 J. Edu. Sci., Vol. (16) No. (2) 2009 
“The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn on Ernest Hemingway’s Writing
of The Old Man an the Sea”
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
Department of English / College of Basic Education
University of Mosul
Received
19 / 05 / 2008
Accepted
10 / 09 / 2008
‫الملخص‬
‫يعتقد هاري ليفن في مقالته "مالحظات حول أسموب ارنست همنغواي " أن مارك تواين كان‬
‫ وقد اعترف ه منغواي شخياً بهذا عندما قال أن رواية مغامرات‬. ‫له تأثير أساسي عمى همنغواي‬
‫ يحاول هذا البحث إثبات التأثير‬. ‫هاكمبري فن لمارك تواين هي مخدر كل األدب األمريكي الحديث‬
‫الذي تركته رواية مارك تواين مغامرات هاكمبري فن عمى ايرنست همنغواي وذلك من شالل مناق ة‬
. ‫مغامرات هاكمبري فن ورواية همنغواي ال يخ والبحر‬
‫نقاط الت ابه الرئيسية بين رواية مارك تواين‬
‫ يؤكد بعض نقاد هم نغواي مثل‬. ‫تت ابه القختين بالمغزى إضافة إلى الت ابه في التقنية واألسموب‬
‫ مخارع الثيران‬: ‫يميب يانك في كتابه ايرنست همنغواي وميمفن باكمان في مقالته "همنغواي‬
‫ف‬
.‫والمخموب" فكرة هاري ليفن أنفة الذكر ويدعمون فكرتهم ببعض األدلة األدبية‬
Abstract
Harry Levin, in his essay “Observations on the Style of Ernest
Hemingway”, suggests that Mark Twain has the most genuine influence on
Hemingway. Hemingway himself acknowledges this idea when he says that,
“Huckleberry Finn is the source of all modern American Literature”. The
present research tries to prove the influence that Mark Twain’s The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn exerts on Ernest Hemingway to discuss the
main points of similarities between Mark Twain's The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn and Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea. The two
novels share several themes, in addition to similarities in technique and
1
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
style. Hemingway’s critics such as Philip Young in his book Ernest
Hemingway and Melvin Backman in his article “Hemingway: The Matador
and the Crucified” assert the above-mentioned suggestion of Harry Levin,
and provide certain literary touches as evidence of this influence.
Introduction:
Mark Twain has been called “the American Cervantes, our Homer,
our Tolstoy, our Shakespeare, our Rablains” 1. Throughout the world he is
viewed as “the most distinctively American of all American authors-- and
one of the most universals, he has been a major influence on twentiethcentury writers from Argentina to Nigeria to Japan.”2 Nowadays Mark
Twain is considered humorist, satirist, realist, the shaper of a distinctive
American prose and narrative style, and preeminently the author of The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which is commonly accounted as one of
the first great American novels. Indeed, it is one of the first novels ever
written in the vernacular, or common speech. Norman Mailer praises the
novel greatly saying, "The mark of how good Huckleberry Finn has to be is
that one can compare it to a number of our best modern American novels
and it stands up page for page." 3
In Green Hills of Africa, Ernest Hemingway places the novel in
historical context saying, "All modern American literature comes from one
book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn…But it’s the best book we’ve
had. All American writing comes from that. There was nothing before.
There was nothing as good since.”4 Hemingway believes that all genuine
American writing comes from the prose of Huckleberry Finn’s voyage down
the Mississippi. Philip Young thinks that, “The repetition of Twain’s story
by Hemingway establishes a continuity of American experience from one
century to another.”5 Believing in this idea, Young establishes a connection
between The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Hemingway’s Nick
Adam. He discusses the pattern of violence, psychological wounding, escape
and death, in addition to other thematic and technical similarities between
the two novels6. Another connection is held between The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn and Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms. The episode of
baptism in the latter novel shows the influence of The of Huckleberry Finn
on Hemingway’s writing. When Huck and Jim escape by diving deep into
the bosom of the river, beneath the murderous paddle wheels, the incident is
regarded a baptism that frees them into a new life. The scene can fruitfully
be placed beside the baptism in A Farewell to Arms, when Fredrick Henry
dives into the Tagliamento River to escape the Fascist Battle Police and the
2
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
insanity of the world of institutions. 7
The committee that awarded Hemingway the Nobel Prize for
literature in 1954 cited his “powerful style–forming mastering of the art of
modern narration.”8 His style, as it is shown in The Old Man and the Sea,
has influenced modern literature and modern writers greatly. Hemingway
develops a fresh and simple way of writing that is colloquial, objective and
unemotional. Thereby, I agree with Philip Young who denies that
Hemingway’s style “sprung from nowhere” and insists that it has “a long
evolution, which may be said to have begun when Mark Twain wrote the
first paragraph of his The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.”9 What Twain
has done in his book is very obvious. He has written, not a 'literary' English
style, but a natural spoken American, for Twain has been the first man to
write 'American'. His novel does indeed represent the true beginning of a
wide spread contemporary American style. André Maurois has confidently
declared that,
Mark Twain was the first to attempt to give beauty
and form to the everyday language of the ordinary
American. To Hemingway, the other great
American writers of the past are "Colonial" writers,
that is, English writers who happened to have been
born in America…[Hemingway] absorbed the
simplicity of rhythm, syntax, and vocabulary which
constituted Mark Twain's freshness. But he set his
own stamp on these borrowings.10
The Influence of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on
Ernest Hemingway's Writing of The Old Man and the Sea:
Mark Twain has based his language on colloquial usage, that is
flexible and natural without the artificial dialect writing. His dialogue is
expressive enough to imply the related aspects of feeling and thought. In
doing so, Twain has established a new relationship between American
experience as content and language as direct expression of that content.11
Through Hemingway's use of American everyday speech, his characters
would be able to express their personalities and become easier to the reader
to know their social and educational background. Huck is a simple boy of no
academic education, Jim is a slave of a supernatural knowledge, Pap is a
drunkard father of criminal inclination, Miss Watson is a too conventional
woman, who instructs restricted orders. Tom is a studious imaginative boy
3
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
of aristocratic bringing. The King and the Duke are cheep rogues and
hypocrite. When Hemingway says that all modern America literature stems
from Huckleberry Finn, among the things he has in mind are Mark Twain's
writing style. Twain's style shows its impact on Hemingway's in many
aspects of his style, particularly the style of The Old Man and the Sea. So
Hemingway's dialogue is equally striking, and reflects the reality and
specialty of the speaker, "the things that Hemingway's style most convey are
the very things he says outright. His style is as communicative of the content
as the content itself, and is a large and inextricable part of the content".12 In
The Old Man and the Sea, he uses informal speech and common language
such as, " 'Let us take the stuff home' the boy said"13 and when talking about
the lottery, " Do you think we should buy a terminal of the lottery with an
eighty-five? Tomorrow is the eighty- fifth day"[p.13]. We understand the
personality of the characters through their speech. They are simple
fishermen, who talk down-to-earth conversations.
Huck and Santiago pass through various adventures and conflict with
different forces that show the cruelties of nature and the irrationalities of
society. The environment will not simply conform to those larger-than-life
wishes of our imaginative heroes, Huckleberry and Santiago. Donald M.
Kartiganer and Malcolm A. Griffith describe such American characters as,
"1.larger than any context 2. larger than the particular deeds they might
perform".14 So that, these characters find themselves in conflict with the
natural environment and with the natural human responses. They make a
gallant effort to redeem the incoherence of their worlds and attempt to
impose some form upon the disorder of their lives by maintaining a code,
which appear in terms of self-imposed discipline whether through the code
of a gangster of Huckleberry or the technique of a fisherman of Santiago.
Both stories are built on the great moral values: love, honor, loyalty, pride,
and humility, and speak of the better way of attaining these values and the
spiritual satisfaction felt by their holders.
One of the most recurring themes throughout The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn is individuality. Huck, unlike most people in his society,
comprehends the events that occur around him sensitively. He responds to
them according to his own beliefs not according to those of society. This
special quality of Huck makes him a noble hero in the American literature.
Thus, Huck's moral instincts hold him in a higher moral level than those of
the society. We can identify the development of Huck as an individual
outside his society through studying some of his actions. He accepts the
immoral judgment that slavery is right, proper, lawful, and ironically thinks
4
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
that he is committing a sinful act in not returning Jim to Miss Watson and
treating him as a runaway slave. So that, His decision to help free Jim
defines his personal justice and the heroism of his own self. He recognizes
Jim as a human being; therefore, he fights the belief that claims, 'slaves
should not be free'. However, Huckleberry's decision creates a conflict
between him and his society. Huck never conforms to Pap's, or the widow's
beliefs, or to any of the people of his land, instead he chooses his own. The
most compelling example of Huck's individuality is when Huck writes a
letter to Miss Watson to return Jim, yet he ends up ripping the letter and
deciding to help free Jim. He travels with Jim rather than letting him return
to the widow's sister. T.S. Eliot sees that the river seems to be an image of
timeless life force different from the fixed order of land, an image of
freedom and regeneration15; therefore, Huck and Jim escape for freedom
from the intensive rules imposed by their society and give themselves to the
river. Huck could have gained moral victory over the community in his
decision to rescue Jim. But Twain is afraid of the negative consequences of a
real victory. Thus, he applies a kind of compromise by which he could not
allow Huck's complete separation from his society. Whenever Huck is near a
real victory and freedom, Mark Twain manages to prevent them from
becoming true.16 So, Huck and Jim's idyllic life on the river ends with the
appearance of the thieves, 'King' and 'Duke', who befriend Huck and Jim
then betray them for a share in the supposed reward and Jim is held captive
on a plantation down the river. The king and duke become a symbol of evil.
Their role is to prove to Huck and Jim the dangers that they would face as a
result of their detachment and isolation from their society. Richard P. Adams
interprets the novel with considerable ingenuity in terms of "a pattern of
symbolic death and rebirth".17 He confirms that Huck grows during time of
crucial change by 'dying' out of society, that is through drowning into the
nature of the river, and then returning or being 'reborn' into society with a
new and different attitude toward it.18 Leo Marx asserts a similar view
saying. "Huck has grown in nature throughout the journey".19 Yet, Mark
Twain, in the final chapters, finds it better to insert Huck and Jim back into
their community. As Thomas Blue proclaims, "Twain deliberately returned
Huck Finn to the community as an alternative to irreparably isolating him
from it".20 Mark Twain is aware that individual triumph at the expense of the
community's stability causes moral as well as physical isolation from it. The
idea of solidarity and interdependence is in Mark Twain's mind when he
writes the 'controversial end' of his novel. He tries to confirm the inability of
man to live in isolation from his community.
The theme of individuality and interdependence is obvious in The Old
5
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
Man and the Sea. Many critics recognize this. Among them is Clinton S.
Burhans, Jr., who thinks that since 1937 Hemingway has been concerned
with individuality and interdependence.21 Glen A. Love suggests that The
Old Man and the Sea "takes us more deeply than any of Hemingway's other
works into the conflict between tragic individualism and the magnificence of
nature".22 Most of the critical receptions of The Old Man and the Sea,
namely those by Philip Young, Carlos Baker, and Leo Gurko, emphasize
Santiago's individualism. Leo Gurko declares that The Old Man and the Sea
is "the culmination of Hemingway's long search for disengagement from
social world and total entry into the natural".23 In D'Agostino's words,
Hemingway "felt the crises of romantic individualism in all its complexity
and his characters are also engaged in living out the deep and tormenting
problem of liberty".24 As his prose proves, Hemingway believes that the
abstract thinking cannot lead to full awareness of the reality of oneself and
his world and his community unless he learns this process through the
experience of romantic individualism in the nature of the world which
destroys such individualism. Santiago is "a strange old man" [p.10], full of
energy and expert in his profession. After a long time of struggle and
endurance with the marlin, the old man succeeds in catching it. It is a great
challenge when an individual faces his destiny alone. As the story proceeds,
the old man experiences a new moral and spiritual victory as he goes "far
out" in the sea. He escapes the limits of chances on land and aims at gaining
freedom, dignity, and identity. The role of the sharks here equals that of the
King and Duke. The sharks are symbol of evil of the world. They are thieves
that steal the old man's achievement. Just at that point the old man feels the
bad results of going "far out" in the sea alone. Santiago feels that he must
kill the marlin to continue the universal cycle of death and rebirth. Santiago
himself dies out of society and is reborn with a new idea of himself and
nature and community. His people on land, the boy and the other fishermen,
think that the old man might have died in the sea. Airplanes search him but
they do not find any sign of his existence.
Technically, The Old Man and the Sea is planned after the structure of
the older novel, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The two stories start
on land, set off on the water, then return to land. The lines of the two plots
move in cyclic and continual order. The sense of optimism and inclination
for individualism will lead the heroes of both stories toward water again, but
their love for solidarity and the sense of interdependence return them to land.
Victor A. Doyno writes, "The repetition of the cycle of attempt and failure
indicates that although the struggle for freedom is ultimately unsuccessful,
the attempt is continual and cyclic".25 Huckleberry Finn declares at the end
6
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
of the book that he will return to the river and continue his adventures but
with more understanding and awareness of himself and his environment. He
says,
'I am rotten glad of it, because if I'm a knowed
what a trouble it was to make a book I wouldn't a
tackled it and ain't going to no more. But I reckon
I got to light out for the Territory ahead of the rest,
because Aunt Sally she's going to adopt me and
sivilize me and I can't stand it been there before'. 26
with a dominant sense of optimism the boy said to the old man,
' now we fish together again'
'No. I am not lucky. I am not lucky any
more'
'The hell with luck,' the boy said. ' I'll bring
the luck with me. [pp.112-113].
By extension, the thematic implication of any journey encompasses
progress from innocence to experience or from ignorance to knowledge.
Santiago and Huck learn lessons and improve their knowledge of the world.
They become more aware of their capacities and abilities. Huck and Jim
acknowledge their incapacity to escape the conventions of their society, and
their inability to a personal liberty achieve the approval of their society. In a
similar way, Santiago realizes his inability to live alone as an old man with
his limited physical power. He confesses his inevitable need to the boy and
says, "Fishing kills me exactly as it keeps me alive. The boy keeps me alive,
he thought. I must not deceive myself too much." [p.95] Moreover, the
strong sense of humanity shared between the two heroes, Santiago and
Huckleberry, leads them to reconcile with their community due to the fact
that man at the end is part of the context he is living in, whether nature or
society.
In a critique on The Old Man and the Sea, Melvin Backman implies,
"In Santiago Hemingway has created a fine a primitive as the twentieth
century has revealed, one who seems worthy of comparison with Mark
Twain's Huck Finn or Jim".29 The conditions of primitivism primarily
resides in a natural, unlettered boy, Huck Finn. Similar touches of
primitivism can be seen in Santiago's character,
… an old man was thin and gaunt with deep
7
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown
blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun
brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on
his cheeks. The blotches ran well down the sides
of his face and his hands had the deep creased scars
from handling heavy fish on the cords. But none
of these scars were fresh. They were as old as
erosions in a fishless desert". [pp.56]
Living on water is an ideal example of getting so close to nature. Such
a life is described as isolated, instinctive, simple, uninhabited, humble,
providing most of the element of primitivism.28 Mark Twain aims at
presenting the primitive side of nature through pushing his heroes to
experience the life on water with both its beauty and danger. Hemingway
deals with nature using a similar strategy. Glen A. Love affirms this view
saying, "Hemingway's primitivism found personal expression in his life long
search for unspoiled natural settings and the elemental experiences which
fed his appetite for conflict and violence: ….[like] deep sea fishing on the
gulf stream".29 Whereat, in a rare experience for an old man, Hemingway
send off his hero to spend three days on water. Water serves as a
multileveled symbol: source of life, contributor of fecundity and growth,
regal majestic beauty. Moreover, water is a symbol of cross purposes: it
provides life and is able to kill.30 Huck and Jim face the hazard of death; Jim
was dead as Huck concludes when the steamboat struck their raft. Santiago
tastes death and suffers the pain of crucifixion during his attempt to fish in
the deep waters of the stream. He feels, "There is no translation for this
word, and perhaps it is just a noise such as a man might make, involuntarily,
feeling the nail go through his hands and in to the wood" [p.96]. Man can
appreciate nature when he lives in nature and indulges his senses fully in its
idyllic beauty, then accommodates with its aggression and is motivated by
its unfinished power and determination. Mark Twain has been aware of this
thought in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Hemingway is too.
Since our relation with nature occurs through the senses, Mark Twain
depends upon sensory perception to a great extent. He employs most of the
traditional senses poetically, like: temperature, pressure, pleasure, pain,
muscular sensation and taste. To clarify this point, the following paragraph
from The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is quotable,
….you could see little dark spots drifting along,
8
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
ever so far away--trading scows, and such things;
and long back streak-- rafts, sometimes you could
hear a sweep screaming or jumbled up voices, it
was so still, and sounds come so far;….Then the
nice breeze springs up, and comes fanning you
from over there, so cool and fresh, and sweet to
smell, on account of the woods and the flowers; but
sometimes not that way because they've left dead
fish laying around, gars, and such, and they do get
pretty ranks; and next you've get the full day, and
everything smiling in the sun and the song- birds
just going it! [p.125].
I hadn't had bite to eat since yesterday; so Jim he
got out some corn-dodgers and butter-milk, and
pork and cabbage, and greens-- there ain't nothing
in the world so good, when it's cooked right.
[p.126].
Following the old master, Hemingway "determined to reduce life to
its simplest elements. And these are physical movements, word spoken, and
physical sensation: heat, cold, thirst, sleepiness, pain, and the like."31 To
quote some instances from The Old Man and the Sea: "It was cold now in
the time before daylight and he pushed against the wood to be warm".
[p.45]. "It encouraged him to talk because his back has stiffened in the night
and it hurts truly now".[p.47]. "I must eat the small tuna".[p.49]. "… he felt
the smell of the land behind and rowed out into the clean early
morning".[p.22]. "In the dark the man could feel the morning coming and as
he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish felt the water and the
hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness"
[p.23].
'Now let me get through the eating of this
dolphin and get some rest and a little sleep' under
the stars and with the night colder all the time he
ate half of the dolphin fillets and one of the flying
fish, gutted and with its head off.' What an
excellent fish dolphin is to eat cooked,' he said.
[p.70].
Living isolated on water, feeling the tenderness and harshness of
9
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
nature, sharing the pleasure of success and the pain of failure, and moving
towards fulfilling the united aims of freedom and happiness, all these cases
and others govern the life and strengthen the relation of both pairs of heroes,
Huck and Jim, and Santiago and Manolin. Backman, in an essay on The Old
Man and the Sea, comments on this issue saying, "But now in the relation
between man and boy, Hemingway achieves a new gentleness. This turning
to male companionship seems characteristically American, recalling the
paired Huck Finn and Jim…."32 Male companionship and father-son
relationship become in a time a recurrent themes in American literature. One
outstanding example is Santiago and Manolin relationship. Arthur G. Pettit
suggests that Jim is Huck's superior in affection and loyalty, he continues,
"Knowing that Pap is dead he takes on the role of a foster father to an orphan
boy."33 Jim calls Huck "honey", "boss", and other pet names. On the river
the boy begins to show some real affection for Jim. While the two are on the
river, Jim's principal role is to teach Huck some manners, especially
manners of pertaining friendship. "Huck and Jim first meet in the novel on
the level that regards Jim as a teacher and Huck as a learner."34 It is Jim who
thinks that they should search for a higher place in the cave before the storm
arrives, and builds the wigwan on the raft. Jim finds Pap's dead body and
convinces Huck not to look at the dead man. Also he teaches Huck how to
avoid bad luck and helps him develop his conscience and taste. Teacherlearner relationship forms a main part of the Santiago-Manolin relationship.
The love of Manolin for Santiago is that of a disciple for a master in the art
of fishing, "The old man had thought the boy to fish and the boy loved him."
[p.6]. Manolin says, "You must get well fast for there is much that I can
learn and you can teach me everything…" [p.113]. It is also the love of a son
for an adopted father, and Santiago's love for Manolin is of a father to his
son. He finds himself lonely and weak without the boy's presence and help.
The atmospheres of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Old Man
and the Sea are planned carefully by their authors to create convincing
worlds where man and boy can successfully interact without interference.
As a result of their awareness that romantic individualism is not a
success by itself, the heroes return to the hands of their communities seeking
some support. Yet, do our heroes look for a superior support? That is god's
support! In fact, Huck Finn and Santiago come across religion but they have
troubles believing in God. Although they try to pray, they find it a waste of
time. Huck rejects Christian prayer and finds it unpractical. He says, "Miss
Watson she took me in the closet and prayed, but nothing come of it." [p.11].
Huck tries to pray, "I try it", he remarks; but the trial fails, "Once I got a
10
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
fish-line, but no hooks. I tried for the hooks three or four times, but
somehow I couldn't make it work" [p.11]. Huck has been eager to know
about Moses, but he loses that interest when he knows that Moses is a dead
man. He believes that there is no practical sense in a dead man.
Like Mark Twain's hero, Hemingway's hero prays at the moment of
crises, but the aid of the prayer is never depended upon, never really
expected. Therefore, the old man, who, after twenty-four hours of his
struggle, prays for God's help "mechanically" and "automatically", saying, "I
am not religious and Hail Mary's are easier than Our Father's." [p.56]. And
after forty-five hours, he says,
' Now that I have him coming so beautifully, God
help me to endure. I'll say a hundred Our Fathers
and a hundred Hail Mary's. but I cannot say them
now'.
' Consider them said,' he thought, ' I'll say
them later.' [p.78].
Santiago does not depend on God's assistance. He depends on his own
ability and on the imaginative power of youth that the boy gives him
whenever he wishes to be with him at the point of crises. Santiago feels that
there is no need to say the prayer. While both, Huck and Santiago, may not
be pious, they do have a strong sense of right and wrong. Huck puzzles
between either to steal Jim out of slavery or to go to hell if he does that.
Finally, he decides to free Jim even if it means Hell. So, after writing a letter
to Miss Watson informing her about Jim's place, Huck says, "I felt good and
all washed clean of sin for the first time I had ever felt so in my life, and I
knowed I could pray now. But I didn't do it straight off, but laid the paper
down and set there thinking." [p.202]. But after thinking of the friendly Jim,
he decides to tear up the letter and go to hell, "' All right, then, I'll go to hell'
and tore it up" [p.202]. In a comparatively similar way, Santiago pities the
fish he hooks and is puzzled between leaving it to its purpose or to continue
the process of catching it. Santiago echoes, "I am sorry that I killed the fish"
[p.94]. "Perhaps it was a sin to kill the fish", "… He thought much and kept
thinking about sin." [p.94].
Conclusion:
11
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
To sum up, one dare not say that Hemingway imitates Twain because
that is untrue. Each of the two writers has his own art and contribution to
American literature. Yet, the phenomenon of influence is there in the case of
Mark Twain and Ernest Hemingway, since Hemingway personally praises
Twain's art especially in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The
similarities shared between The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The
Old Man and the Sea prove that influence. Such similarities are: the
resemblance in language and the use of everyday speech, the themes of
individuality and interdependence, man and boy companionship, religious
views, tendencies toward nature and primitivism, technique of death and
rebirth, and the continual cycle of life. Hemingway's art is unique and
inimitable. Many of Hemingway's followers and admirers attempt to imitate
him but no one succeeds. Hemingway creates his own literary world and
style, yet he never denies the values of the old master's impact upon him,
especially Mark Twain and his masterpiece The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn.
Notes
1)
Shelly Fishkin Fisher, A Forward in Personal Recollection of Joan of
Arc, Mark Twain, (New York: Oxford University Press,Inc,1998), p. xi.
2)
Fisher, p. xii.
3)
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia.
(22\03\1427) page 1 of 4.
File//I:\\Adventure%20 Huckleberry%20 Finn%20\
4)
Ernest Hemingway, The Green Hills of Africa, (London:Penguin Books
Ltd, 1973 ), p.22.
5)
Philip Young, Ernest Hemingway, (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1963), p.38.
6)
Young, p.36.
7)
Cleanth Brooks, B. Leaves, and Robert Penn Warren, American
Literature, The Makers and the Makings, Vol. II, 1861 to the Present,
(New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1973), p.1276.
8)
Young, p.27.
9)
Young, p.27.
10) Andre Maurois, "Ernest Hemingway", Hemingway and His Critics,
ed, Carlos Baker, ( New York; Hill and Wang Inc., 1965), p. 50.
12
Lujein Yousif Thannoon
11) Brooks, p.1276.
12) Young, p.33.
13) Ernest Hemingway, The Old Man and the Sea, (London: Penguin
Books Ltd., 1974) p.11.
Further reference to this edition will parenthetically be cited within the
text with the page number.
14) Donald M. Kartiganer and Malcolm A. Griffith, Theories of American
Literature, ( New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972), p.7.
15) T. S. Eliot, "The Boy and the River: Without Beginning or End",
A Case Study in Critical Controversy, Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn, Mark Twain, eds. Gerald Graff and James Phelam, (New York:
Bedford Books of St. Martin Press, 1995) pp.287- 290.
16) Thomas Blue, "The Strategy of Compromise in Mark Twain's 'Boy
Books'", Modern Fiction Studies, p.29. Vol. XIV, Number 1, Spring
1968.
17) Richard P. Adams, " The Unity and Coherence of Huckleberry Finn"
in Tulane Studies in English, Vol. VI, 1956. p. 90.
18) Adams, p.90.
19) Leo Marx, "Mrs. Eliot, Mr. Thrilling and Huckleberry Finn". A Case
Study in Critical Controversy, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark
Twain, eds. Gerald Graff and James Phelam, (New York: Bedford
Books of St. Martin's Press, 1995), p.295.
20) Blue, p.31.
21) Clinton S. Burhans, Jr., "The Old Man and The Sea: Hemingway's
Tragic Vision of Man". Ernest Hemingway Critiques of Four Major
Novels, ed. Carlos Baker, ( New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962),
p.150.
22) Glen A. Love, "Hemingway's Indian Virtues: An Ecological
Reconsideration", Western American Literature, Vol. III, No.22,
(Nov. 1987), p.207.
23) Leo Gurko, "The Old Man and The Sea", College English, Vol. XVII,
1,14 (Oct. 1955), p.299.
24) Nemi D'Agostino, "The Later Hemingway" Hemingway, ed. Robert
P. Weeks, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 159.
25) Victor A. Doyno, "Over Twain's Shoulders: The Composition and
13
The Influence of Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on …
Structure of Huckleberry Finn", Modern Fiction Studies, Vol. XIV,
No.1, ( Spring,1968), p.7.
26) Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, A Case Study in
Critical Controversy, eds., Gerald Graff and James Phelan, (New York:
Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1995), p.125.
27) Melvin Backman, "Hemingway: The Matador and the Crucified",
Hemingway and His Critics, ed. Carlos Baker, (New York: Hill and
Wang Inc., 1965), p. 50.
28) Charles Clerc, "Sunrise on the River: 'The Whole World' of
Huckleberry Finn", Modern Fiction Studies, Vol. XIV, No. 1. (Spring
1968), p.76.
29) Love, p. 202.
30) Clerc, p.76.
31) Joseph Warren Beach, The Twentieth Century Novel: Studies in
Technique, (New York, The Century Co., 1932), p.534.
32) Backman, p. 258.
33) Arthur G. Pettit, Twain and the South, (Kentucky: The University
Press of Kentucky, 1974), p.110.
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