Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas
Upper Egypt: vegetation at the beginning of the third
millennium BC inferred from charcoal analysis at
Adaı̈ma and Elkab
Claire Newton)
Centre de Bio-Archéologie et d’Écologie, Institut de Botanique, 163 rue Auguste Broussonnet, 34090 Montpellier, France
Received 1 April 2004; received in revised form 16 October 2004
Abstract
Archaeological charcoals from two Predynastic sites located in Upper Egypt are studied to help reconstruct woody vegetation.
‘‘Ash-jars’’ from the cemeteries at Adaı̈ma and Elkab appear to have been filled with domestic hearth residues as offerings. The
results show the predominance of Acacias at Elkab and Tamarix at Adaı̈ma. This difference may be due to the influence of more
active wadis on the east bank, near Elkab. Adaı̈ma has a more diverse and slightly more widespread vegetation compared to the
present. There is some evidence for the tendency in an increase in aridity and/or human impact between the Nagada II period and
the first dynasties (3500–2900 BC).
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Charcoal analysis; Upper Egypt; Northeast Africa; Nile; Palaeovegetation; Predynastic period
1. Introduction
Evidence for woody vegetation in the Nile valley
during the pharaonic period is scant, due to the dearth
of extensive charcoal and wood analyses. However, this
state of research is currently changing, with for example
undergoing studies in Lower Egypt at Giza and
Memphis, and in Middle Egypt at Amarna (Rainer
Gerisch, pers. comm.).
One particularity of the research subject explaining in
part the lack of data is related to the nature of the Upper
Egyptian ecosystems. The natural vegetation of the Nile
valley forms a semi-oasian corridor in the midst of the
Eastern Sahara; rainfall is irregular and nearly nonexistent, and no permanent tributary to the river Nile
flows within Egypt’s boundaries. Thus, the vegetation is
) Tel.: C33 4 99 23 21 80; fax: C33 4 67 54 35 37.
E-mail address: [email protected]
0305-4403/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2004.10.006
entirely dependent on the Nile, except in the wadi beds
draining the occasional rains falling on the Eastern
mountain range bordering the Red Sea [52]. Vegetation
composition is therefore linked to temperature, species’
growth habit and ability to withstand flooding several
months a year. For instance, in Upper Egypt, high
temperatures allow the presence of Sudanian species
such as Balanites aegyptiaca or Calotropis procera
usually occurring at lower latitudes. The physiognomy
of the vegetation varies within the valley according to
topography and proximity to the Nile or to the water
table.
Charcoal and pollen analyses from central and
eastern Sahara [32] point to a final stage of aridification
around 5700 BP, while the study of lacustrine sediments
from the Gilf Kebir (eastern Sahara) indicates a later
date, around 4000 BP [36]. It is generally accepted that
the present-day aridity was reached by the fourth
millennium BC. As a result, vegetation changes during
the middle and late Holocene in the Nile valley do not
356
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
reflect changes in rainfall, but instead are closely related
to the impact of local human activities.
Our study aims at reconstructing the woody vegetation in the Upper Egyptian Nile valley, at the beginning
of the historical period (Pharaonic period) (w3500–2900
BC). The spatial variability is deduced from the
comparison of two sites located in the same area:
Adaı̈ma on the West bank, Elkab on the East bank
(Fig. 1). The special nature of archaeological remains
available allows us to further our investigations. In fact,
some of the Adaı̈ma samples and all the Elkab samples
come from funerary contexts. A comparison between
settlement and cemetery samples at Adaı̈ma was
therefore undertaken, in order to assess the possible
existence of choices in the funerary contexts.
1.1. The present vegetation
The present woody vegetation of the Nile valley
between Isna and Idfu is found in two main habitats:
canal and river banks, and cultivated fields [53]. On the
canal banks, bank retainers are often planted trees and
shrubs: Acacia nilotica, Ficus sycomorus, Melia azaderach, Morus spp., Salix subserrata, Tamarix arborea,
Ziziphus spina-christi, Alhagi maurorum and Arthrocnemum glaucum. Sand-tolerant and stabilizing plants
include Casuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus spp., Parkinsonia aculeata (four naturalized taxa),
Ricinus communis, Salix spp. and Tamarix aphylla. The
plants growing within the cultivated plain are T. aphylla,
T. nilotica, the palms Phoenix dactylifera and Hyphaene
thebaica, D. sissoo, allochtonous Ficus spp., Z. spinachristi and Acacia spp. Near the water pumps grow
Salix tetrasperma, S. subserrata and R. communis. Many
of the taxa are naturalized and/or cultivated, thus
rendering the evaluation of the natural vegetation
hazardous.
Towards the desert Tamarix spp., Acacia shrubs,
Chenopodiaceae, C. procera and Capparis decidua can
be found. The wadi beds further into the desert support
xerophilous shrubs such as Fagonia indica and Cornulaca monacantha, as well as therophytes when soil water
is available.
1.2. The archaeological contexts
Adaı̈ma lies in the Nile valley, about 9 km south of
the modern town of Isna, at the present limit between
the irrigated plain and the desert, and covers 35 ha. The
Eastern and Western cemeteries and a large settlement
area have been excavated since 1990 under the direction
of Béatrix Midant-Reynes (CNRS, Toulouse, France).
The occupation of Adaı̈ma covers over 700 years,
spanning from the cultural periods Nagada IC (N IC,
Predynastic) to Nagada IIIC/D (N IIIC/D, IInd
dynasty). The settlement area studied concerns the
northern terrace (Fig. 2), from which radiocarbon dated
charcoal samples gave dates between ca. 3400 and 2900
BC. These dates correspond culturally to the period
between the end of Nagada II (N II, Predynastic) and
Nagada IIIB/C (N IIIB/C, Protodynastic, dynasties I
and II) [30]. The features excavated between 1997 and
2000 are mainly pits dug into the substratum of the
terrace, filled with a loose mixture of sand and silt,
where no clear vertical stratigraphy can be observed.
The ceramic material from the terrace seems to
indicate that the material from the western sector is
globally older (N IIC in majority, w3400 BC) than that
from the eastern sector (N III in majority, w3200–2900
BC) (Buchez, Bavay 2001, unpublished report). The
mixed nature of the archaeological material and
sediment in square 7001 does not allow us to consider
the charcoal from this context as representing a single
Fig. 1. Regional location of Adaı̈ma and Elkab in the Nile valley.
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
357
Fig. 2. Topographical and archaeological map of Adaı̈ma, modified after the general topographical map by P. Deleuze, L. Vignan and D. Parent, and
the terrace’s topographical map by D. Parent.
period, and can therefore not be compared chronologically with the other sectors.
The cemetery, excavated under the direction of Éric
Crubézy (Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France),
is divided into two main zones. The western area,
excavated until 1996, is located on a sandy butte
separated from the settlement site by a wadi bed [13].
Its continuous use spans from Nagada IC until Nagada
IIIA/B (w3500–3100 BC). It comprises tombs of several
degrees of richness, including one which could bear
a founding role (S55). It attests the existence of an elite
group and of complex ritual practices, concerning both
the burial of the bodies and the deposit of offerings
[9,13]. The Eastern cemetery is located in the wadi bed,
and can be divided into two parts. One is mainly the
burial site of children aged 0–12 years, and seems to
have been in use during the Nagada IIIA/B period (end
of the Predynastic, w3200–3100 BC), the other is a later
group from Nagada IIIC/D (IInd dynasty, w2900 BC).
The graves from the Eastern cemetery were found
intact, remarkably well-preserved, and rich in archaeological material. The samples studied come from both
cemeteries.
Elkab is located on the east bank of the Nile, about
30 km south of Adaı̈ma. Its occupation spans from the
Palaeolithic (Elkabian, 6th millennium BC) until today.
It has been studied by Belgian teams since the 19th
century, and presently by the Royal Museum of Art and
History in Brussels, under the direction of Luc Limme.
Our study concerns a children’s cemetery dating to the
IInd dynasty; the tombs are grouped in three tumuli at
the foot of a cliff in which the later Old kingdom rock
tombs were excavated (Fig. 3). The tombs, excavated in
2000 and 2001 under the supervision of Eugène
Warmembol (Université Libre de Bruxelles), were found
intact. They are directly comparable with the Eastern
children’s cemetery at Adaı̈ma.
2. Material and methods
At Adaı̈ma, charcoal fragments have been recovered
from two different deposits: the settlement area and the
cemetery area. Organic material from the settlement
area was recovered by floatation of sediments; charcoal
fragments were sorted out from the larger fraction
(O1 mm). Samples come from three squares in the main
sectors, i.e. the western sector (1070-80/13), the eastern
sector (1040/16), and the isolated square 7001 to the
south (each square measures 100 m2). Since no clear
stratigraphy could be recognized in the settlement area,
results are presented by sector of occupation, as
presented on the site map (Fig. 2). Charcoal from the
358
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
Fig. 3. Topographical and archaeological map of Elkab, showing the
location of the children’s IInd dynasty cemetery. After the map by
Frans Depuydt ([24]: Pl. I). Altitudes are given in m asl.
cemeteries was collected either by hand during field
work (to prevent breakage of bigger fragments included
in the sediment fill of the tombs) or by subsequent dry
sieving of the ash found in ceramic vessels thereafter
called ‘‘ash-jars’’, placed in the tombs as offerings. These
ashes contained many charred macroscopic plant
remains (seeds, fruit and charcoal) as well as charred
animal dung. Most of the material from Adaı̈ma N IIC
tombs and Elkab is from such ash-jars.
The interpretation of our data will take into account
previous preliminary results [38] from another sector of
the settlement (sector 1001) (Fig. 2) and from several
tombs in the western cemetery.
The charcoal fragments were identified following
standard procedures: observation, under a high-power
microscope, of the three anatomical planes of wood and
use of wood anatomy atlases [18,33,41] as well as a
reference collection of modern Egyptian woods.
Wood fragments (desiccated) were also examined
from all contexts [15,34], and though their study lies
beyond the scope of this paper, reference will be made to
some of the results.
3. Results
3.1. Adaı¨ma settlement
Thirteen samples were studied from the settlement
context: 5 from the western sector, 5 from the eastern
sector and 3 from square 7001.
The samples have a high taxonomic diversity; in
total 24 taxa are identified (Table 1), with 2–16 per
sample. Qualitatively, the spectrum is stable at the
scale of the squares (Fig. 4). This good reproductive
quality of the assemblage reveals the nature of the
wood used, i.e. wood collected non-selectively for
domestic fuel. The large number of taxa represented
and the stability of the spectrum imply that over the
period of occupation, all the major taxa growing in the
area were collected for fuel use and apparently with
little selection of species. This allows us to interpret the
spectra in terms of palaeoecology, as demonstrated
previously [11,12]. Indeed, the overall spectrum of taxa
identified should reflect a compound picture of the
ancient vegetation, through the differential occurrence
of the dominant taxa versus the secondary and
therefore less used taxa.
Tamarix is always the most abundant taxon (Table 1,
Fig. 4), followed by Acacia, the other taxa never
represent more than 10% of the total charcoal fragments. Unidentified Dicotyledones are frequent, in the
form of young stems and bark fragments. Only Tamarix
occurs in all the 13 samples, whereas Acacia, C. decidua
type, Faidherbia albida, Salvadora persica, A. nilotica
type, Chenopodiaceae, cf. Prosopis sp., T. aphylla type
and Dicotyledones occur in at least seven of the samples
(Table 1). Six taxa were identified in only one sample:
Cupressus/Juniperus, Plantaginaceae type, cf. Solanaceae, Fagonia/Zygophyllum, Suaeda sp. and Salix
mucronata. The preliminary results obtained by Pernaud
[38] include only the main taxa represented here, as well
as one doubtful occurrence of Fraxinus sp.; they will not
be discussed further.
We now consider the numbers of charcoal specimens identified, excluding unidentifiable fragments.
Statistical homogeneity tests were conducted for each
100 m2-square between samples, then between the
squares (Table 2). For context 1070-80/13, the samples
probably belong to the same initial population; their
composition are similar. In squares 1040/16 and 7001,
the samples are significantly different, which is
probably due to the various contexts of the samples
within each large square. At a broader scale, the
hypothesis of homogeneity of the populations from the
three squares is rejected at a highly significant level;
this shows that quantitatively, a variability of the
charcoal spectrum does exist. Considering the relatively
small size of some of the samples, this variability might
be a reflection of random variability of the secondary
taxa between samples. Between contexts 1070-80/13
and 1040/16, the differences indeed do not affect the
main taxa Tamarix and Acacia, but only secondary
ones: in the first context, the proportions of the
Capparaceae and S. persica are higher whereas
those of C. procera, F. albida, and T. aphylla type
are lower.
359
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
Table 1
Results of the identification of charcoal fragments from Elkab II. dynasty children’s cemetery, Adaı̈ma settlement and cemeteries, expressed in counts
of identified fragments
Acacia sp.
Acacia nilotica type
Faidherbia albida
cf. Prosopis sp.
cf. Leguminosea type
Capparis decidua type
Capparaceae type
Tamarix sp.
Tamarix aphylla type
cf. Balanites aegyptiaca
Salvadora persica
Ziziphus sp.
Calotropis procera
Ficus sp.
Salix subserrata
Suaeda sp.
Chenopodiaceae
Asteraceae type
Brassicaceae type
Plantaginaceae type
Solanaceae type
Fagonia/Zygophyllum
Cupressus/Juniperus
Unidentified Dicotyledone
Monocotyledone
Unidentified Angiosperm
Total except unidentifiable
Elkab
Adaı̈ma cemetery
II. dynasty
N IC
nf
nf
occ
141
34
18
2
1
11
5
4
1
1
3
55
14
1
2
10
7
1
1
Adaı̈ma settlement
N IIC
occ
1
33
1
1
101
1
NIII
nf
nf
nf
occ
105
13
27
1
1
5
1
256
13
5
4
5
1
1
2
1
6
1
20
4
1
occ
5
2
1
2
2
5
75
1
1
3
9
32
2
4
2
5
3
1040/16
1070-80/13
180
14
15
9
6
13
1
367
24
1
16
4
7
136
10
8
11
2
16
1
344
7
4
30
3
1
7001
Total nf
occ
332
3
3
40
1
1
403
29
33
29
16
46
2
1043
34
8
86
8
9
12
9
11
7
2
11
2
13
7
5
10
5
4
12
5
1
12
21
1
1
8
12
1
2
1
1
56
4
5
1862
4
1
1
1
1
7
3
3
13
87
5
10
9
8
17
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
9
7
7
2
3
1
1
2
1
16
6
19
305
2
20
135
1
24
1
4
1
2
1
2
1
487
6
118
14
1
12
2
1
689
24
2
20
4
561
612
The Adaı̈ma settlement results are presented by sector (100 m2 square), the cemetery samples by archaeological datation. Comparison for each taxon
between the total number of fragments identified and the number of samples in which they were identified (occurrence). nf, number of fragments, occ:
occurrence = number of samples in which the taxon was identified. Note: In Fig. 4 Chenopodiaceae include Suaeda sp.
3.2. Adaı¨ma cemetery
Seven hundred and forty fragments of charcoal were
identified from the 20 cemetery samples in Adaı̈ma; 135
in one sample (S 55) dating N IC (early Predynastic,
w3500 BC), 487 in six samples dating N IIC (Predynastic, w3400 BC) – including 348 from 4 ash-jars -,
and 118 in 14 samples dating to N III (late Predynastic
until the IInd dynasty, w3200–2900 BC) – including 12
from one ash-jar.
The charcoal spectra are presented in chronological
order (Fig. 4), all types of samples added together –
charcoal from the ash-jars and fragments found either in
ceramic vessels or in the tombs. Using the same
statistical method as for the settlement samples, it was
found that no significant difference exists between the
spectra dating to N IIC and N III. However, due to the
small numbers of charcoal, the variation of the less
numerous taxa could not be taken into account. General
characteristics of the assemblages are the predominance
of Tamarix spp. (about 60% of the fragments), followed
by Acacia spp. (over 20%) and S. persica (6%). The
other taxa are never represented by more than 5% of the
fragments in any sample.
One single exception is identified – tomb S55 – where
the charcoal assemblage is dominated by S. persica
(68.3%). The second most abundant taxon is Tamarix
(22.3%). The context of this material demands special
attention: a layer of charcoal and ashes on which the
corpses were laid while the ashes were still warm [13]) in
the oldest dated tomb of Adaı̈ma (N IC). They are
Table 2
Adaı̈ma settlement samples
Context
Number Number of Number
Z
of taxon observations of degrees
categories
of freedom
Ho retained
at:
1040/16
1070-80/13
7001
Between the
3 squares
4
3
4
5
1%
10%
0.10%
Rejected
at 0.1%
4
2
3
3
9
2
6
8
20.8
4
19
35.3
Homogeneity tests conducted on charcoal samples from squares 1040/
16, 1070–1080/13 and 7001, and between these three squares: presentation of the statistical criteria and results.
360
Context, date
n : number of identifiable
fragments examined
Taxa identified in small numbers
of fragments
cf. Prosopis (2) Leguminosae (1)
Capparaceae (3) Ficus sp. (1)
cf. Balanites aegyptiaca (1)
Adaïma cemetery
N III (~3200-2900 BC)
n = 118
Leguminosae (2) Capparaceae (5)
Plantaginaceae (5)
Monocotyledone (1)
cf. Prosopis (1) Leguminosae (1)
Capparaceae (3) Ziziphus sp. (2)
Asteraceae (2) Brassicaceae (1)
Plantaginaceae (2) Monocotyledone (1)
Adaïma cemetery
N IIC (~3400 BC)
n = 487
Adaïma cemetery
N IC (~3500 BC)
n = 135
Capparaceae (1)
cf. Prosopis (9) Leguminosae (8)
cf. Balanites aegyptiaca (3)
Ziziphus sp. (1) Brassicaceae (3)
Plantaginaceae (1)
Adaïma south
7001
n = 561
cf. Prosopis (11) Leguminosae (2)
Capparaceae (1) Salix mucronata (1)
cf. Balanites aegyptiaca (4) Brassicaceae (2)
Solanaceae (2) Fagonia/Zygophyllum type (1)
Ziziphus sp. (3) Monocotyledone (2)
Adaïma west
1070-80/13
n = 612
cf. Prosopis (9) Leguminosae (6)
Capparaceae (1) Monocotyledone (2)
cf. Balanites aegyptiaca (1)
Ziziphus sp. (4) Brassicaceae (7)
Cupressus/Juniperus (1)
Adaïma east
1040/16
n = 689
ea
e
Di
co
An tyl
gi edo
os n
pe es
rm &
s
10%
iac
ro
c
op
sp
lo
tro
pi
hy
ap
ix
od
er
a
5% 5%
lla
ty
pe
50% 70%
Salvadora persica
en
5%
Ch
60%
Tamarix sp.
Ca
10% 5%
ar
20%
Ta
m
statistical
margin of error
percentage of
fragments
50%
Acacia sp.
Ac
ac
ia
nil
oti
ca
Fa
typ
id
e
he
rb
ia
Ca
al
bi
pp
da
ar
is
de
cid
ua
0
Fig. 4. Anthracological diagram, summarizing charcoal identification results from Adaı̈ma settlement and cemetery samples, and Elkab IInd dynasty cemetery samples.
Unidentifiable fragments are not taken into account in the percentages.
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
Elkab cemetery
IInd dyn. (~2900 BC)
n = 305
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
361
therefore probably the remains of a ritual combustion
structure in situ. For the moment its significance is still
unknown.
The number of taxa is inferior for the cemetery than
for the settlement (18 against 23), which can be
explained by the smaller size of each of the samples:
148 fragments at most (S55, including 13 unidentifiable
fragments), and by the type of deposit: fragments in
heterogeneous sediment filling in pots. However, the
taxonomical diversity is sufficient to permit a general
comparison with the settlement. If we exclude results
from tomb S55, the settlement and cemetery spectra are
similar.
both Lower and Upper Egypt: early dynastic Minshat
Abu Omar [44], N II cemetery HK 43 in Hierakonpolis
[20], cemetery H in Diospolis parva [39] and Nagada
[40]. The plant remains in some ash-jars from Minshat
Abu Omar and Hierakonpolis were studied. The
charcoal was not studied, but the general assemblages,
which include seed, fruit and dung remains, bones and
charcoal, are similar to hearth refuse assemblages. The
ritual involving the placing of pots filled with hearth
refuse in the tomb during the burial is thus certainly
common to these sites, confirming the results from
Adaı̈ma and following Nathalie Buchez’ suggestion
from the study of the ceramic material (1998).
3.3. Elkab cemetery
4.2. A more diverse and more extended
woody vegetation
The material from the IInd dynasty cemetery at
Elkab comprises 305 fragments of charcoal from 20
samples; these include 164 fragments from two ash-jars.
Altogether, 12 taxa were identified. The general spectrum is different from those of Adaı̈ma; Acacia spp. are
the most frequent taxa with 57% of the fragments,
followed by Tamarix spp. (23%) and F. albida (6%).
The other six taxa are not present in more than 3
fragments, whereas unidentified bark and twig fragments are numerous; they have been identified as
Dicotyledones (5%) or Angiosperms (6%). Similar
results are obtained if only ash-jar samples are
considered: Acacia spp. (47%) and Tamarix spp. (18%).
4. Discussion
4.1. Where do the ashes from the ‘‘ash-jars’’
come from?
The ash-jar contents in both Adaı̈ma N IIC tombs
and Elkab IInd dynasty tombs included charcoal
fragments, seed and fruit remains. Remains identified
are similar to those from domestic refuse, such as the
ones found at Adaı̈ma settlement: cereal processing
debris (chaff and straw), sheep/goat pellets, seeds from
wild and weed species [34].
Taxa diversity in the ash-jars from Adaı̈ma is very
similar to that identified in the settlement and may
indicate a similar provenience, i.e. domestic fires. This
hypothesis is confirmed by the nature of the other plant
remains. Although we do not have direct data on Elkab
domestic fires, the similarity of composition in plant
remains other than charcoal to the samples of Adaı̈ma
and the taxonomic diversity of the charcoal samples
allow us to extrapolate the results of Adaı̈ma to Elkab:
the ashes contained in the ceramic vessels might also be
remains from domestic fires.
The presence of such ash-jars was also recorded in
other predynastic and early dynastic cemeteries from
Linking identified taxa to plant communities according to modern knowledge in ecology proves to be
difficult. One reason for this is that many species have a
large ecological amplitude. In the case of the most frequent taxa, their abundance and large ecological amplitude may be interpreted as their simultaneous presence
in a variety of plant communities. Another reason is the
level of identification reached; the geni Acacia and
Tamarix could not be identified to the level of the
species. Although anatomical types were sometimes
distinguished (types A. nilotica and T. aphylla), these
cannot be treated as identified species. Indeed, T. aphylla
type comprises species T. aphylla and T. passerinoides
([33], p. 415). Identification of Tamarix encompasses
6 species in Egypt, and Acacia 10 species [5].
The 24 taxa identified in the charcoal plus one
identified as desiccated wood (Ficus sp.) may belong to
three types of habitat: the river banks, Nile valley
communities on deep soil including ruderal vegetation,
and plant communities in wadi beds and on poorly
developed soils.
Possible riparian species like A. nilotica, Acacia spp.,
F. albida and Tamarix nilotica are ubiquitous in the
samples, and constitute the greater part of the charcoal
fragments. S. mucronata and Ficus spp. are rare (one
charcoal fragment for the former, two desiccated wood
fragments for the latter). The woody taxa that can grow
in riverine habitats [53], in partly submerged lands or
that can withstand seasonal flooding, may have composed part of the floodplain vegetation, in or between
fields and on uncultivated land; A. nilotica, Acacia spp.
(A. raddiana, A. seyal ), C. procera, F. albida, Ficus spp.,
T. nilotica and S. mucronata.
An open vegetation composed of Tamarix spp.,
Chenopodiaceae including Suaeda spp., Capparaceae,
C. procera, Prosopis sp. and S. persica could have grown
on the sandy plain south of the settlement, separated by
the terrace from the floodplain, provided that the water
table was sufficiently high. Observations leading to the
362
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
last hypothesis concern the Eastern cemetery located in
a wadi bed; many tombs seem to have been flooded one
or several times, either when the wadi was active or
when the water table rose due to high floods. It is
moreover acknowledged that the water table in the Nile
valley has been lowered consequently to the building of
the dams on the river, in particular the High Dam south
of Aswan.
The Nile valley/ruderal formation and the more
xerophilous formation on sandy soil may represent
a contracted desert vegetation, at the limit of the Nile
floodplain: Tamarix would predominate on sandy soils
and Acacia on coarser alluvial soils [54]. Indeed, genus
Tamarix comprises a whole range of xerophilous and
halophilous species, but the ecological amplitude of
T. nilotica is even larger. Tamarix spp. can form riverine
gallery forests along wadis on sandy soil, like in the
central Sahara [52]; they resist aridity, salinity and
seasonal flooding. Prosopis and many Chenopodiaceae,
in particular Suaeda sp., also comprise xerophilous and/
or halophilous species. Noteworthy is the characteristically low diversity of the Tamarix wadi formations. The
Acacia formation could be composed of the species
belonging to the Acacietea tortilis subsudanica community, comprising Acacia tortilis, A. raddiana, A. gerardii,
B. aegyptiaca, C. procera, C. decidua, C. cartilaginea,
Cordia sinensis, S. persica and Z. spina-christi [54].
According to local geomorphological studies [14] the
main substrata outside the present floodplain, within
and around the site, are sandy near the river, clayey to
the west towards the desert. They correspond to the
predynastic substrata since the archaeological structures
observed are posterior to them, and all are covered with
eolian sand. The wadi on the border of and in which the
Eastern cemetery was established is composed of reddish
cemented pebbles and sand, where an Acacia formation
could have grown. A similar vegetation could also have
developed in adjacent wadis.
Terraces and levees within and at the border of the
floodplain could have supported a mixture of this
vegetation and protected or exploited trees, such as
fruit trees (Z. spina-christi, Ficus spp., B. aegyptiaca),
and a ruderal vegetation associated with human
presence (housing and/or horticulture).
The results from the settlement show that all habitats
were exploited; the riverine vegetation (the most
important), plants growing on levees and terraces in
the floodplain, the partly cultivated floodplain, and the
more xerophilous vegetation, south of the terrace and in
the wadis near the site. This relative importance of
exploited habitats could be due to their relative spatial
extension or to their relative proximity to the site,
located at the border of the floodplain. The two main
taxa, Acacia and Tamarix, correspond to dominant
woody taxa of several plant communities. Acacia is
dominant on coarse alluvial soil, in the Nile valley and
in wadi beds, whereas Tamarix is dominant on sandy
soil, in the Nile valley and in more arid conditions. The
overall predominance of Tamarix may thus be related to
extensive tamarisk formations both on the riverbanks
and within the floodplain in uncultivated areas, and on
the sandy plain south of the inhabited terrace. The
collection of acacia and tamarisk branches for animal
feed – young shoots are eaten by caprines and bovines –
and the subsequent use of unpalatable wood remains
for fuel may provide additional explanation for their
frequency.
A comparison between the total number of fragments
of the taxa and their occurrence in the samples (Table 2)
shows that some taxa occur in many samples, but always
in small numbers; F. albida, C. decidua, S. persica,
A. nilotica type, Chenopodiaceae, cf. Prosopis sp. and
T. aphylla type are present in at least 7 of the 13 samples.
Their recurrence in small numbers of fragments could
indicate that they were present as secondary taxa in the
identified plant communities, this interpretation being
consistent with ecological data. F. albida would belong
to the Acacia communities in the floodplain, whereas the
other taxa would be associated to the Tamarix and/or
Acacia formations in dry conditions, i.e. the sandy plain
south of the terrace and the wadis. The alternative
explanation relative to their negative selection due to
unfit burning properties does not hold here, since some
of these species are still used today for charcoal production: F. albida, Prosopis [1].
A major difference between the present vegetation
and that of the Predynastic period is the absence of any
vegetation in the sandy plain south of the settlement
terrace today, and its presence near the wadi, only in
the form of ruderals around the artificially irrigated
fields. Charcoal analysis and geomorphological data
point to a higher water table during the Predynastic
period.
Concerning the distribution of the identified species,
some are now rare or absent from the region. S. persica’s
distribution zone includes the Nile valley [6], but it was
not seen in the vicinity of the site by the author, and
its presence in the valley is not recorded by Zahran
and Willis [53]; its distribution seems to have shrunk
consequently to its exploitation for multiple purposes
(fodder, salt, handicrafts, toothbrushes, medicine). It is
known from ancient Egypt only in the form of charcoal,
and was identified previously only at Makhadma in
Middle Egypt, in Predynastic fireplaces [51]. Its abundance in Adaı̈ma samples could indicate that its
distribution was more extensive at the time. Its presence
afterwards is attested neither as wood nor as charcoal
during the pharaonic period, because its wood is not
often used for the manufacture of objects and because
Egyptian charcoal analyses are scarce.
At present, B. aegyptiaca grows in the Nile valley,
restricted to isolated individuals, but none was noted by
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
the author around the site. Prosopis farcta is a bush
mainly found on sandy soil in the Western desert and on
the Mediterranean coast, and as a ruderal on cultivated
lands of the oases [53], whereas the tree P. africana is
a savanah species which does not belong to Egypt’s
present flora [5]. The charcoal type resembles P. africana
most. It may have disappeared from the Nile valley
consequently to over-exploitation for many uses [1] or to
shrinking habitat. Prosopis is also known in several
cases in the form of seeds in Early dynastic [45], New
kingdom [50] and Second intermediate period [46] sites;
Prosopis and Acacia type seeds are however difficult to
distinguish.
Only one taxon raises the question of its provenience:
Cupressus/Juniperus type (probably Cupressus sp.). The
allochtonous origin of the wood is very likely, since on
the one hand it does not grow locally and one the other
hand the import of wood is already known from
Predynastic sites and grew in importance during
pharaonic times [2,3]. It could have been imported from
the north of Egypt, for example the Sinaı̈ peninsula,
where Juniperus phoenicea is attested today [7]. Its
presence in Adaı̈ma is identified as desiccated wood in
another sector of the settlement [15], in square 1050/16
and as charcoal in square 1040/16 on the terrace [34].
Cupressus/Juniperus was only identified once in Egypt
as wood for the Predynastic period: in Badari [8].
Juniperus sp. was also identified as wood in Maadi,
Lower Egypt [49].
4.3. A vegetation change through time?
Slight but statistically significant differences were
observed between the charcoal spectra from the western
and the eastern sectors of the settlement. If these
differences are related to chronological phases, following ceramic studies, vegetation changes seem to have
occurred.
In the western sector (dating to w3400 BC according
to the ceramic material), the proportions of Capparaceae (including C. decidua) and S. persica are higher
than in the eastern sector (dating to w3200–2900 BC),
whereas those of C. procera, F. albida, and T. aphylla
type are lower (Fig. 4). F. albida is a riparian species,
whereas C. procera is at once ruderal and xerophilous.
The observed differences in the spectra could be due to
a change of the vegetation, either through the desiccation through over-exploitation of the wadis and the
sandy plain south of the terrace, or the ruderalisation of
the vegetation under human influence, or both. These
observed tendencies of change through time are blurred
by the archaeological context, i.e. by the fact that both
sectors were occupied during overlapping periods of
time. Better defined Nagada II contexts recently
excavated will be analysed and compared to these first
results.
363
The desiccation of the wadis and of the southern
plain, or their over-exploitation and subsequent depletion of woody plants, may contribute to the explanation
of observations of settlement shifts during N III in the
Nile valley, such as at Adaı̈ma, at Hierakonpolis [25], in
the Nagada-Khattara region [23], at Abydos-Thinis ([37]
in [30]) and of sedimentological studies by Karl Butzer
[10]. A contraction of the settlements near the floodplain
seems to have occurred, which may have been partly due
to ecological reasons and to economical reasons. A shift
toward the Nile may indeed be linked to the latter’s role
as the major communication route, and therefore the
place and starting point for trade [29].
4.4. A differential regional distribution of
the vegetation
It is difficult to compare our qualitative data with
those from other Predynastic sites in Egypt (Table 3),
for the simple fact that not many data are available;
when analyses were carried out they concern very small
amounts of material per site; the charcoal assemblages
thus identified vary very little from site to site, with only
major taxa being identified. This study is an exception,
since the sampling procedures allowed the identification
of a wide range of taxa, and thus made possible the
interpretation of the results in palaeoecological terms.
Therefore, if regional differences occur, they may be due
more to a lack of data and differences in precision of the
identifications, than to biogeographical variations. The
fact that Tamarix and Acacia are quantitatively predominant in all cases is not surprising, as even today
these two taxa are still selected, especially for the
manufacture of charcoal. Tamarix in particular is
appreciated for its rapid regrowth that allows its longterm exploitation. The associated taxa seem to vary
little, an observation that would have to be confirmed by
further anthracological studies. For instance, C. procera
is known from charcoal analysis only at two sites: in the
Libyan desert around 7000 uncal. BP (Abu Ballas/
Mudpans, [31]) and in the Arabic desert during the
Roman period (Mons Claudianus, [47]) and as a single
fruit remain prior to the Roman period, at Helwan
(I. dynasty, [22]).
The main difference between the charcoal spectra
from Adaı̈ma and Elkab is the predominance of genus
Tamarix in the first, of Acacia in the second. The
secondary taxa are more abundant in Adaı̈ma, and
include in particular S. persica, a species not observed
from the Elkab samples. This is an effect of the larger
size of the samples from Adaı̈ma.
The importance of Acacia spp. and F. albida in Elkab
may testify to the existence of extensive open Acacia
savanna close to the site, in particular in the bed of the
wadi reaching the foot of the cemetery (Wadi Hilâl,
Fig. 3), and/or to a more extended riparian vegetation.
364
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
Table 3
Summary of charcoal and wood analyses on Predynastic Egyptian archaeological sites, from both Lower and Upper Egypt, including previous
published studies and results from Adaı̈ma and Elkab
For each site, only the presence of the taxa is given. References: 1: Barakat [4]; 2: Kroll [27]; 3: Van Zeist and De Roller [49]; 4: Thanheiser [43]; 5:
Vermeersch et al. [51] (analyst: Neumann); 6: Litynska [28]; 7: Feindt and Fischer [19]; 8: El Hadidi [16]; 9: Fahmy and Barakat [17]; 10: Pernaud [38]
(charcoal); 11: Dietrich [15] (wood).
However, the Nile floodplain at Elkab is narrow because
of the nearby mountains, and it is unlikely that the sole
provenience of the Acacia wood was the floodplain,
because part of it must already have been cleared for
agricultural purposes. Today, the wadis in the Eastern
desert are still regularly active, whereas in the Western
desert those ending in the Nile valley hardly ever carry
any water. This implies that the latter do not allow the
growth of tree formations, unlike the Eastern desert
wadis. The anthracological data suggest that the
environment was similar during the early pharaonic
period, although maybe less advanced in its desertification on the Western side: a woody vegetation probably
grew in the mouth of the wadis near Adaı̈ma.
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
4.5. Wood selection for a funerary ritual?
The high percentage of S. persica in the remains of
a ritual combustion structure (S55) may be interpreted
in several manners. Firstly, taphonomically: the charcoal fragments represent a single burning episode. For
any single fireplace, be it domestic or not, the taxonomic
variety is low, for the remains may be from the last (few)
log(s) used as fuel [12]. It is therefore not representative
of the whole range of firewood available in the vicinity.
The presence of S. persica may therefore be fortuitous: it
happened that the last branches or logs put into the fire
were from such a tree. Secondly, we cannot exclude
a special selection of the tree for the exceptional purpose
of the fire as part of a funerary ritual, in what may be
interpreted as the founding tomb of the cemetery. The
reason for this possible selection is unknown to us who
do not have the same cultural references as predynastic
people living in the region of Adaı̈ma. Fruit of S. persica
are edible [26], its leaves used as a herb in cooking [1].
Different parts of the tree (fruit, leaves, bark, roots,
roots’ bark) are known for their medicinal applications
(against syphilis, headaches, rheumatisms and blennorragitis, as an expectorant, a purgative, a vermifuge and
a febrifuge) [21,42,35,1] and the ashes of its wood and
leaves are precious for their richness in salt [1]. But were
these qualities particularly searched for? For the time
being, nothing allows us to conclude.
5. Conclusion
At the end of the Predynastic period, ca. 3000 BC, the
woody vegetation at Adaı̈ma was more diverse than at
present, excluding recently naturalized taxa, and possibly more extended towards the desert. Three main plant
formations were exploited: (1) riparian formations along
the Nile, (2) a ruderal vegetation in the floodplain, (3)
xerophilous formations on the sandy plain south of the
terrace and at the mouth of the wadis, perhaps with
more halophilous affinities on low grounds with poor
drainage. The overall abundance of charcoal remains on
the site compared to other kinds of fuel and the taxa
richness of the samples, may point to a woody vegetation
more extended than today, including within the floodplain, in areas not yet turned into cultivated fields. These
uncultivated areas of the floodplain may have been
exploited as pasture land for the domestic animals [48],
hunting land, as well as a source of building materials.
The nature and extent of human impact on the natural
habitats therefore needs to be assessed more precisely.
The vegetation’s transformation on the site during its
occupation is slight: only an indication of a change
between Nagada II and the first dynasties, where there is
evidence for aridification and/or human impact.
365
The reconstructed vegetation is differentiated according to the river bank, although less than today. The
Acacia communities were more developed relatively to
other plant communities on the east side of the river,
where large wadis draining orographic rainfall run
into the narrow Nile valley. The taxonomic spectrum
identified in the charcoal from funerary contexts allows
to consider the hypothesis that the ashy contents of the
vessels placed in the tombs as offerings are of domestic
provenience. This hypothesis renders the palaeoenvironmental interpretation of this charcoal possible. A
unique case of wood selection in the context of a funerary
ritual (S55) was brought to light and contrasts with the
qualitative uniformity of the assemblages at Adaı̈ma.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Béatrix Midant-Reynes and Luc
Limme for giving me the opportunity to study the
charcoal from Adaı̈ma and Elkab, respectively. The
Adaı̈ma excavations are supported by the IFAO
(French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, Cairo) and
the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. I also thank the
IFAO for funding field work, and in particular the
conservation laboratory directed by Michel Wuttmann
for the use of the technical equipment in Cairo. This
work was undertaken as part of a PhD programme with
a grant from the French Ministère de l’Éducation
Nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie, under
the supervision of George Willcox and Jean-Louis
Vernet. I am also thankful to George Willcox, Christopher Carcaillet, Isabel Figueiral, Eleni Asouti, Caroline
Vermeeren and two anonymous referees for their
constructive remarks on an earlier draft of this paper,
and to Art Newton for language corrections.
References
[1] M. Arbonnier, Arbres, arbustes et lianes des zones sèches de
l’Afrique de l’Ouest, CIRAD, MNHN, IUCN, Paris, 2000.
[2] V. Asensi Amorós, Madera de Egipto, madera importada. I:
Contribucion del estudio de la anatomia de la madera para la
comprension de la civilizacion egipcia, in: J. Cervello Autuori, A.
Quevedo Alvarez (Eds.), .Ir a buscar leña, Estudios dedicados al
prof. Jesus Lopez. Aula Aegyptiaca – Studia 2. Barcelona, 1991,
pp. 23–32.
[3] V. Asensi Amorós, L’étude du bois et de son commerce en
Égypte: lacunes des connaissances et perspectives pour l’analuse
xylologique, in: K. Neumann, A. Butler, S. Kahlheber (Eds.),
Food, Fuel and Fields, Progress in African Archaeobotany,
Africa Praehistorica, vol. 15, Heinrich-Barth-Institut, Köln, 2003,
pp. 177–186.
[4] H. Barakat, Appendix IV – plant remains from El-Omari, in:
F. Debono, B. Mortensen (Eds.), El-Omari. A Neolithic
Settlement and Other Sites in the Vicinity of Wadi Hof, Helwan,
von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein, 1990, pp. 109–114.
[5] L. Boulos, Flora of Egypt, Checklist, Al Hadara, Cairo, 1995.
366
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
[6] L. Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol. 2, Al Ghoneimy, Cairo, 2000.
[7] L. Boulos, Flora of Egypt, vol. 1, Al Ghoneimy, Cairo, 1999.
[8] G. Brunton, G. Caton-Thompson, The Badarian civilization and
Predynastic remains near Badari, Egyptian Research Accounts,
vol. 46, British School of Archaeology in Egypt, Bernard
Quaritch, London, 1928.
[9] N. Buchez, Le mobilier céramique et les offrandes à caractère
alimentaire au sein des dépôts funéraires prédynastiques: éléments
de réflexion à partir de l’exemple d’Adaı̈ma, Archéo-Nil
8 (1998) 85–103.
[10] K. Butzer, Environment and human ecology in Egypt during the
Predynastic and early Dynastic times, Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie d’Égypte 33 (1959) 43–87.
[11] L. Chabal, Forêts et sociétés en Languedoc, méthodologie et
paléoécologie, Documents d’Archéologie Française, 63, Maison
des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris, 1997.
[12] L. Chabal, L. Fabre, J.-F. Terral, I. Théry-Parisot, L’anthracologie, in: C. Bourquin-Mignot, J.-É. Brochier, L. Chabal,
S. Crozat, L. Fabre, F. Guibal, Ph. Marinval, H. Richard
J.-F. Terral, I. Théry-Parisot (Eds.), La Botanique, Errance,
Paris, 1999, pp. 43–104.
[13] E. Crubézy, T. Janin, B. Midant-Reynes (Eds.), Adaı̈ma II: La
nécropole prédynastique, FIFAO, vol. 47, IFAO, Cairo, 2002.
[14] M. De Dapper, C. De Jaeger, Géomorphologie, in: B. MidantReynes (éd.) Le site prédynastique d’Adaı̈ma, Rapport de la
treizième campagne de fouilles, 2001, unpublished report.
[15] A. Dietrich, Les analyses de bois, in: B. Midant-Reynes,
N. Buchez (Eds.), Adaı̈ma I: Économie et habitat, FIFAO, vol.
45, IFAO, Cairo, 2002, pp. 517–519.
[16] N. El Hadidi, The Predynastic Flora of Hierakonpolis region, in:
M. Hoffman (Ed.), The Predynastic of Hierakonpolis – an interim
report, Egyptian Studies Association 1, Chicago, 1982, pp. 104–115.
[17] A.G. Fahmy, H. Barakat, Plant macro remains from Tomb 11, in:
B. Adams (Ed.), Excavations in the Locality 6 cemetery at
Hierakonpolis 1979–1985, BAR International Series 903, Egyptian Studies Association Publication N 4, Archaeopress, Oxford,
2000, pp. 151–157.
[18] A. Fahn, E. Werker, P. Baas, Wood anatomy and identification of
trees and shrubs from Israel and adjacent regions, The Israel
Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, 1986.
[19] F. Feindt, M. Fischer, Untersuchungen botanischer Proben, in:
G. Dreyer, I. Umm El-Qaab (Eds.), Das prädynastische Grab U-j
und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse, Von Zabern, Mainz, 1998, pp.
189–195.
[20] R. Friedman, A. Maish, A.G. Fahmy, J. Darnell, E. Johnson,
Preliminary report on field work at Hierakonpolis: 1996–1998,
Journal of American Research Center in Egypt 36 (1999) 1–35.
[21] M. Gast, Alimentation des populations de l’Ahaggar, étude ethnographique, Mémoire du CRAPE VIII, Alger, AMG, Paris, 1968.
[22] E. Greiss, Anatomical identification of plant remains and other
materials from El-Omari excavations at Helwan from Neolithic
period; the excavations at Helwan from the First dynasty, Bulletin
de l’Institut d’Égypte 36 (1955) 227–235.
[23] F. Hassan, The Predynastic of Egypt, Journal of World
Prehistory 2/2 (1988) 135–234.
[24] S. Hendrickx, D. Huyge, Elkab IV, Topographie, fascicule 2:
Inventaire des sites archéologiques, Fondation égyptologique
Reine Elisabeth, Brussels, 1989.
[25] M. Hoffman, H. Hamroush, R.O. Allen, A model of urban
development for the Hierakonpolis region from Predynastic
through Old Kingdom times, Journal of the American Research
Center in Egypt 23 (1986) 175–197.
[26] L. Keimer, Notes prises chez les Bišarin (Bédouins) et les Nubiens
d’Assouan, quatrième partie, Bulletin de l’Institut d’Égypte
34 (1953) 329–400.
[27] H. Kroll, Die Pflanzenfunde von Maadi, in: I. Rizkana, J. Seher
(Eds.), Maadi iii, the non-lithic small finds and the structural
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
remains of the Predynastic settlement, Archäologische Veröffentlichungen, vol. 80, von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein, 1989, pp. 129–
136.
M. Litynska, Remains of plants, in: B. Ginter, J. Koslowski
(Eds.), Predynastic settlement near Armant, Heidelberger Orientverlag, Heidelberg, 1994, pp. 103–108.
B. Midant-Reynes, Aux origines de l’Égypte: Du Néolithique à
l’émergence de l’État, Fayard, Paris, 2003.
B. Midant-Reynes, N. Buchez (Eds.), Adaı̈ma I: Économie et
habitat, FIFAO, vol. 45, IFAO, Cairo, 2002.
K. Neumann, Zur Vegetationsgeschichte der Ostsahara im
Holozän; Holzkohlen aus prähistorischen Fundstellen, in:
R. Kuper (Ed.), Forschungen zur Umweltgeschichte der Ostsahara, Heinrich-Barth-Institut, Köln, 1989, pp. 13–182.
K. Neumann, In search of the green Sahara: palynology and
botanical macro-remains, in: K. Heine, A. Ballouche, J. Maley
(Eds.), Palaeoecology of Africa and the Surrounding Islands, vol.
22, Proceedings of the First Symposium on African Palynology
Rabat 15–21.05.1989, 1991, pp. 203–212.
K. Neumann, W. Schoch, P. Détienne, F.H. Schweingruber,
H.G. Richter, Woods of the Sahara and the Sahel, Haupt, Bern,
2001.
C. Newton, Environnement végétal et économie en Haute-Égypte à
Adaı̈ma au Prédynastique; Approches archéobotaniques comparatives de la IIe dynastie à l’Époque romaine, PhD thesis, Université
Montpellier II, Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc, 2002.
P. Ozenda, Flore du Sahara, Éditions du CNRS, Paris, 1977.
H.-J. Pachur, S. Kröpelin, L’aridification du Sahara oriental à
l’Holocène moyen et supérieur, Bulletin de la Société Géologique
de France 8 (1) (1989) 99–107.
D. Patch, The origin and early development of urbanism in
Ancient Egypt, A regional study, PhD thesis, UMI 9200380, Ann
Arbor, 1991.
J.-M. Pernaud, Anthracologie, in: B. Midant-Reynes, N. Buchez
(Eds.), Adaı̈ma I: Économie et habitat, FIFAO, vol. 45, IFAO,
Cairo, 2002, pp. 502–506.
F. Petrie, A. Mace, Diospolis Parva, the cemeteries of Abadieh
and Hu, 1898–9, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1901.
F. Petrie, J.E. Quibell, Naqada and Ballas, British School of
Archaeology in Egypt, Egyptian Research Accounts, vol. 23,
Bernard Quaritch, London, 1896.
F.H. Schweingruber, Anatomy of European Woods, Haupt,
Stuttgart, 1990.
E.A. Sidiyene, Des arbres et des arbustes spontanés de l’Adrar des
Iforas (Mali), Étude ethnolinguistique et ethnobotanique, ORSTOM/CIRAD, Paris, 1996.
U. Thanheiser, Untersuchungen zur Landwirtschaft der vor- und
Frühdynastischen Zeit in Tell el-Fara’in-Buto, Ägypten und
Levante II (1991) 39–45.
U. Thanheiser, Plant remains from Minshat Abu Omar: first
impressions, in: E. Van den Brink (Ed.), The Nile delta in
transition: 4th–3rd mill, BC, Proceedings of the seminar held in
Cairo, 21–24 October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of
Archaeology and Arabic studies, E.C.M. Van den Brink, Tel
Aviv, 1992, pp. 167–170.
U. Thanheiser, Local production versus import of cereals during
the Predynastic period in the Nile Delta, in: L. Krzyzaniak,
K. Kroeper, M. Kobusiewicz (Eds.), Interregional contacts in
later prehistory of Northeastern Africa, Poznan Archaeological
Museum, Poznan, 1996, pp. 291–302.
U. Thanheiser, Über den Ackerbau in dynastischer Zeit.
Ergabnisse der Untersuchung von Pflanzenresten aus Tell elDab’a, in: M. Bietak et al. (Eds.), Tell el-Dab’a VIII. Interdisziplinäre Studien, Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Vienna, in press.
M. Van der Veen, The food and fodder supply to Roman
quarry settlements in the eastern desert of Egypt, in: M. Van
C. Newton / Journal of Archaeological Science 32 (2005) 355–367
der Veen (Ed.), The Exploitation of Plant Resources in Ancient
Africa, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, 1999,
pp. 171–183.
[48] W. Van Neer, Le matériel faunique, in: B. Midant-Reynes,
N. Buchez (Eds.), Adaı̈ma I: Économie et habitat, FIFAO, vol.
45, IFAO, Cairo, 2002, pp. 521–565.
[49] W. Van Zeist, G. De Roller, Plant remains from Maadi,
a Predynastic site in Lower Egypt, Vegetation History and
Archaeobotany 2 (1993) 1–14.
[50] C. De Vartavan, Contaminated plant foods from the tomb of
Tutankhamun: a new interpretative system, Journal of Archaeological Science 17 (1990) 473–494.
367
[51] P. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen, D. Huyge, K. Neumann, W. Van Neer,
P. Van Peer, Predynastic hearths in Egypt, in: R. Friedman,
B. Adams (Eds.), The Followers of Horus – Studies Dedicated to
Michael Hoffman, Egyptian Studies Association Publication N 2,
Oxbow Monographs 20, Oxbow Books, Oxford, 1992, pp. 163–172.
[52] F. White, The vegetation of Africa, A descriptive memoir to
accompagny the UNESCO/AEFTAT/UNSO vegetation map of
Africa, UNESCO, Paris, 1983.
[53] M.A.K. Zahran, A. Willis, The vegetation of Egypt, Chapman &
Hall, London, 1992.
[54] M. Zohary, Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East,
Fischer, Stuttgart & Amsterdam, 1973.