improved waste management system for
the entire city, along with other benefits. Although these venues are firstly
built for the World Cup, a basic consensus shall be reached is that they may
finally benefit the local citizens.
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Considering that 2026 World Cup will expand to 48 teams, this growing scale
adds more pressure for Host Country.
Traffic and Parking
The host city is also expected to have good traffic conditions and nice
municipal management. During the Match Days, the city should be able to
deal with possible traffic congestion and provide sufficient parking facilities
for all the guests and spectators. With a larger scale of the matches, the
demand for transportation will be more urgent. In addition, a transportation
brochure, especially for foreign spectators will be helpful. Efficient and
convenient public transportation and traffic management plans are
contributing to a better football experience.
Safety
For all the Bidding Countries, safety is of cardinal importance. Robbery and
stealing used to be a typical problem in some developing countries. Besides,
recent years have witnessed the rise of football hooliganism. At Euro 2016,
clashes broke out at the end of the match between England and Russian.
About 35 people were injured in disorder - four seriously - and 20 people
arrested.1 Such serious incidents not only ask for more security forces but
more importantly, a well-established system to have alerts. How to create a
safe environment and a healthy football culture? It’s the joint responsibility
for all delegates to give constructive proposals.
Publicity
There is no particular requirement for the ranking of the national team of the
Host Country, but it has been an unspoken agreement that host countries
are usually possessing outstanding national teams. The committee
members will put great emphasis on the good influence of holding the World
Cup, such as igniting sporting spirit, facilitating economic growth and
arousing public awareness on health, etc. Good ranking is often connected
with flourishing zeal for football and thus becomes an advantage.
Additionally, although football is the most popular sport in human history,
FIFA with all other football associations would welcome the powerful new
inspirations brought by great football stars. Young generations are driven by
1
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Euro 2016: Who is to blame for the Marseille violence? BBC, Jun 14 2016
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36515575
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their strong influence and fling themselves into football. Therefore, bidding
countries can focus on the good results.
Bidders are recommended to use relative data to back their statements. For
instance, during the bid of 2008 Olympic Games, 90% of total Chinese
population demonstrates their support of the bidding, which later becomes a
competitive edge over others.
Supporting Systems
Great event as the World Cup needs numerous volunteers at help. During
the Match Days, there will also be many professional staffs in demand such
as medical workers.
The performance of volunteers is an important aspect to consider when
evaluating a sporting event. With the help from all walks of life and people
from different cultural backgrounds, host country may save more money
and energy. From small tasks such as managing the traffic to important
occupations such as providing service to the players on a court, volunteers
are making their exceptional contributions to a successful game.
The lack of professionals has long been a problem for big events. Hiring
medical workers internationally might be a good option. However, it will also
come across a lot of challenges. Background check for security concerns and
qualification evaluation will generate massive but inevitable workload.
Environmental Issues
Recently, there has been a major shift in international concern for
environmental sustainability. The FIFA committee has put a higher emphasis
on sustainable design. Environmental issues are taken into account when
deciding which country and which city shall host the World Cup.
The World Cup will undoubtedly have a negative impact on the environment.
Despite this concern for greenhouse chemicals, the FIFA Committee is still
concerned about the waste and accompanying water body pollution and soil
pollution.
Implementing a waste management program to segregate and recycle
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Background Guide
waste2 is adopted by the Russia 2018 Local Organizing Committee (LOC) in
order to meet the sustainability strategy developed by FIFA and the LOC.
The 2026 World Cup, more inclusive in method and larger in scale, sets a
higher standard for environmental protection. Technical and financial
supports are both of noteworthy importance.
Local climate will be an essential aspect to be considered. Given that most
World Cups are held in June and July, a favorable weather will benefit
football players as well as the spectators and staff members. For countries
with extreme climate such as Qatar, the smallest World Cup host country in
the Middle East, a lot of work has to be done. The FIFA Executive Committee
confirmed that the 2022 World Cup would be held from November to
mid-December due to an extremely high temperature of the summer of
Qatar. It will be the first World Cup held in winter of the northern hemisphere.
As countries of the southern hemisphere, if Australia and New Zealand are
entitled to host the next, the 2026 World Cup might face the same problem.
The change of date may result in a loss of money. Firstly, many football fans
in Europe, America and Asia are used to watching football games with the icy
beer in bars. Cold weather locks them at home. Secondly, media will have to
adjust their schedule and relay the match in winter.
Others
Mascots, theme songs and logos of the World Cup，together with those
classical matches，have composed an unforgettable memory for football fans
worldwide.
Each FIFA World Cup since
1966 has its mascot. World
Cup Willie, the mascot for
the 1966 competition, was
the first World Cup mascot,
and one of the first mascots
to be associated with a
major sporting competition.
The mascot designs represent a characteristic feature (costume, flora, fauna,
2
th
Recycling and environmental protection at the Preliminary Draw for the FIFA World Cup, FIFA, Jul 10 2015
http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/news/y=2015/m=7/news=recycling-and-environmental-protection-at-the-prelimi
nary-draw-for-the-2662601.html
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etc.) of the host country.3
For example, Zabivaka (Russian: Забива́ка) is the official mascot of the
2018 FIFA World Cup, which will be held in Russia. Representing an
anthropomorphic wolf with brown and white wool T-shirt and the words
"RUSSIA 2018" on it, it serves as a perfect representative of this country.
The color of the mascot is the clever blending of the three national colors of
Russia---white, blue and red.
FIFA World Cup championship theme songs are songs adopted officially to be
used as warm-ups to the event, to accompany the championships during the
event and as a souvenir reminder of the events as well as for advertising
campaigns leading for the World Cup, giving the singers exceptional
universal coverage and popularity. The songs chosen are usually
multilingual using English, the language of the official language of the
organizing country as well as other world languages, most notably Spanish.
Logos are designed in the preliminary bidding process and are adopted
during the process of publicity. As the design of mascots, logos are also
supposed to show strong national characters.
Summary
All presentations are designed to impress the spectators. All delegates shall
look into different aspects as carefully as possible when doing researches,
especially the bidders. Delegates with strong computer background will
surely have an edge. Nevertheless, slide-making skill is the tiny fraction of
the whole picture. In fact, too many dazzling animations will probably
outshine other more important parts of your presentation. The content and
personal performances are approximately of the same important status.
All the factors mentioned above are far from enough. Countries vary from
one another in innumerable ways. Bidders are expected to illustrate clearly
and concisely the advantage of themselves and come up with solutions of
their disadvantages. For example, the United States has abundant
experience in holding big sporting events but maybe run short in fund
because of their terrible federal revenue record. Also, delegates are strongly
encouraged to bring up new aspects especially unique aspect of their
countries.
Judgment on delegates’ personal performance may consider delegates’
3
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World Cup Willie’s sport mascot legacy, BBC, Jun 15 2012
http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-18430665
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proper etiquette, appropriate eye contact, eloquence and fluency, clear logic
and so on.
Last but not least, as an old Chinese saying goes, generals who know
themselves as well as they know their enemies never lose their battles.
Bidders shall also be aware of their rivals’ weaknesses.
General Introduction to the Five
Applicants
The United States of America
“Whatever happens, we will bid for the 2026 World Cup -- either jointly or we
will go it alone," confirmed by John Motta, a board member of the United
States Soccer Federation.
In 2010, FIFA controversially awarded the honor to host 2022 World Cup to
Qatar instead of the US and allegations of corruption and bribery soon
followed. Sunil Gulati, president of the U.S. Soccer Federation, thus urged
the bidding rules to be “clearer and tighter.” Therefore, proper reform
concerning the corruption issues of FIFA is the precondition of US’ bidding
for the World Cup.
Also, The USA team’s fine run in Brazil captured the attention of the
American public, with viewing figures smashing previous records and tens of
thousands watched the games on big screens in public areas.4
Under FIFA’s current rotation rules, a confederation cannot bid for the next
two tournaments after it has hosted a World Cup. Therefore, neither Europe
nor Asia can bid for the 2026 World Cup. The US is very experienced in
holding global soccer tournaments. The US held the impressive 1994 World
Cup and the Summer Olympics in 1984 and 1996. It has been known that
professional leagues for men and women have developed rapidly, with the
women's national team being the best in the world. Besides their wonderful
performance in Brazil, modern stadiums and good infrastructure are also
essential to hold a successful World Cup. Former U.S. player Alexi Lalas
made his support for the bid public, saying, "Nobody will do it better, it will
4
FIFA leaders reveals that USA could make bid for 2026 World Cup
http://www.foxsports.com/soccer/story/fifa-leaders-reveal-that-usa-could-make-bid-for-2026-world-cup-070414
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make the most money in the history of World Cups, it will be coming to a
culture that loves soccer and it just makes all the sense in the world.”5
It doesn’t mean that the US 2026 is a done deal. On the one hand, U.S.
Soccer President Sunil Gulati was instrumental in getting Infantino elected
as FIFA president, switching support from Prince Ali to Infantino in the
second round of voting and encouraging others to do the same. On the other
hand, rumors say that a number of global soccer federations are resentful
that the U.S. Department of Justice is spearheading the corruption
investigation that toppled Sepp Blatter and led to the arrests of many top
soccer executives from around the globe. Those unhappy federations may
band together to halt the United States’ bid.6
For Americans, their last failure of 2022 World Cup has made noises that
they were reluctant to bid again under the current rules and FIFA leadership
which has been suspected to be not fair and transparent enough. In addition,
unlike other countries that use public funds, the US revenue for the 2022
World Cup bid is raised privately. The US Soccer spends about $60m
annually, mostly on its national teams, and it’s unlikely the budget will grow
significantly for a 2026 bid.7
It is an interesting coincidence that the US hosting the World Cup in 2026
would coincide with the nation's 250th anniversary of the American
Declaration of Independence.8
Mexico
Mexico initially put in a bid for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments, which will be
hosted by Russia and Qatar respectively, but pulled out of the running before
the vote. In September 2012, former Mexican Football Federation President
Justino Compeán confirmed plans for a Mexican bid to host the 2026 FIFA
World Cup.9 The tournament is planned to be centered around a renovated
Stadium Azteca in Mexico City.
5
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Alexi Lalas: US only choice to host 2025 World Cup, no Canada joint bid, May 12 2016
http://www.espnfc.com/united-states/story/2871591/alexi-lalas-us-only-sensible-choice-to-host-2026-world-cup
6
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Could Mexico steal the 2026 World Cup from the US, Washington Post, April 12 2016
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2016/04/12/could-mexico-steal-the-2026-world-cup-fro
m-the-united-states/
7
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Is the US ready-or even willing-to host 2026 World Cup, the guardian, Aug 12 2015
https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2015/aug/10/is-the-us-ready-or-even-willing-to-host-the-2026-worl
d-cup
8
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London Olympic Stadium possible venue for 2018 World Cup". Daily Telegraph. June 15 2009.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/5389355/London-Olympic-Stadium-possible-venue-for-20
18-World-Cup.html
9
st
Mexico to bid for 2026 World Cup, Sep 21 , 2012
http://www.espnfc.com/story/1166753/mexico-to-challenge-us-in-2026-world-cup-bid
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As a member of CONCACAF, Mexico hasn’t held another World Cup since
1986 (before 1986, the 1970 World Cup is also held by Mexico). If Mexico
succeeds, it will be a 40th anniversary and Mexico will be the first country to
host the World Cup three times.
Without a doubt, the most popular sport in Mexico is football. It is a source
of great pride and passion for Mexicans. Mexico national football team is
historically one of the most successful teams in the CONCACAF region.
Mexico has qualified for fifteen World Cups and has qualified consecutively
since 1994, making it one of only six countries to do so. The Mexican
national team, along with Brazil and Germany, are the only three nations to
successfully make it out of the group stage over the last six World Cups.10
Stadiums must be able to accommodate a 20,000 square feet (1,900 m2)
hospitality village no more than 150 meters from the stadium. They must
also have a capacity of at least 40,000 for first and second round matches
and 60,000 for quarterfinals and beyond. In past several decades, Mexico’s
football infrastructure have been strengthened and perfected. Mexico has
one stadium capable of hosting the World Cup Final, Mexico City's Estadio
Azteca, and six other stadiums that can hold matches in the first two
rounds.11
Mexico, one of the world’s great travel destinations, is often singled out for
violent crime. However, the truth is that while violence is rampant in the
parts along the US-Mexico border, other areas in Mexico are relatively safe.
In fact, Mexico City is four times safer than Washington D.C. When it comes
to traffic, however, Mexico shares the same problem as other developing
countries. Mexicans pile up in large cities such as its capital, Mexican City. It
causes not only traffic jams but also heavy air pollution. Public
transportation is not the welcome choice as the often-saturated subway
system ages and fleets of uncomfortable microbuses ply the streets.
Incidents of sexual assault are staggeringly high on subway lines and buses,
while the middle and upper classes – and anyone able to own a car – mostly
stay away.12
The World Cup was last staged in the CONCACAF region by the United States
in 1994. Since the U.S. is keen on hosting again in 2026, an intense
competition can be expected.
10
th
Mexico: Azteca to lose capacity again, Apr 4 2016
http://stadiumdb.com/news/2016/04/mexico_azteca_to_lose_capacity_again
11
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Mexico: Azteca to lose capacity again, Apr 4 2016
http://stadiumdb.com/news/2016/04/mexico_azteca_to_lose_capacity_again
12
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Mexico City choke on its congestion problem, Jul 6 2016
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/06/mexico-city-chokes-on-its-congestion-problem
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Nigeria
Football is the most popular sport in Nigeria. Nigeria has one of the finest
national teams in Africa and has produced many notable footballers. The
Nigeria national football team ranks 41th according to the FIFA Ranking and
is currently the 7th best team in the Confederation of African Football
(CAF).13 South Africa in 2010 becomes the first and the only country that
has hosted the World Cup in CAF.
Nigerian government put great emphasis on sport and football is the most
popular sport nationwide. With 19 states in this country, each one has its
football clubs. In the 1990s, Nigeria went to the World Cup Round of 16 twice,
and its national football team was the champion of 1994 Africa Cup of
Nations.
Nigeria has one of world’s highest economic growth rates, averaging 7.4%
according to the Nigeria financial report released in July 2014 by the World
Bank. The rich oil resources grant the country a strong potential to develop
and prosper. Oil exports contribute significantly to government revenues.
Nevertheless, poverty is currently an urgent problem with the poverty rate
significantly at 33.1%. Though rich in oil reserves, Nigeria has steep income
inequality. Low urbanization rate hinders the overall development of this
country. A large portion of people dwell in rural areas and thus have no
access to well-equipped infrastructures and personal development chances
in cities. The huge population and political instability also account for this
situation. Nigeria has one of the highest birth rates in the world. At the same
time, due to poor hygiene and the lack of hospitals, its neonatal mortality
rate is also at a high level.
However, Nigeria is never a peaceful country. Boko Haram, an Islamic
extremist group based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger
and northern Cameroon, is the most severe threat. It even announced its
allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Smuggling,
theft, rape and kidnapping are wild on this land. Terrorist attacks are likely
to happen during the match days. Therefore, how to maintain a safe
environment of the 2026 World Cup will be a serious problem to solve.
If Nigeria can successfully win the bid, a great economic opportunity will be
at hand. Bidders of Nigeria have to come up with constructive proposals to
persuade committee members.
13
Men’s Ranking, FIFA
http://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/ranking-table/men/caf.html
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Colombia
In March 2010, Colombian President Álvaro Uribe confirmed plans for a
Colombian bid. At the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup final, FIFA president Sepp
Blatter said:"Colombia is ready for a World Cup."14
In past years, Colombia is notoriously famous for its national civil war.
Kidnappings, raping and smuggling have become parts of people’s life there.
Recently, however, peace talk with ELN has begun. According to the latest
news, the last 300 members of Colombia’s largest rebel group, the Farc,
have arrived in their transition zone to disarm. After more than five decades
of arm conflict, Colombian people finally see the light of peace though it is
feeble. If everything goes well, Colombia might be able to provide a safe
environment. Besides, though poor, Colombian people have an
overwhelming enthusiasm for football, which is the popular sport nationwide.
According to FIFA, there are 3,043,229 players total, 291,229 of which are
registered and 2,752,000 are unregistered; with 2,773 clubs and 15,800
officials.
The Colombian national team once ranked the third in World’s Ranking in
2013 and now it ranks the sixth according to the statistics renewed on
January 12th, 2017.15 Colombia first entered the FIFA World Cup in 1938
but withdrew from the qualification tournament. They qualified for the 1962
finals but were eliminated in the first round. They returned to the
tournament in 1990 and reached the second round. Colombia returned to
the competition in 1998 with expectations lowered, and once again they
were eliminated in the first round. They did not qualify for a World Cup final
again until the 2014 edition, ending a 16-year absence. Colombia has been
credited with a new talented golden generation, led by James Rodrí
guez,
who won the Golden Ball for scoring six goals during the tournament as the
Colombians reached their first quarter-final in a World Cup.16
The civil war has a devastating effect on this country. The 2026 World Cup
will definitely attract many commercial opportunities. Tourists, sponsors and
accompanying media exposures will bring numerous chances for this
suffering land. However, opportunities always go with risks. Considering the
poor infrastructure and the continuously unstable situation, how to
persuade the members of the committee will be a challenging task.
14
Colombia quiere organizer un Mundial, infobae
http://www.infobae.com/2010/03/20/506726-colombia-quiere-organizar-un-mundial/
15
Men’s Ranking, FIFA
http://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/ranking-table/men/index.html#1251
16
Member Association Colombia, FIFA
http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=col/index.html
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New Zealand & Australia
Since the 2002 World Cup, which is hosted together by Japan and South
Korea, world football's governing body has not entertained joint bids, but
President Mr. Infantino is excited about the joint-bid-idea.
New Zealand enthusiastically promotes the cooperation with Australia while
the latter lost the competition with Qatar in the 2022 World Cup bid. They
plan to host 70% of the tournaments with two or three of the eight groups in
New Zealand, with four main centers of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch
and Dunedin earmarked as venues.17
The current world ranking of Australia national soccer team is 54. Its current
world ranking is 54. The Australian national team is qualified consecutively
since 2006. The rivalry between the Socceroos (nickname of Australian
national soccer team) and the All Whites (New Zealand) is part of a wider
friendly rivalry between the neighbors, which applies not only to sport but to
the culture of the two countries. The rivalry was once intensified when
Australia and New Zealand were both members of the OFC, regularly
competing in OFC Nations Cup finals and in FIFA World Cup qualifications,
where only one team from the OFC progressed to the World Cup. Since
Australia left the OFC to join the AFC in 2006, competition between the two
teams has been less frequent. However, the rivalry between the two teams
is still strong, with occasional matches receiving massive media and public
attention.
It can be an advantage for a joint bid if the two companions can be
complementary to each other during the bidding process. Newly elected
FIFA President Gianni Infantino has said he’d be in favor of shared World Cup
hosting among neighboring countries, such as Japan and South Korea in
2002 tournament. Nevertheless, having the tournament spread across two
confederations – Australia is in FIFA’s Asian region – could be a hurdle. In
addition, Australia and New Zealand are located in the Southern Hemisphere.
Considering that the World Cup is often convened in June, New Zealand and
Australia might consider postponing the match or provide convincing plans
to deal with problems brought by climate.
17
th
FIFA World Cup: New Zealand eyes joint host bid with Australia, the guardian, Apr 13 2015
https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/apr/13/new-zealand-eye-world-cup-bid-with-australia
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Topic B: Football, as a Safer World
Past Actions
i. FIFA Security
Safety and security, by all means, should be the primary concern of any
international event. The safety of all participants of the event, either
contestants or spectators, either directing staff or working crew, are of due
importance. By establishing a balance of anticipation, good management,
and well-designed infrastructure, to some extent can the host place be
secured.
Guidance on stadium construction and refurbishment can be found in the
FIFA publication Football Stadiums---Technical Recommendations and
Requirements, which should be regarded as a reference for all FIFA events
along with the newest version of the FIFA Stadium Safety and Security
Regulations. These directions aim to alert organizers of FIFA events their
responsibility not only before the match but also during and after the
matches. They underline the minimum security measures to be employed
throughout any important tournaments.
By signing the hosting agreement, the host country and association are
entitled to assume full responsibility regarding any safety instructions and
security enforcement. Besides sporting cites and venues, city airports,
major train stations, places where representatives of national governments,
FIFA delegations and officials proceed also need to be included within the
security range. Furthermore, the host country must select the trained and
experienced personnel to fulfill their duties in guarding against any potential
safety hazard---the precaution before the games, the safety inspection
during the games and the sequential management. They involve security
officers, stadium or venue security guards, stadium stewards and private
security.
The FIFA Security Division provides advisory experts on the main sports
events in regard to security assurance. It was created on 1 June 2012 and is
responsible for matters related to the integrity and protection of the game
itself along with issues concerning match manipulation for sporting
advantage (FIFA integrity initiative). It is also in charge of all safety and
security matters with respect to FIFA competitions across the world, global
security concepts for football in general, safety and security at FIFA’s
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headquarters in Zurich and the FIFA administration.18
Lately, the FIFA/CAF Regional Seminar for National Security Officers ended
on a high note with participants hailing the importance of an opportunity to
discuss issues of security and safety at the various stadia. The seminar was
held from 12-14 May in Cairo, Egypt to strengthen the safety and security
management during competitions and matches, as well as providing an
awareness session on integrity matters. The overall aim of the seminar was
to provide assistance and equip the Security officers to handle related issues
in their respective associations.
ii. Regional Attempts
Sports mega-events require significant strategic planning regarding spatial
measures, both within stadia and surrounding areas. There are several
aspects and events in which security and surveillance have become more
closely connected, both in practice and theory. There is now a considerable
body of research addressing risk management in respect of public order and
safety, including crowding, fan behavior, emergency responses, policing,
and surveillance of event spaces by security agencies.
Within the body of research mentioned above there has been a particular
emphasis on anti-terrorism measures and, in the context of the FIFA World
Cup, initiatives to monitor and counter so-called hooligan behavior list as
following: Armstrong 1998; Berthoud, Pattaroni, Viot and Kaufmann 2009;
Giulianotti 1999; Giulianotti and Armstrong 1998; Jjennings and Lodge
2009, 2011.19
At the World Cup Brazil in 2014, numerous security measures were taken to
prevent undesired incidents. Many actions were useful and worth learning
from. The following World Cups may draw lessons from the previous ones.
Generally, the measures included secret service agents, police officers,
military, and Interpol. Security was then deemed as a “top priority”. Brazilian
authorities were confident about their advanced security concept that
“would have encapsulated any potential risks” during the World Cup. They
had trained 833 officers to take part in the events, preparing for unexpected
situations like terrorist attacks, bombings or chemical weapons. The budget
for security operations was around $900 million, mostly paid by the federal
18
“About FIFA Security”, FIFA
http://www.fifa.com/governance/security/about-fifa-security.html
19
“Fifa-isation:Security, brand protection and media management at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa”,
Surveillance and Society, 2014.11.
https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/handle/10453/30722
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government.
Police reinforcements were the most visible and concrete action conducted
by the Brazilian government. Armed military police were then guarding
around sensitive areas, forming a perimeter encirclement to secure the
crowded places from bombings in various ways. Even before the Boston
explosions that happened nearly the same time, Brazilian officials had been
making preparations for a possible terrorist attack as part of its overall
security strategy for upcoming events. And during the World Cup, security
was beefed up for qualifying teams from countries considered a terrorist
threat. It turned out that taking precautions in fair weather and act
decisively and firmly were indeed fruitful and constructive tactics.
Drug-related violence posed another threat to sportsmanship. In places
where criminal gangs ruled, the Brazilian government made significant
efforts to take over and clean up. Nevertheless, hooligans emerged in
endlessly despite that police had performed their duties. Irrational and
hotheaded fans were rather annoying and hard to tackle.
Another issue among the matches was the falsification of tickets. The police
department claimed to resolutely prevent such crimes from occurring, and
plainclothes was fulfilling their tasks. Private security guards equipped with
non-lethal weapons were also widely engaged.
What’s more, in order to take a closer inspection on sporting cites, satellites
and drones were then employed to provide surveillance over Brazil. In this
way, the authority could make sure that “from the beach to the airport, to
the stadium, we have the security”.
Case Study
The Hillsborough disaster was a human crush at Hillsborough football
stadium in Sheffield, England, UK, on 15 April 1989, during the 1988-89 FA
Cup semi-final game between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. It caused
96 deaths and 766 injuries, marking the hideous catastrophe in football
history. The crush occurred in the Leppings Lane stand, where only Liverpool
fans are permitted to access. Shortly before the game started, the police
chief falsely opened another gate to ease the tension and pressure at the
entrance, however, which in turn increased turmoil inside the already
overcrowded central pens.
The disaster explicitly indicated that the safety measures of the football
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grounds should be improved. The replacement of the fenced stands by all
seaters was to be adopted in the top two English leagues.20 The press was
then deceived by the English police who claimed that the root cause was
hooliganism and savage drinking. Not until the Taylor Report of 1990, did it
reveal to the public that the main reason for the disaster was the mistaken
command by South Yorkshire Police (SYP). The Liverpool fans acted as
scapegoats for the incapable sergeant. The Director of Public Prosecutions
(DPP) ruled that there was no clear evidence to justify individuals or
institutions.21
The initial coroner’s inquest into the Hillsborough disaster, completed in
1991, ruled all deaths on the day as accidental.22 Family members were
strongly opposed to the ruling and insisted that the case should be inspected
more carefully. Lord Justice Stuart-Smith concluded in 1997 that there was
no justification for a new inquiry. Private prosecutions against Duckenfield
and his deputy Bernard Murray failed in 2000.23
In 2009, Hillsborough Independent Panel was established to retrospect all
evidence. 24 It reported in 2012, confirming Taylor’s 1990 criticisms,
revealing new details about the extent of police’s evading blame,
discovering the role of other emergency services and unveiling the error of
the first coroner’s inquest. 25 What’s more, it produced two criminal
investigations led by police in 2012: Operation Resolve to trace the causes of
the disaster and an Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) to
look into actions by police in the aftermath.26
The Goldring coroner’s inquest, undergoing from 1 April 2014 to 26 April
2016, is the longest jury case in British history.27 It restated the verdict that
the fans were iniquitously killed due to the negligence of police and the
irresponsibility of ambulance service.28 The inquest also indicated that the
stadium was to blame for its unreliable construction and supporters were
purely innocent victims. 29 The SYP chief constable David Crompton was
suspended because of his force during the second inquest.30 Two days after
the verdict, a private prosecution was brought on behalf of hundreds of
20
"Out of the ashes of Hillsborough, modern football was born, writes Owen Gibson". The Guardian. 10 May
2016.
21
"Hillsborough Disaster: From tragedy to truth". BBC News. 10 May 2016.
22
"High court quashes Hillsborough inquest verdicts". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. 7 August 2016.
23
"Hillsborough Disaster: From tragedy to truth". BBC News. 10 May 2016.
24
"Football: David Conn on Hillsborough". The Guardian. 12 September 2012.
25
"Hillsborough disaster: David Cameron apologises for 'double injustice'". The Guardian. London. 12 September
2012.
26
"Independent Police Complaints Commission". ipcc.gov.uk. 10 May 2016.
27
"Hillsborough inquests jury rules 96 victims were unlawfully killed". The Guardian. London. 26 April 2016.
28
"Five Hillsborough myths dispelled by inquests jury". BBC News. 10 May 2016.
29
"Hillsborough inquests jury rules 96 victims were unlawfully killed". The Guardian. London. 26 April 2016.
30
"South Yorkshire police chief suspended after Hillsborough verdict". The Guardian. London. 28 April 2016.
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relatives against both SYP and the West Midlands Police Force who took
statements from the SYP), asserting a furtive scheme plotted to shift
attention away from the police.31
However, there were accusations that the behavior of Liverpool fans was the
leading cause of the disaster on account of their consumption of alcohol
before the match and attempts to enter the ground without a ticket. South
Yorkshire Police suggested the late arrival of fans aggravated the situation of
gaining entry freely. Most of the radicals were essentially hooligans.
Hooliganism had broadly affected the sport for a period of time, especially in
England. Before the Hillsborough disaster, crushes had occurred several
times in a few stadiums. Police affirmed that there had been a chance of
reducing fatalities had swift action been taken and urged clubs to reduce the
stadiums’ capacity. The accidents took place one after another whereupon
invalidated the stadium’s safety certificate. Nonetheless, the safety
certificate was scarcely renewed, and the stated capacity was never
changed.
According to the accounts of fans, hundreds of people were pressed against
one another, and the fencing could hardly bear the weight of crowds. People
entering were not aware of the problems and were absorbed in the game on
the pitch. Gate C was opened to let fans in, but the number of fans entering
the terrace was not assumed to have been more than the capacity of the
entire standing area. Once squeezing inside, most people headed for the
central pens as directed by a large sign above the access tunnel thereupon
the central pens reached the limit they could endure, whilst no police were
present to direct fans towards the side pens. “In a word, it should be a
shared responsibility of police, fans, and stadium.”
Surprisingly, the South Yorkshire Police did not concede they were at fault in
any respect in the tragedy when at the hearing. The police claimed that fans
were to blame for being late and drunk, the club was to blame for failing to
monitor the pens. Such a comical and discouraging approach gave reasons
for future anxiety---who would shoulder the responsibility if a similar case
happens again?
Age
range
Tot
al
Mal
es
Femal
es
10–19
38
36
2
20–29
40
36
4
31
"Hillsborough families to sue police for 'abuse on industrial scale'". The Guardian. London. 28 April 2016.
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Age
range
Tot
al
Mal
es
Femal
es
30–39
12
11
1
40–49
3
3
0
50–59
1
1
0
60–69
2
2
0
Totals
96
89
7
Of all victims, 78 were aged 30 or younger. 38 were children or teenagers, three were above
50.
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Questions to Consider
1. Is it justifiable for New Zealand and Australia to co-host the World Cup?
2. Should British police shoulder all responsibility for the “Hillsborough
disaster”?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages for co-host bidders?
4. Are small or weak countries capable of holding a big sport event such as
the World Cup? Why FIFA council honor Qatar as the 2022 World Cup host?
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References
FIFA Disciplinary Code
http://resources.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/administration/50/0
2/75/discoinhalte.pdf
FIFA Statutes
http://resources.fifa.com/mm/document/affederation/generic/02/78/29/0
7/fifastatutsweben_neutral.pdf
FIFA Stadium Safety and Security Regulations
http://resources.fifa.com/mm/document/tournament/competition/51/53/9
8/safetyregulations_e.pdf
FIFA Host City Agreement
http://www.scribd.com/doc/22730449/World-Cup-Host-City-Agreement
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