Africanmountainouscountriesand
theirmountains
UnitedRepublicofTanzania
6/14/2016
AfroMont,UniversityofPretoria
SueTaylor
Africanmountainouscountriesand
theirmountains
UnitedRepublicofTanzania
Contents
1.0Socio-economicandpoliticalcontext.................................................................................2
2.0StructureoftheEconomy...................................................................................................2
3.0Demographics.....................................................................................................................4
3.1Urbanisationtrendsandpossibledrivers:......................................................................4
4.0Geographicalandbiomeinformation................................................................................5
4.1Centralplateau-EastAfricanplateau..............................................................................6
4.2MountKilimanjaro..........................................................................................................7
4.3MtMeru.........................................................................................................................9
4.4TheEasternArcMountains............................................................................................9
4.3EasternArcbiodiversityhotspotsandotherimportantareas......................................10
4.4RiftValleylakes.............................................................................................................11
4.4.1WesternorAlbertineRiftValleylakes..................................................................11
4.4.2SouthernRiftValleylakes......................................................................................12
4.4.3OtherlakesoftheGreatRiftValley.......................................................................12
5.0Naturalresourcedepletion,disasters,landdegradationandwaterissues......................12
5.1Climatechangeprojections,vulnerablesectorsandimpacts......................................14
5.2Vulnerablesectors........................................................................................................15
6.0Sustainabledevelopmentchallenges...............................................................................16
7.0Summary..........................................................................................................................17
8.0References........................................................................................................................17
Appendix1.SummaryofselectedindicatorsforTanzania.....................................................19
1.0Socio-economicandpoliticalcontext
The United Republic of Tanzania is the largest country in East Africa. It was formed from mainland
TanzaniaandtheislandofZanzibarin1964.Itsharesborderswitheightcountries,specificallyKenya
and Uganda in the North, Rwanda, Burundi and
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the West,
Zambia and Malawi in the South West and
Mozambique in the South. Mainland Tanzania
borders the main water bodies of Africa. To the
east is the Indian Ocean, to the north Lake
Victoria, to the west Lake Tanganyika and to the
south-west Lake Nyasa. Mainland Tanzania also
hasthehighestpointinAfrica,MountKilimanjaro
which is 5,950 metres high. Dodoma is the
administrative capital while Dar es Salaam is the
commercialcapital.
(Mapsourcedonlineathttp://www.maps.com/ref_map.aspx?pid=12394).
2.0StructureoftheEconomy
Tanzania is classified as a Least Developed Country by the United Nations, and has a Low Human
Development ranking on the UNDP’s Human Development Index, rated 148th on the 169 countries
thatwereevaluatedin2010(UNDP,2010).TheIncomeGini-coefficientin2010is34.6andsome35.7
%ofTanzania’spopulationlivebelowtheNationalPovertyline(UNDP,2010).Intermsofpovertyand
inequalityindicators,TanzaniaisconsiderablybetteroffthanmanyothersouthernAfricancountries.
Lifeexpectancyatbirthis56.9years(UNDP,2010).HIVprevalenceforpeoplebetweentheagesof
15-49yearsis6.2%(alsorelativelylowinrespectofothersouthernAfricancountries).Withrespect
to the Fragile State Index (FSI) ratings, the country is placed 72nd on the list of countries. The FSI
(2010)notesthatthisisduetoimprovementsinagriculturalproduction,whichemploystwothirdsof
Tanzania’spopulation.
Tanzania’s economy has continued to perform strongly despite challenges posed by the ongoing
acute power (electricity) crisis. Preliminary estimates for 2011 suggest that the economy grew by
6.4%,drivenmainlybyperformanceintheservicessector(estimatedgrowth7.6%);industryand
construction (estimated growth 8.1 %); and agriculture, hunting and forestry (estimated growth
4.3 %). Within these broad sectors, the performance was mainly driven by growth in construction,
transport and communication, financial intermediation and manufacturing. The annual growth for
the construction subsector in 2011 is estimated at 9.2 %, largely driven by increases in the
constructionofresidentialandnon-residentialbuildings,roadsandbridges;andlandimprovement
activities.Thetransportsubsectorisestimatedtohavegrownbyabout6.7%in2011,largelyaresult
of the increase in the number of travellers and volume of cargo/freight handled by all modes of
transport. The Communication sector retained its status as the fastest growing subsector in 2011,
postinganestimatedgrowthof18.8%,butslowerthantherateof22.1%recordedayearearlier.
Theperformanceofthecommunicationssubsectoralsocontinuestobedrivenbytheincreaseduse
ofmobilephoneservicesacrossthecountry.Financialintermediationgrewby9.1%in2011,mainly
aresultoftheincreaseinthelevelsofdepositsandlendingbycommercialbanks.Themanufacturing
subsector,adverselyaffectedbypoweroutages,isestimatedtohavegrownby7.7%in2011,slightly
lowerthanthegrowthrateof8.8%in2010(Tanzania,2012).
TheeconomyofTanzaniaisbasedonagriculture,whichaccountsfor60%ofitsGDPandmorethan
80%ofemploymentandexportearnings.Tanzaniahasabout88.6millionhectaresoflandsuitable
foragriculturalproduction,including60millionhectaresofrangelandssuitableforlivestockgrazing.
Based on altitude, precipitation pattern, dependable growing seasons and average water holding
capacity of the soils and physiographic features, there are seven agro-ecological zones, with three
(Plateaux, Southern Highlands and Northern Highlands) being mountainous zones (Tanzania NAPA,
2007:6).Tanzania’sagricultureisdominatedbysmallholdersorganizedinsome8000villages,with
anaverageholdingoflessthantwohectaresperfamily(Masilingi,n.d.).
Adeclineinyieldperhectarehasbeencommontobothfoodcropsandcashcrops.Thishasledto
theinabilityofthecountryasawholetoachieveitslongtermobjectivesoffoodsecurity,sustainable
food self-sufficiency and increased foreign exchange earnings. Livestock contributes about 10 % of
GDP though it has the potential of contributing more. This is made up of beef (4 %); milk (3 %);
poultry and small livestock (3 %). The 1984 livestock census revealed that there were 13 Million
cattle, 10 Million sheep and goats. The major part of this herd is from the traditional sector while
commercialsectoraccountedforabout7%ofthemilk,1%redmeat,5%poultrymeatand80%of
eggproduction(Masilingi,n.d.).
Itisinterestingtonotethough,thataquarterofthepopulationliveondegradedland(UNDP,2010),
suggesting that this could have an impact on agricultural production in the future. Tanzania’s
agricultureisalreadyunproductiveandsuffersfromlowcropyieldsandtheeffectsofclimatechange
(OneWorld, Richards et al 2010). The FSI also notes that agriculture was severely affected by a
droughtin2003butbegantorecoverin2004andimprovedstillfurtherin2005.Tanzaniaisoneof
the fastest growing countries in sub-Saharan Africa with an average annual growth rate of 7.7 %
(AfricanEconomicOutlook,2010).Howevertheimpactoftheglobalrecessionhassettheeconomy
backanditsGDPfor2009was5.5%and5.7%respectively(AfricanEconomicOutlook,2010).
Miningandindustrialsectorsarerelativelysmall,contributing15%ofthenation'sGDP.)(Tanzania
profile,n.d.).
Woodandcharcoalsupplymorethan90%ofitsenergy.Hydropowerprovidesmorethan70%of
electricalpower.Petroleum,hydropowerandcoalarethemajorsourceofcommercialenergyinthe
country.Thebiomassenergyresource,whichcomprisesoffuel-woodandcharcoalfrombothnatural
forestandplantations,accountsfor93%oftotalenergyconsumption.Tanzaniahasinstalledhydro
electricitygenerationcapacityof561MW(TanzaniaNAPA.,2007:10).
3.0Demographics
Thecountryhasapopulationsizeof45.5millionpeopleandwiththecurrentfertilityandmortality
rates,Tanzania’spopulationisprojectedtoreach100millionin2035,and200millionbytheendof
thiscentury(2100).
ThemajorityofTanzania’spopulationisconcentratedalongthecoast,inthenorthernandsouthern
highlandswherethelandisparticularlyfertile,andalongtheedgeofLakeVictoria(USDS,2010).The
populationofTanzaniadepictsatypicalyoungagestructure,withabout46%ofitstotalpopulation
below age 15; 50 % between the ages of 15 and 64 years; and only 4.3 % of the total population
being65yearsandolder.Theimplicationofthisagestructurebecomesevenmoreimportantwhen
the proportion of the young population (i.e. population aged 15 - 24 years) is added to the
proportionofthepopulationbelowage15years.Theproportionofyoungpeopleincreasestoabout
66%ofthetotalpopulation(ProfileTanzania,1997).
Thepopulationinvolvedinagriculturehastraditionallysettledinareassuitableforcropproduction
and mixed farming. Indigenous knowledge of trees and grasses as indicator of land suitability was
used. Today, rainfall and soil fertility are still decisive factors governing population distribution and
density.
Tanzania has also adopted a National Population Policy (NPP) in 1992. The policy recognizes that
thereisnosimplecauseandeffectrelationshipbetweenpopulationgrowthandeconomicgrowth,
and that population growth may not be the primary obstacle to development. Nevertheless, it is
appreciated that a high population growth rate aggravates the difficult economic situation and
renders remedial measures more difficult. At the macro level, a rapid and high population growth
rate results in increased outlays on private and public consumption, drawing resources away from
savings for productive investment. The NPP spells out as its principal objective, which is the
reinforcementofnationaldevelopmentthroughexploitingavailableresourcestoimprovethequality
of life of the people, with special emphasis on regulating population growth rate, enhancing the
qualityoflife,andimprovingthehealthandwelfareofwomenandchildren(TanzaniaProfile,1997).
3.1Urbanisationtrendsandpossibledrivers:
Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 1 person/km2 in arid
regionsto51/km2inthemainland'swell-wateredhighlandsto134/km2onZanzibar.Morethan80%
ofthepopulationisrural.DaresSalaamisthecapitalandlargestcity;Dodoma,locatedinthecentre
of Tanzania, has been designated the new capital, although action to move the capital has stalled.
TheTanzanianpopulationconsistsofmorethan120ethnicgroups.AccordingtoTanzania’sNational
Bureau of Statistics the country’s population is still vastly concentrated within rural areas, and is
growingatarateofapproximately2.9%(NationalBureauofStatistics,2009).Approximately76.9%
of the population still live in rural areas, with a mere 23.1 % living within urban centres, however,
ruraltourbanmigrationinTanzaniaisoccurringatarate7-11%perannum(UN-HABITAT,nodate).
SeetablebelowonurbanisationtrendsinTanzania.
UrbanisationtrendsTanzania
Total population (2012)** UNDP HDI Report, 47.6million
2014
Tanzaniaannualpopulationgrowthrates(2010 National:3.1%
-2015)**
Urban:3.5%
Rural2.4%
Projectedpopulationby2050***
138million
%ofpopulationurban(2007)
25%
Percentage of population with access to urban:77.9%
improved#
rural:44%
total:53.2%
Percentage of population with access to urban:24.9%ofpopulation
improvedsanitation#
rural:7.5%ofpopulation
total:12.2%ofpopulation
Population/haarableland
0.30*
StateoftheWorldPopulation2007.UnitedNationsPopulationFund(UNPF)
*http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC/countries
**http://www.uneca.org/oria/pages/tanzania
***http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/tanzania-population/
#http://www.indexmundi.com/tanzania/demographics_profile.html
4.0Geographicalandbiomeinformation
Tanzaniahasavariedgeography,includingdeepandlargefreshwaterandsaltlakes,manynational
parks, and Africa's highest point, Mount Kilimanjaro (5 895 masl). Northeast Tanzania is
mountainousandincludesMountMeru,anactivevolcano,MountKilimanjaro,adormantvolcano,
andtheUsambaraandParemountainranges).WestofthosemountainsistheGregoryRift,whichis
the eastern arm of the Great Rift Valley. On the floor of the rift are a number of large salt lakes,
including Natron in the north, Manyara in the south, and Eyasi in the southwest. The rift also
encompasses the Crater Highlands, which includes the Ngorongoro Conservation Area and the
NgorongoroCrater.JusttothesouthofLakeNatronisOlDoinyoLengai(3188masl).Tothewestof
theCraterHighlandsliesSerengetiNationalParkandtothesoutheastoftheparkisOlduvaiGorge,
wheremanyoftheoldesthominidfossilshavebeenfound.
4.1Centralplateau-EastAfricanplateau
ThecentreofTanzaniaisalargeplateau,whichispartoftheEastAfricanPlateau.Thesouthernhalf
ofthisplateauisgrasslandwithintheEasternMiombowoodlandsecoregion,themajorityofwhichis
coveredbythehugeSelousNationalPark.Furthernorththeplateauisarablelandandincludesthe
nationalcapital,Dodoma(Wikipedia,Tanzania,2015).
TheeasterncoastcontainsTanzania'slargestcityandformercapital,DaresSalaam.Justnorthofthis
city lies the Zanzibar Archipelago, a semi-autonomous territory of Tanzania which is famous for its
spices. The coast is home to areas of East African mangroves, mangrove swamps that are an
importanthabitatforwildlifeonlandandinthewater(Wikipedia,Tanzania,2015).
Tanzania’scurrentclimateistropicalwithregionalvariationreflectiveofitsvariedtopography.The
north and east of the country experience two wet seasons, with short rains last from October to
December and long rains from March to May. The south, west, and central areas of the country
experienceonecontiguouswetseasonfromOctoberuntilAprilorMay.Asinmanyothercountriesin
the region, these rainfall patterns are largely determined by the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ALMTanzania,2009).
About10%ofthecountryreceivesadequaterain(over1000mmperannum)andcarries60%ofthe
population;8%isfairlywellwateredandcarries18%ofthepopulation;20%ispoorlywateredand
carries 18% of the population; and 62 % is poorly watered and carries 1% of the population. Thus
about four fifths of Tanzania's population today is concentrated on only one fifth of its land
(TanzaniaProfile,1997).
Therapidpopulationgrowthisanenvironmentalconcernbecauseofthefollowingreasons(Tanzania
Profile,1997):
• Threateningwhatisalreadyaprecariousbalancebetweennaturalresourcesandpeople
• Shorteningoffallowcyclesinagriculture,exhaustingsoilnutrientsinagriculturalactivities
• Increasingthedemandforfoodandservicesandconsequentlyland.
Out of 25 globally known biodiversity hotspots, Tanzania harbours six: the Eastern Arc old BlockMountain Forests; the coastal forests; the Great Lakes for Cichlid fishes; the marine coral reef
ecosystems; the ecosystems of the alkaline Rift-Valley Lakes; and the grassland savannas for large
mammals(e.g.thefamousSerengetiNationalPark).About43.7%ofthetotallandareainTanzania
issomehowprotectedorconservedandprotectedareas(includingGameControlledAreas)coverat
least28%ofthetotallandareaofmainlandTanzania
andforestreservesaround15.7%.However,mostof
the wildlife is found outside existing protected areas
thus making its survival to be in a race against
development. Tanzania also possesses important
populations of species that are globally endangered
and threatened, including the black rhinoceros, wild
dog, chimpanzee, African elephant, cheetah and
wattled crane (Country Profile, n.d.). The western
EasternArcMountains
http://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/where/tanza
nia.html
portionofthecountrybetweenLakesVictoria,Tanganyika,andMalawiconsistsofflatlandthathas
beendesignatedbytheWorldWildlifeFund
aspartoftheCentralZambezianMiombowoodlandsecoregion.1
4.2MountKilimanjaro
PhotocreditClaudiaHemp,MtKiliProject(2016)
Mt.Kilimanjaro,Tanzania,islocated300kmsouthoftheequatorandstretchesfromthe
savannasat800mabovesealevel(asl)tothesnow-coveredsummitat5895masl.Mt
KilimanjaroistheAfricanhighestmountainandculminatesat5895mhigh.Thisvolcanic
edificeiscomposedofthreemaincentresalongaN110°E-strikingaxis(Shira,Kiboand
MawenzifromWtoE),andemplacedinakeyareawhereamajorN80°E-orientedvolcanic
lineamentintersectsafirst-orderNW–SEbasementfault-likediscontinuity(Nonnotteetal,
2008).
Theoldestphasesofvolcanicactivitybegunat~2.5MaintheShiraventanddatasuggests
thatthelatestimportantphasesoccurredaround1.9Ma,justbeforethecollapseofthe
Northernpartoftheedifice.MagmaticactivitythenshiftedeastwardsintheMawenziand
Kibotwincentreswhereinitialvolcanismisdatedat~1Ma.Whereastheeruptiveactivity
ceasedintheMawenzi,itstillcontinuedonKibosincesub-actualtime.Basedonthedating
ofCalderarimgrouplavas,itisshownthattheedificationofthepresentconewas
accomplishedinaperiodrangingfrom274to170ka.Theinteractionbetweeneruptive
phenomenaandtheicecoverisassumedtohaveplayedanimportantroleintriggering
collapseprocessesandassociatedlaharsdeposits.Thelastvolcanicity,around200–150ka,is
markedbytheformationofthepresentsummitcraterinKiboandthedevelopmentoflinear
parasiticvolcanicbelts,constitutedbynumerousStrombolian-typeisolatedconesonthe
NWandSEslopesofKilimanjaro.Thesebeltsarelikelytooccurabovedeep-seatedfractures
thathaveguidedthemagmaascent,andthechangesintheirdirectionswithtimemightbe
relatedtotherotationofrecentlocalstressfield(Nonnotteetal,2008).
DuetothewideprecipitationgradientthesouthernandeasternslopesofMt.Kilimanjaro
haveawidespectrumofhabitatsindistinctvegetationzones.Theseincludeadistinctforest
beltwhichrangesfromabout1800mto3200masl.Theforestsinthemiddlemontanezone
(2100–2800masl)aredominatedbyO.usambarensiswhichisafavouredtimbertree
(Ruttenetal,2014).ThemontaneforestsofMountKilimanjaroinTanzaniahavebeen
subjectedtoalonghistoryofselectivelogging.However,since1984loggingofindigenous
treesisprohibited(Ruttenetal,2014).However,onthedriereasternslopeoverexploitation
hasresultedinforestsfreeofmatureOcoteaspecies.Thismeansthatonethirdoftheactual
montaneOcotea-forestisalreadydepletedofOcotea(Ruttenetal,2014).
MtKilimanjaroiswellknownforitsuniquelanduse,theChaggafarmingsystemonthe
slopesofthemountain.Studiesnowshowtheexpansionofcultivationtomoremarginal
landdowntheslope,thedisappearanceandextremefragmentationofbushlandand
appearanceandexpansionofsettlements.Inthe1960sthereweresmallopenfieldsand
patchesofgrazinglandsamongsthomegardens.Inthe1980stheareawasmoreuniformly
coveredbyhomegardens.Sincethenithasbecomepatchyagainasnewhomesteadshave
beenbuiltonsubdividedfarmsandmorefoodisproducedonthehigherslopes.Population
pressureandtheensuingexpansionofagriculturetomoremarginalland,intensificationof
thehomegardensystem,togetherwithclimatechangesaffectingthewatersupplies,have
causedchangesinfarmers’livelihoods.Thefuturewelfareoftheareawilldependon
increasingthemarketableknowledgeandskillsofthepopulationthatwillenableitto
becomeintegratedintheeconomyoftheregionandTanzania(Soini,2005).
4.3MtMeru
MountMeruisadormantstratovolcanolocated70kilometres(43mi)westofMount
KilimanjarointhenationofTanzania.Ataheightof4,562.13metresitisthefifthhighest
mountaininAfrica.Muchofitsbulkwaslostabout8000yearsagoduetoaneastward
volcanicblast,similartothe1980eruptionofMountSt.HelensintheUSA.MountMeru
mostrecentlyhadaminoreruptionin1910.Theseveralsmallconesandcratersseeninthe
vicinityprobablyreflectnumerousepisodesofvolcanicactivity(Wikipedia,2016).MtMeru
isprotectedbytheMtMeruNationalPark.
4.4TheEasternArcMountains
TheEasternArcisachainofancientmountainscoveredbyrainforestsandgrasslandsin
Tanzania,withasmallelement,theTaitaHillsinKenya.Itisthoughtthattheforesthas
survivedontheEasternArcMountainsforover30millionyearsandwereonceconnectedto
theforestsoftheCongoBasinandWestAfrica.Neighboringmountainsaremuchyounger,
forexampleMtKilimanjaroisestimatedtobeabout1-2millionyearsold(EasternArc
mountains,2015).TheEasternArcMountainsstretchforsome900kmfromthe
MakambakoGap,southwestoftheUdzungwaMountainsinsouthernTanzaniatotheTaita
Hillsinsouth-coastalKenya.Theycompriseachainof12mainmountainblocks:fromsouth
tonorth,Mahenge,Udzungwa,Rubeho,Uluguru,Ukaguru,NorthandSouthNguru,Nguu,
EastUsambara,WestUsambara,NorthPare,SouthPareandtheTaitaHillsinKenya.The
highestpoint(KimhanduPeakintheUlugurus)ismorethan2600minaltitude,butmostof
therangespeakbetween2200-2500m.GeologicallytheEasternArcMountainsareformed
mainlyfromPre-Cambrianbasementrocksupliftedabout100millionyearsago(Burgesset
al,2003).
4.3EasternArcbiodiversityhotspotsandotherimportantareas
TheEasternArcMountainsandCoastalForestsofTanzaniaandKenyahotspotisoneofthe
smallestofthe25globalbiodiversityhotspots.Itqualifiesbyvirtueofitshighendemicity
andaseveredegreeofthreat.Althoughthehotspotrankslowcomparedtootherhotspots
intotalnumbersofendemicspecies,itranksfirstamongthe25hotspotsinthenumberof
endemicplantandvertebratespeciesperunitarea.Italsoshowsahighdegreeof
congruenceforplantsandvertebrates.Itisalsoconsideredasthehotspotmostlikelyto
sufferthemostplantandvertebrateextinctionforagivenlossofhabitatandasoneof11
‘hyperhot’prioritiesforconservationinvestment(Burgessetal,2003).Atleast200
vertebratesareofconservationconcernandaround500plantspeciesarestrictlyendemic
tothesemountains.Thesearemainlyfoundintheforesthabitats(EasternArcMountains,
2015).
ThebulkofthehotspotisinitswesternexpansioninTanzania,whichtakesintheEastern
ArcMountainsandthewatercatchmentsystemoftheRufijiRiver.ThereisanarrowhooklikeextensionofthehotspotneartheKenya/Tanzaniaborder.ThisfollowstheEasternArc
MountainstotheirnorthernmostlimitsintheTaitaHillsinKenya.Thehotspotalsoprojects
northwardsforabout100kminanextensionthatincludestheforestsoftheLowerTana
River(Burgessetal,2003).
ThehotspotincludestheIndianOceanislandsofMafia,PembaandZanzibar.TheEastern
ArcMountainsandCoastalForestsofTanzaniaandKenyahotspot(hereafterreferredtoas
theEasternArcMountainsandCoastalForestshotspot)isoneofthesmallestofthe25
globalbiodiversityhotspots.Itqualifiesbyvirtueofitshighendemicityandaseveredegree
ofthreat.Althoughthehotspotrankslowcomparedtootherhotspotsintotalnumbersof
endemicspecies,itranksfirstamongthe25hotspotsinthenumberofendemicplantand
vertebratespeciesperunitarea(Myersetal.2000).Italsoshowsahighdegreeof
congruenceforplantsandvertebrates.Itisalsoconsideredasthehotspotmostlikelyto
sufferthemostplantandvertebrateextinctionforagivenlossofhabitatandasoneof11
‘hyperhot’prioritiesforconservationinvestment(Burgessetal,2003).
Theoriginalforestcover(2000yearsago)ontheEasternArcMountainsisestimatedatto
havebeenaround23000km2,ofwhicharound15,000km2remainedby1900anda
maximumof5340km2remainedbythemid-1990s.AtthattimetheUdzungwascontained
thelargestareaofnaturalforest(1960km2),followedbytheNguru,Uluguru,Rubeho,East
Usambaras,SouthPare,WestUsambaras,Mahenge,Ukaguru,NorthPareandTaitaHills(6
km2).TheseandthefollowingestimatesofforeststatusandlossesintheEasternArcLosses
weregreatest,relativetooriginalcover,intheTaitas(98%),Ukaguru(90%),Mahenge(89
%)andWestUsambaras(84%).Theforestshadbecomehighlyfragmented,withmeanand
medianforestpatchsizesestimatedat10km2and58km2,respectively(Burgessetal,
2003).
4.4RiftValleylakes
EasternRiftValleylakesarelocatedwithinKenyaandTanzania,whilethenorthernRiftValley
lakesarelocatedinEthiopia.SouthoftheEthiopianhighlands,theriftvalleysplitsintotwo
majortroughs.TheEasternRiftishometotheKenyanRiftValleylakes,whilemostofthe
CentralAfricanRiftValleylakeslieintheWesternRift.TheKenyansectionoftheRiftValley
ishometoeightlakes,ofwhichthreearefreshwaterandtherestalkaline.Ofthelatter,the
shallowsodalakesoftheEasternRiftValleyhavecrystallisedsaltturningtheshoreswhite,
andarefamousforthelargeflocksofflamingothatfeedoncrustaceans.2TheTanzanian
sectionofthisgrouphasalkalinelakes:
•
LakeNatron,ashallowsodalakewhichhasdesignatedbytheWorldWildlifeFund(WWF)asthe
EastAfricanhalophyticsecoregion.
•
LakeManyara,
•
LakeEyasi,ashallowsodalake
•
LakeMakati,ashallowsodalake
4.4.1WesternorAlbertineRiftValleylakes
ThelakesoftheWesternorAlbertineRift,withLakeVictoria,includethelargest,deepest
andoldestoftheRiftValleyLakes.TheyarealsoreferredtoastheCentralAfricanlakes.
LakesAlbert,Victoria,andEdwardarepartoftheNileRiverbasin.LakeVictoria(elevation
1134m),withanareaof68,800km²,isthelargestlakeinAfrica.Itisnotactuallyintherift
valley,butoccupiesadepressionbetweentheeasternandwesternrifts,formedbythe
upliftoftheriftstoeitherside.LakesVictoria,Tanganyika,andMalawiaresometimes
collectivelyknownastheAfricanGreatLakes.
The Western Rift Valley lakes are fresh water and home to an extraordinary number of species.
Approximately 1 500 cichlid fish (Cichlidae) species live in the lakes. In addition to the cichlids,
populations of Clariidae, Claroteidae, Mochokidae, Poeciliidae, Mastacembelidae, Centropomidae,
Cyprinidae, Clupeidae and other fish families are found in these lakes. They are also important
habitatsforanumberofamphibianspecies,includingAmietophrynuskisoloensis,Bufokeringyagae,
Cardioglossacyaneospila,andNectophrynebatesii.3
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_Valley_lakes
3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_Valley_lakes
TheWesternlakesinclude:4
•
•
•
•
LakeAlbert(5300km²,elevation615m)whichisthenorthernmostlakeinthewesternrift.
LakeEdward(2325km²,elevation912m)whichdrainsnorthintoLakeAlbert
LakeKivu(2220km²,elevation1460m)whichemptiesintoLakeTanganyikaviatheRuziziRiver.
LakeTanganyika(32,000km²,elevation773m)whichisthelargestanddeepestoftheRiftValley
lakes(morethan1400m),andistheseconddeepestfreshwaterlakeontheplanet(afterLake
Baikal). Below roughly 200 m depth, its water is anoxic, and devoid of life besides anoxic
bacteria.Itisverysensitivetoclimate.ItispartoftheCongoRiverbasin,feedingintotheRiver
CongoviatheLukugaRiver.
4.4.2SouthernRiftValleylakes
TheSouthernRiftValleylakesareliketheWesternRiftValleylakesinthat,withoneexception,they
arefreshwaterlakes.
•
•
•
•
Lake Rukwa (about 5670 km² but quite variable) in Tanzania is the alkaline exception, lying
south-eastofTanganyika,andhasnooutlet.
LakeMalawi(30,000km²,elevation500m),thesecondlargestandseconddeepestoftheRift
Valleylakesatover700m,isdrainedbytheShireRiver,atributaryoftheZambeziRiver.Also
knownasLakeNyasa.
LakeMalombe(450km²)isontheShireRiver
Lake Chilwa (1750 km², elevation 622 m) has no outlet but extensive wetlands. It is the
southernmostoftheRiftValleylakes.
4.4.3OtherlakesoftheGreatRiftValley
•
•
Lake Mweru (5120 km², elevation 922 m) lies in the Lake Mweru-Luapula graben which is a
branchofftheAlbertinerift.
Lake Mweru Wantipa (1500 km², elevation 930 m) is a marshy lake between lakes Tanganyika
and Mweru, and is endorheic but may overflow into Lake Mweru at times of very high
flood.Lake Victoria on the Kenya-Uganda-Tanzania border. This is the largest lake in Africa by
surfaceareaandisthesourceoftheNileRiver.Southwestofthis,separatingTanzaniafromthe
DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,isLakeTanganyika.Thislakeisestimatedtobethesecond
deepestlakeintheworldafterLakeBaikalinSiberia.
5.0Naturalresourcedepletion,disasters,landdegradationand
waterissues
With 80% of Tansania’s population dependent on subsistence agriculture, competition (between
livestock,wildlifeandcropcultivation)forlandresourceshasbecomerathercommon.Oneofmost
commonly practiced types of farming system is shifting cultivation (which contributes to
4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_Valley_lakes
environmental degradation). Poor small-scale farmers are completely dependent upon the harvest
ofuncultivatednaturalresourcesforenergyandbuildingmaterials(CountryProfile,n.d.).
Natural resource depletion and land degradation - Soil degradation was listed by the SADC
FeasibilityReviewasamajorenvironmentalconcernthatwillimpactnegativelyonfoodsecurityin
Tanzania (SADC Feasibility Review: Tanzania, date unknown). Soil degradation as a result of
overgrazinghasleftmanyareastotallydegraded,oftenirreversibly.Thisdegradationleavesthearea
unable to further support livestock and crops and thus the amount of land available for food
productionisreduced,whichmayleadtofurtherfoodshortages(AgricultureandLivestockPolicy,
1997).
Deforestation has the potential to influence rural subsistence agriculture even further with
increased climate change. As deforestation increases, rainfall run-off patterns will be affected and
some rivers will no longer receive as much water, but will become silted up through local soil
erosion. If the water supply in rivers decreases, the availability of water to irrigate crops will
proportionatelydecreaseandthussowilltheyieldincertainareas(Agrawalaetal,2003).
Withthecountrybeingcomprisedmostlyofruralfarmworkerstheimpactclimatechangemayhave
onthelivelihoodsofmajorityofthepopulationneedstobetakenintoconsideration.Notonlycould
people lose their source of food but also their source of income if agriculture production drops
severely.
Addressing land degradation and refugees - Land and forest resources are the main natural
endowments of Tanzania. However, is estimated that the country's forest area has declined from
44,300,000hectaresor50%oftotallandareain1938to33,096,000hectaresor43%oftotalland
area in 1987. Currently forests are estimated to cover 33.5 million ha. Causes of deforestation are
mainly heavy pressure from agricultural expansion, livestock grazing, wildfire, over-exploitation of
woodresourcesforvariouspurposes,andotherhumanactivities.Therearenoreliablefigureson
deforestationinTanzaniaalthoughaccordingtoFAOestimates,itrangesfrom130000to500000ha
per annum. The major effect of deforestation is the deterioration of the ecological system with
resulting negative impacts on soil fertility, water flows and biological diversity (Tanzania Profile,
1997).
TheRwandanrefugeecrisisinmid-1994ledtotheinfluxofmorethan600000peopleintotheNgara
District of northwest Tanzania. Considerable environmental damage was caused by refugees
harvestingfirewoodandbuildingpoles,poachinginthelocalnaturereserves,andtheuseofcheap
refugee labour in charcoal and timber operations. Refugees also put some 15000 hectares of land
under cultivation in Ngara alone. This can be a typical situation of environmental degradation that
surroundsrefugeecampsandovertime,internationalbestpracticemethodshavebeendeveloped
to address these issues. The UNHCR and its local and international partners established a range of
projectstoimprovethesituation(GlobalEconomicOutlook,2000).TheUNHCRworkedcloselywith
district authorities and government natural resource personnel to establish environmental task
forces that were able to promote technical debate, help in conflict resolution and avoided
duplicationofactivities(GlobalEconomicOutlook,2000).
Tanzania is characterized by a very unstable land tenure system. However, in 1995, the new Land
Policy was adopted. The policy addresses the challenges facing the land-based environment like
wetlands, valleys, migration corridors and buffer zones. Pastoral tenure is also articulated in the
Policy. The Ministry responsible for lands is working on translating this policy into legislation
(TanzaniaProfile,1997).
Water-Tanzaniahasabundantwaterreserves(approximately50%ofLakeVictoriaand45%ofLake
Tanganyika among others fall within the borders of Tanzania) however, access to water for most
Tanzanian citizens is restricted due to a lack of water reticulation infrastructure (One World
SustainableInvestments,2007aandSADCFeasibilityReview:Tanzania,dateunknown).Pooraccess
towaterposesaproblemnotonlyforsanitationbutforfoodsecurityaswell.Withalackofsurface
water,theabilitytoirrigatecropsislimitedunlessequipmentandinfrastructureisputinplace.With
lessrainfall,asprojectedforclimatechangeinsomeareasofTanzania,irrigationisessentialandwill
becomeakeyadaptationintervention.
Disasters – Disasters mainly have an impact on the agriculture sector and rural farmers. Droughts
andfloodshavealreadyimpacteduponthissector,andchangingtemperaturesandrainfallpatterns
aresettodothesame.Mostoftheruralfarmersdependonsubsistencefarmingtomeettheirown
foodneeds.Asthetemperatureandrainfallofeachareachangessowillthesuitabilityofthatarea
declineorchangeforcropproduction.Thisisevidentforthecaseofmaizeproductioninthecountry
(Tanzania NAPA, 2007). The Tanzanian government created a Disaster Management Department to
dealwithcrisisarisingasaresultofclimatechange.
5.1Climatechangeprojections,vulnerablesectorsandimpacts
Convention on climate change (UNFCCC) - Tanzania signed the United Nations Convention on
Climate Change on the 12 June 1992 and ratified it on the 17 April 1996. The Convention entered
into force on the 16th June 1996. Tanzania also ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. Tanzania has
submittedaFirstNationalCommunicationin2003andaNationalAdaptationProgrammeofAction
(NAPA) in 2007. It had also compiled its own National Action Plan on Climate Change in 1997.
Conventiononclimatechange(UNFCCC)(Chishakwe,2010).
Climatechangeprojections–FortheSRESA2emissionsscenario,PRECISprojectsthatTanzaniawill
becomewetterandhotterasaresultofclimatechange,andingeneral,surfacerunoffwillincrease
inmostareas(PRECIS,2006).Themeanannualtemperaturesareestimatedtorisebyapproximately
2°C – 4°C (Tanzania NAPA, 2007). Rainfall patterns throughout the whole country will change as a
resultofclimatechange.Areaswithaunimodalrainfallpattern(onerainyseasonayear)willseea
decreaseinrainfallofapproximately5–15%,whileareaswithabimodalrainfallpattern(tworainy
seasonsayear)willexperienceanincreaseinrainfallofbetween5and45%(TanzaniaNAPA,2007).
TheadverseimpactsofClimateChangearealreadyhavingtheirtollinthelivelihoodsofpeopleand
in the sectors of the economy in the country. Frequent and severe droughts in many parts of the
country are being felt with their associated consequences on food production and water scarcity
amongothers.Therecentseveredroughtswhichhitmostpartsofthecountryleadingtoseverefood
shortages, food insecurity, water scarcity, hunger and acute shortage of power signify the
vulnerabilityofthecountrytoimpactsofclimatechange.TheextremedropofwaterlevelsofLake
Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Jipe in recent years and the dramatic recession of 7km of Lake
Rukwainabout50years,areassociated,atleastinpart,withclimatechange,andarethreatening
economicandsocialactivities.
EightypercentoftheglacieronMountKilimanjarohasbeenlostsince1912anditisprojectedthat
theentireglacierwillbegoneby2025.Theintrusionofseawaterintowaterwellsalongthecoastof
Bagamoyo town and the inundation of Maziwe Island in Pangani District, off the Indian Ocean
shores,areyetanotherevidenceofthethreatsofclimatechange(ALMTanzania,2009).
5.2Vulnerablesectors
Agriculture-theagriculturalsectorwasidentifiedasahighlyvulnerablesectorintermsofclimate
change projections. Agriculture is the country’s largest economic earner, with the majority of its
populationinvolvedinthesectorinsomewayoranother(TanzaniaNAPA,2007).Thisisinlinewith
otherAfricancountries.
Sea water intrusion - The NAPA identifies the intrusion of seawater into artesian wells along the
coast and the inundation of the Maziwe Island in Pangani District, as threats to the fresh water
supplywithintheseurbancentres(TanzaniaNAPA,2007).Thiscouldbeapotentiallymuchgreater
problemasurbansettlementsalongthecoastgrowinsize.
Forestry - Tanzania’s forested regions are predicted to undergo distribution changes as a result of
climatechange.Withthechangingtemperaturessomeforestedareaswilldieoffwhileothersmay
expand (Agrawalaet al, 2003). This change poses a threat to those local communities who rely on
forestedareasfornaturalresourcessuchasfirewoodandnon-timberresources.Alackofsustainable
energyalternativesinthecountryhasledtogreatdeforestationaspeopleseekwoodasasourceof
cooking and heating fuel (NAPA, 2007). The NAPA proposes to deal with this problem through
implementinganationalafforestationprogramme(TanzaniaNAPA,2007).
Water-Tanzaniahaslargewaterreserves(e.g.accesstoLakeVictoria),butduetoclimatechange,
water levels are either set to rise or drop in most rivers. This will cause drought in parts of the
country with flooding in others (Tanzania NAPA, 2007). The majority of Tanzanian citizens rely on
well-waterfortheirsurvival,anddropsinthewatertableasaresultofclimatechangeanddrought
will therefore threaten the livelihoods of the people. The NAPA has identified this as a key
vulnerabiltyandhasidentifiedseveralprojectsthatwillassistthecountrystoreandmaintainwater
resources, such as shifting of shallow water wells that have been affected by inundation in urban
areasaswellasimprovingwateravailabilitytodroughtstrickenareas(TanzaniaNAPA,2007).
Glaciers-GlacierretreatandchangeofvegetationontheslopesofMtKilimanjarohavemadethe
latteroneoftheclimatechangehotspotsinTanzania(TanzaniaNAPA,2007:45).
Trans-boundarywaterissues-Tanzania’smajorwatersourcesarealllakessharedwithneighbouring
countries.Whileclimatechangeescalatesandwaterbecomesscarcer,trans-boundarywaterconflict
is a possibility and needs to be planned for. This is not mentioned as an issue of concern in the
TanzanianNAPA.Whiletrans-boundaryconflictsmayariseduetowatershortage,disputesbetween
local farmers have already arisen as a result of droughts in Tanzania. This situation may further
escalate if droughts become more frequent in the country (OneWorld Climate Change and Food
SecurityReport,2010).
CoastalandMarineResources-TheTanzanianNAPAidentifiescoastalinundationasariskresulting
fromclimatechange.Coastalurbanareasarealsoatriskaswithrisingsealevelsmanyfreshwater
wellshavebeeninundated(TanzaniaNAPA,2007).Marineecosystemsarealsoatriskasrisingsea
levels will destroy mangroves and rising temperatures are destroying coral reefs both of which are
vital for local fisherman(NAPA,2007).TheNAPAdocument proposes the construction of sea walls
andartificiallyplacingsandonthebeachestocombattheproblemofcoastalinundation,howevera
solution to the threat posed to fisheries was not mentioned (OneWorld Climate Change and Food
SecurityReport,2010).
6.0Sustainabledevelopmentchallenges
The key challenge for Tanzania is ensuring that economic development does not compromise the
environment and the sustainability of resources (i.e. the general challenge of sustainable
development). Production and consumption patterns are increasingly becoming unsustainable and
much of the forests and other terrestrial and marine habitats have been decimated due to
populationpressureandunplanneddevelopment(UNTanzania,2011).
Like many other sub-Saharan African countries, Tanzania faces dual pressures from population
growth and dynamics, and climate change, that will increasingly mutually undermine poverty
alleviation, social development and economic growth efforts. The pressure of a rapidly growing
population, combined with erratic rainfall patterns, increases the risk of disasters, food insecurity
and further environmental degradation. Addressing population dynamics and climate change
together needs to become a top development priority for Tanzania. Joint investment in family
planningandclimatechangestrategieswillhelptopreservetheenvironmentandnaturalresources,
and reduce poverty and inequalities by lowering the child dependency burden and creating more
livelihood and investment opportunities for women, families and communities (AFIDEP and PAI
(2012).
Tanzaniahasasuiteofenvironmentalpoliciesandlegislation(TanzaniaProfile,1997).Tanzaniahas
also adopted a National Population Policy (NPP) in 1992, and which notes the following (Tanzania
Profile,1997):
•
Theimpactofpopulationgrowthonnaturalresourcesandtheenvironment
•
Due to rapid population growth and the increased number of livestock there has been
increasedpressureonnaturalresources,leadingtotheirover-utilizationanddegradation
•
Demand on the environment is by expansion of land for agricultural purposes, to meet
housingrequirementsandrecreationalamenities
•
Capacity building, advocacy and population education through information, education and
communicationisurgentlyneeded
OtherNPPgoalsinclude(TanzaniaProfile,1997):
•
The promotion of a sustainable relationship between population, resources and
environment;and
•
Thepromotionofamoreharmoniousrelationshipbetweenurbanandruraldevelopmentin
ordertoachieveaspatialdistributionofthepopulationconducivetotheoptimalutilization
ofresources.
Tanzania’sNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan(NBSAP)(2010)wasformulatedtoexamine
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in three broad thematic areas (aquatic
biodiversity,agro-biodiversity,terrestrialbiodiversity(CountryProfile,n.d.).
Summaryofsocialchallenges
•
Populationgrowthandthedemandforagriculturallandforlivelihoods
•
Urbanisation
•
Unemployment is a concern with nearly 2.4 million unemployed people, most of them
young, representing 10.7 % of the population. The situation of the youth population,
particularlythoseinurbanareas,iscriticalintermsofunemploymentandalackofprospects
Summaryofeconomicchallenges
•
Tanzania’s economy has been resilient to shocks and is expected to remain buoyant with
strongGDPgrowthforecasts–wellabovetheregionalaverages.
•
Services,industryandconstructioncontinuetobethedrivingforces.
• Poweroutagesimpactseverelyontheeconomy
Summaryofenvironmentalchallenges
•
InTanzania,someoftherootcausesforenvironmentaldegradationareunsustainablefarming
andmining,overgrazing,uncontrolledforestclearingandwildfires.
•
Otherdriversincludeinadequatealternativeenergysources,alackoffinancialinstitutionsthat
provide credit to farmers to acquire or develop land, rapid population growth resulting in
pressureonlandresources,excessiveuseofagro-chemicalsleadingtosoilandwater
•
•
•
pollution,cultivationonsteepslopesandriverbanksandunsustainableirrigationthatleadsto
waterloss,salinationandsoilerosion(UNTanzania,2011).
In Zanzibar, environmental challenges include severe beach and coastal erosion, diminishing
renewable natural resources, declining fresh water resources, poor waste management and
increasedpollution(UNTanzania,2011).
Other challenges include soil degradation, deforestation, desertification, destruction of coral
reefs threatens marine habitats, recent droughts affected marginal agriculture and wildlife
threatenedbyillegalhuntingandtrade,especiallyforivory(UNTanzania,2011).
7.0Summary
SeeAppendixI.
8.0References
ALMTanzania(2009).).CountryprofileforTanzania.AdaptationLearningMechanism(ALM).
Sourcedonlineathttp://www.adaptationlearning.net/tanzania/profile
CountryProfile(n.d.).CountryProfile–Tanzania.UnitedNationsConventiononBiologicalDiversity
(CBD).Sourcedonlineathttp://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=tz#facts
FSI(2014).FragileStatesIndex.Sourcedonlineathttp://ffp.statesindex.org/
HDI(2014).HumanDevelopmentReport.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).
Sourcedonlineathttp://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf
MasilingiW.(n.d.).Social-economicproblemsexperiencedincomplianceandEnforcementin
Tanzania.FourthInternationalConferenceonEnvironmentalEnforcement.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.inece.org/3rdvol2/masiligi.pdf
NonnotteP.,GuillouH.,LeGall,B.,BenoitM.,CottonJ.,andScailletS(2008).wK–Arage
determinationsofKilimanjarovolcanointheNorthTanzaniandivergingrift,EastAfrica.
JournalofVolcanologyandGeothermalResearch,Volume173,Issues1–2,1June2008,Pages99112.
ProfileTanzania(n.d.).Tanzania:aprofile.PennsylvaniaUniversity,USA.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/thome.htm
RuttenG.,EnsslinA.,HempA.,andFischerM.(2014).Foreststructureandcompositionofpreviously
selectivelyloggedandnon-loggedmontaneforestsatMt.Kilimanjaro.ForestEcologyand
Management337(2015)61–66
SoiniE(2005).LandusechangepatternsandlivelihooddynamicsontheslopesofMt.Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania.AgriculturalSystems,Volume85,Issue3,September2005,Pages306-323
TanzaniaNAPA(2007).NationalAdaptationProgrammeofAction(NAPA)forTanzania.Divisionfor
Environment,UnitedRepublicofTanzania.Sourcedonlineat
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/tza01.pdf
TanzaniaProfile(1997).CountryProfile,UnitedRepublicofTanzania.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.un.org/esa/earthsummit/tanza-cp.htm#chap5
Tanzania(2012).AfricanEconomicOutlook.ReportonTanzania.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/fileadmin/uploads/aeo/PDF/Tanzania%20Full%20PDF%20C
ountry%20Note.pdf
UNStateofAfricanCitiesreport(2010).StateofAfricanCities2010:Governance,Inequalitiesand
UrbanLandMarkets.Sourcedonlinevia
http://mirror.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=3034
SummaryofselectedindicatorsforTanzania
UNStateofAfricanCitiesreport(2014).UNWebsitepromotingtheStateofCitiesReport,2014(‘Reimagingsustainableurbantransitions’).Publisher:UN-HABITAT.Statementsourcedfrom
http://unhabitat.org/the-state-of-african-cities-2014/
UNTanzania(2011).UnitedNationsinTanzania:Environment.Onlinearticlesourcedat
http://tz.one.un.org/index.php/what-we-do/environment
Appendix1.SummaryofselectedindicatorsforTanzania
SelectedindicatorsforTanzania
Score
Development Status of country (UN, Least Developed
Country)***
LeastDevelopedCountry
StatusontheFSI2010,2014
Warning: at risk of becoming unsustainable in
termsofdevelopment
HumanDevelopmentstatus2010
Ranking 159 out of 187 countries. Low Human
Development
Population
size
(2014,
2050
and
(www.worldpopulationreport.com)
2100)
50 milllion (2014); 138 million (2050); 273
million(2100)
Expected Annual Average Population Growth Rate 2.9percent
(2010-2015)
Agestructure#
0-14years:44.6%
15-24years:19.5%
25-54years:29.5%
55-64years:3.5
65yearsandover:2.9%
(64%ofpopulationunderageof25).
Percent of the population living on degraded land
(http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/population-livingdegraded-land)
25%
%percentageofarableland(orlandundercultivation)*
45.9%
Population living with severe poverty (UNDP HDI
Report,2014)
32.1%
Population living with multidimensional poverty (UNDP
HDIReport,2014)
66.35%
Diseaserisks#
Degreeofrisk:veryhigh
Structureoftheeconomy2010(relianceonagriculture)
Agricultureaccountsfor30percentofGDP
Threatenedspecies(2012)
710
Forestedareas(asa%oftotallandarea)(2010)
38%
Carbonemissions(tonnespercapita)(2009)
0.20
Typesofclimate-relateddisastersoverthelastdecade
Droughts,floods,reductioninmaizeyields
Climatechangepredictions
Hotterandwetterwithlesssurfacerunoff
Landareaunderformalprotection(%)**
38%
*http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS
**http://www.prb.org/pdf06/06WorldDataSheet.pdf
***http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_developed_country#Africa_.2834_countries.29
#http://www.indexmundi.com/tanzania/demographics_profile.html