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N U I M AYNOOTH
01 TacoíI na h É lre a n n Mé Nuad
The Transportation of Convicts from County Tipperary to Australia 1836-1853
By
Patrick Butler
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MA
DEPARTMENT OF MODERN HISTORY
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND
MAYNOOTH
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT: Professor R.V. Comerford
Supervisor of Research: Dr. M.Denise Dunne
July 2005
Contents
Introduction
I-4
Chapter I; Socio-Economic Conditions
5-16
Chapter H: Crime and Convict Transportation
from Tipperary, 1836-1853
17-29
Chapter HI: The Colonies, 1836-1853
30-48
Conclusion
49-52
Bibliography
53-55
i
Acknowledgements
Much gratitude and thanks is extended to the following for their input and co­
operation, which was highly valued.
Dr. M .Denise Dunne w ho’s input and guidance was greatly appreciated and valued
The staff o f the John Paul II library at the National University o f Ireland, Maynooth
The staff o f the National Archives o f Ireland, Bishop Street, Dublin
Senior lecturers and staff o f the Department o f Modern History, National University
o f Ireland, Maynooth
The National Library o f Australia for the use o f various images
Introduction
The aims and objectives o f this work are to consider the socio-econom ic conditions
prevailing in county Tipperary during the period in question. The affects on those
residing within the county, both rural and urban, and to try and understand how socio­
economic conditions had such an influence in the perpetration o f crime and the
resulting cases o f transportation. The investigation o f why, when and how convicts
were transported to Australia from the late eighteenth up to the middle o f the
nineteenth century has been looked at in depth by both historians and those hoping, to
trace their convict ancestral roots. Some have studied conditions on the ships, some
have studied the colonies and others such as A.G.L Shaw1 have studied the whole
transportation era itself. However for the purposes o f this thesis it was decided to
focus on one particular era 1836-1853 and on one county, namely Tipperary. This
period was selected because not only was Tipperary badly affected by agrarian
agitation and faction fighting, more so than any other, but also by the Famine a
combination o f which led to high incidents o f transportation. This thesis provides an
analysis o f som e o f those transported, looks at their backgrounds and establishes the
link with the socio-econom ic conditions, which in so many ways shaped the lives and
futures o f those affected by these conditions. The colonies will also be looked at, in
light o f what awaited those who were transported along with a brief glimpse o f how
they fared.
There are a number o f histories and surveys available on the agrarian crime and
outrage that was committed in both Ireland and Tipperary but for the purpose o f this
thesis it is intended to utilise only those works that relate directly to Tipperary. There
are a number o f works available specifically on the county o f Tipperary. There is a
1 A.G.L Convicts and the Colonies: A Study o f Penal Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland to
Australia and other Parts o f the British Empire (Ireland, 1998)
definite accumulation o f knowledge on the county and the one collection o f works that
stands out is that o f The County Tipperary Historical Society and their Tipperary
Historical Journals.
There are also some decent individual works on Tipperary such as W illiam Nolan,
(ed.) Tipperary: H istory and Society: Interdisciplinary essays on the history o f an
Irish county’’ 2 This contains chapters by W illiam Nolan entitled “Patterns o f living in
county Tipperary from 1770-1850” and Maurice J Brie, ‘‘The W hiteboy movement in
Tipperary 1760-80 ”.3
Dennis Mamane, “Land and Violence: A history o f West
Tipperary from 1 6 6 0 ” is another.4 It is important to look at the socio-econom ic
conditions o f county Tipperary both in the years preceding and during the period in
question i.e. 1836-’53 in order to get a picture o f what led some to commit crime and
therefore be transported. These secondary sources often contain information on what
conditions were like for example R.D Collison Black, “Economic thought and the
Irish Question 1817-1870” 5 Noreen Higgins, “Tipperary’s tithe w ar 1830-1838:
Parish accounts o f resistance against a church tax ”.6 Other sources include Thomas
P. Power, “Land\ Politics, and Society in eighteenth-century Tipperary ”.7 Sources
such as these are useful in that they cover most o f the key issues that will be focused
on here while they are also a good way o f gaining a useful insight and overview o f the
subject matter at hand and the period in question.
On transportation and the conditions in the penal colonies there are also some decent
surveys and works available such as D.S. Neal, “The Rule o f law in a Penal Colony:
2 William Nolan, (ed.) Tipperary: H istory and Society: Interdisciplinary essays on the history o f an
Irish county (Dublin, 1985).
3 ibid
4 Dennis Mamane, la n d and Violence: A history o f West Tipperaryi from 1660 (Tipperary, 1985).
5 R.D Collison Black, Economic thought and the Irish Question 1817-1870 (Britain, 1987)
6 Noreen Higgins, Tipperary’s tithe war 1830-1838: Parish accounts o f resistance against a church tax
(Tipperary, 2002).
7 Thomas P. Power. Land, Politics, and Society in eighteenth-centuiy Tipperary (Oxford, 1993).
2
Law and P ow er in early New South W a les”* Con Costello, “Botany Bay: The Story o f
convicts transported from Ireland to Australia 1791-1853” is another and these will
also be looked at.9
This period was chosen because most o f the records pertaining to the period o f
1795-1836 were destroyed in the Four Courts during the Civil war when tire destroyed
a section o f the building containing many important archives and records kept by the
British administration relating to crimes, court cases and sentences o f transportation.
To investigate the subject matter in more detail a range o f primary sources are also
utilised. The National Archives o f Ireland database on Transportation to Australia
contains many sources on the subject such as the C onvict Reference Files, Prisoners
Petitions and Cases and C onvict's Letterbook while also having an on-line microfilm
database o f Prisoners Petitions and Cases, which contains over 2,500 entries for
county Tipperary alone.10
The British Parliam entary Papers located in the John Paul II Library at the
National University o f Ireland, Maynooth particularly those relating to Crime and
Punishment as well as the Colonies: A ustralia and o f the various Select Committee
Reports on Transportation are utilised. They are an excellent source o f eyewitness
accounts and first hand experiences. There were also some newspapers printed in
Tipperary with the Clonmel Chronicle and the Nenagh Guardian to name but two.
The F reem an’s Journal, which was based in Dublin city often had accounts o f what
was going on in other parts o f the country especially in its D isturbed D istricts and
8 D.S. Neal, The Rule o f law in a Penal Colony: Law and Power in early New South Wales (London,
1986).
9 Con Costello, Botany Bay: The Story o f convicts transportedfrom Ireland to Australia 1791-1853
(Cork, 1986)
10 www.nationalarchives.ie
3
State o f the Country columns reporting on criminal activity and court cases in rural
areas.11 Newspaper archives are available in the National Library o f Ireland.
The aim o f this approach is to provide a fresh insight into an era, which had such
an impact on the lives o f many. For those that were transported there was the
challenge o f adjusting to a new environment, survival and if successful the possibility
o f creating a new and more prosperous life for themselves. Those that were successful
were so to varying degrees and once they had established themselves either as
merchants in the towns and cities or as ranch and farm owners they would now be
masters over those that had been transported like they themselves were. They
provided the newcomers with opportunities to reform themselves and provided them
with the skills necessary to succeed like they did and which laid the foundation o f a
new state.
11 ‘Newsplan Newspaper Database’ http://www.nli.ie/newsplan/Countvlist.asp=27 (08/01/05)
Chapter 1
Socio-Economic Conditions in Tipperary 1836-1853
By the latter half o f the nineteenth century Ireland’s econom y apart from the northeast
was primarily an agrarian one. Irish industry was not able to compete with that o f
Britain because investors there were putting their money and capital into British
industry and also investing in new methods o f production. These new methods o f
production allowed products such as textiles to be manufactured cheaply and en mass.
The landed elite in Ireland were less inclined to invest in the country either in industry
or their estates. Also, Ireland, unlike Britain, had not undergone an Industrial
Revolution resulting in a mostly rural populace. The industrial revolution in Britain
saw a major demographic change in that there was a shift from a rural to an urban
populace.
The Act o f Union o f 1801 was meant to provide Ireland equal status and
opportunity with Britain. This though was far from the case as now Irish industry
came under pressure and threat from British made even worse now that there was no
parliament to protect Irish industry from imports. A lso however unlike Britain, by
1841 less than 14 percent o f the population lived in towns o f 2,000 or more people
while almost three quarters o f males were engaged in farming.12 Comparable figures
for Britain indicate that less than one quarter o f the British labour force was similarly
engaged.13 Ireland therefore was primarily both a rural and agricultural countiy.
This then was the cause o f so much o f the perceived injustices that were to become
indicative o f rural Ireland during the period. With no industries in the country, there
was no movement towards mass urbanisation such as had occurred in Britain,
12 K.T Hoppen, Ireland since 1800: Conflict and Conformity (London, 1992) p.33
13 P. Deane, W .A Cole, British Economic Growth, 1668-1959 (Cambridge, 1969) p. 142
5
meaning also that capital could only be for the most part generated through the
extraction o f rent from the leasing o f land.
The problem was that before the Famine, subdivision o f land was rife and even
customary. This would create problems as population pressure on the land increased
with one generation passing on land to another to be further subdivided, thus creating
a demand and fierce competition for holdings while at the same time reducing the
ability o f these plots to produce enough potatoes for food. This also meant pressure in
relation to the payment o f rents with labour often being used as a means to achieve
this while there would also be a struggle to pay tithes and dues. Add to this the decline
o f tillage farming in favour o f pasture among medium to large farmers and landlords
leading them to try and consolidate their holdings, then an environment and largely
rural society with the propensity towards the use o f violence to keep their holdings
was created. This also created social unrest as the rule o f law and civil order was
challenged by the various agrarian secret societies that emerged in this period and
began posing a threat to the authorities, landowners and even the clergy o f both
denominations o f their perceived injustices in relation to land access etc. Further add
to this the existence o f a large landless and mostly labourless populace, who may
have, sometimes when they could, indulge in drinking to forget their woes, you have a
recipe for violence as frustration, jealousy and envy surfaced along with the need to
get even with those that caused these emotions. All o f these factors were a major
common denominator in the perpetration o f criminal and violent activity.
The existence o f a system o f punishment such as that o f transportation to penal
colonies in Australia and elsewhere, arguably, far from being a deterrent, only
inflamed things further as transportation offered a chance for some to escape their
6
predicaments as they deliberately wanted to be transported. It seems likely that the
authorities here to rid the country o f those elements that caused trouble used this
punishment in the case o f Ireland. Also as time went on and economic and social
conditions deteriorated, the prisons became overcrowded because o f an influx o f those
who had committed petty crimes out o f sheer desperation and necessity especially
during times o f sporadic localised Famine(s) or econom ic depression. Transportation
provided an opportunity to relieve the burdens on the prisons while the types o f
sentences (ranging from 7yrs-life) handed down would mean less o f a chance o f
repeat offenders re-entering the prison system while in any case labour was needed in
the growing colonies. Here was an opportunity to kill many birds with the one stone.
To get to grips with what conditions were like in Tipperary from 1836-’53 one must
first consider what conditions were like in the county before this era. This is important
because most o f the problems relating to crime and anti social behaviour are rooted in
the decades and years preceding 1836. A number o f things need to be taken in to
account in considering the socio-econom ic situation. Firstly from the 1760s on there
was a progressive increase in population not just in county Tipperary but also in
Ireland as a whole. The burden o f feeding this growing population fell upon the land
the ownership o f which was exclusive, i.e. controlled by an ascendancy which was a
minority and the use o f which was inefficient. Subdivision was just as rife in
Tipperary as anywhere else. One estimate o f the population o f Ireland in 1777 was put
at 3.7 million with an increase to 4.7 million by 1791.14 Secondly, in the decades from
1760 up to the Famine there was a series o f popular and violent responses to the
ownership, occupation and usage o f land. Grievances such as the payment o f tithes
14 Denis G. Marnane, Land and Violence: A History o f West Lipperary from 1660 (Tipperary, 1985)
p23
were also a focus o f groups and individuals with a tithe war erupting in the 1830s.
These groups and movements were oath bound and were particularly active and
widespread in Tipperary with the county thereby gaining a notorious reputation.
These movements were to have both a social and econom ic impact on the society o f
the county. As time went by there was also the rise o f the phenomenon o f faction
fighting with this being linked to the agrarian secret societies. Agrarian movements
and faction fighting would persist into the early to mid decades o f the nineteenth
century.
Thirdly, there was a reversion from tillage to pasture by landowners and
holders due to a close o f the Napoleonic wars and a concentration on cattle rearing
and dairy farming. This would mean less land for the cultivation o f potatoes while
migration by dairymen and migrant workers from surrounding counties coupled with
the consolidation o f holdings by farmers and landlords meant that there was
competition for land and work. Fourthly, the indigenous industries, especially w ool,
suffered both with the onset o f the Industrial Revolution and the Act o f Union.
N ew forms o f machinery now meant that production would be quicker and cheaper
while English imports into Ireland were relatively cheaper than their Irish
counterparts. This also meant fewer jobs as traditional production methods were
replaced. There was also however those industries that could not afford this new
technology and would not be able to match production levels or match the retail prices
o f those that did invest. This would lead to closures o f premises and in some towns
such as Carrick-on-Suir a collapse in businesses and trades such as that o f wool.
Britain also held the advantage in infrastructure with the introduction o f railways, a
good canal system and a decent road network.
8
In terms o f transportation infrastructure in Tipperary there was an adequate system o f
roads throughout the county while there was also the River Suir through the length o f
the county, but not all major urban areas were located on the river while the first
railway lines did not appear in the region until the late 1840s early 1850s.
The arrival o f the Famine (1845-1848) resulted in desperation among those such
as landless labourers, the rural and urban unemployed and those who in general
depended on potatoes for survival. Survival and self preservation manifested itself in
urban districts in particular resulting in near riots in some o f county Tipperary’s urban
centres such as Clonmel, Tipperary town and Carrick-on-Suir where there were
attacks on flour carts, shops and businesses, bakeries and even grain stores. These
towns were large enough, would have had a significant hinterland surrounding them,
and from these hinterlands would have came people in search o f food leading to
competition with those residents o f the town in search o f the same. Some people
committed the most trivial o f crimes just to be arrested in the expectation o f
incarceration where it was presumed that the diet was better than the workhouse or on
the outside. Even the expectation o f a sentence o f transportation was viewed by some
as a way out o f what they saw as a desperate situation.
What then o f the socio-econom ic situation in county Tipperary during the period o f
1836-1850? The economy o f Tipperary was aided by the county’s strategic position
and accessible inland situation, which allowed it to respond to the needs o f various
markets.15 The position o f Tipperary in relation to surrounding counties allowed it
access to the ports o f Cork, Waterford, Limerick and even Dublin. Tipperary therefore
was able to export and import goods and produce through the Munster ports. W oollen
products met a demand in the domestic market; cereals helped to fulfil the needs o f
15 Denis G. Mamane, Land cmd Violence: A H istory o f West Tipperary from 1660 (Tipperary, 1985)
p.324
Dublin and later on formed a valuable export through Waterford while the county’s
sheep meat was available in Dublin and other cities. Producers in the county benefited
from this geographic position and the accessibility to the market with demand leading
to intensification in agricultural production. Tipperary was similar in this respect to
Cork and Kilkenny.16
The main areas o f industrial activity concerned w oollen manufacturing and flour
milling while there were other smaller (and some not so small) industries such as
brewing and distillation, bacon producers and butter stores. The urban centres in the
south and some in the north o f the county used the river Suir as a route for both
exports and imports for the river flowed through the towns o f Clonmel, Carrick-onSuir and Cahir. Clonmel was the largest urban area o f the county and was a key hub in
terms o f transportation in and out o f the county. The location o f the town o f Clonmel
in a fertile valley at the head o f a navigable section o f the river Suir that entered the
sea at Waterford meant that the town was a centre o f transport.17 This became even
more enhanced with the introduction by Charles Bianconi o f a coach business to
various destinations from the town. This coach service o f Bianconi would have also
provided employment to the likes o f blacksmiths, farriers, coachbuilders, stable hands
and harness makers, which would last into the 1850s.18
There were also flourmills and grain stores, which resulted from a boom in milling
at the end o f the eighteenth century catering for the markets o f Dublin and Britain.19
Many new mills had been built in and around Clonmel and this industry would be a
significant one to the economy o f the town and Tipperary for years to come.
16 Ibid p.325
17 Sean O’Donnell, Clonmel 1840-1900: Anatomy o f an Irish Town (Ireland, 1997) p.20
18 ibid p.45
19 M.E. Daly, Social and Economic History o f Ireland Since 1800 (Dublin, 1981) p.67
10
Meanwhile the com market in Clonmel was described in 1824:
“As extensive as any in this kingdom, and the merchants and traders evince a
more enterprising spirit and transact more business, than those o f any town o f equal
size in Ireland; and its affirmed as a fact, that one fifth o f the whole quantity o f flour,
exported from this kingdom, was last yea r shipped from one establishm ent in this
20
industrious and prosperous town”.
Here is an indication o f the healthy state o f the
economy o f Tipperary in the early decades o f the nineteenth century and more
importantly the extent o f the export o f cereals along with the laissiez-faire policies o f
Britain, which have an important impact in relation to the Famine.
River traffic was enhanced in 1835 with the establishment o f the Suir
Navigation Company leading to the dredging o f the river making it navigable for
boats up to 200 tons.21 The river between Clonmel and Waterford became very busy
and river transport continued to be vital for the economy o f Tipperary. However, as
time passed on, the decline in tillage began to take an affect with a drop in the
exportation o f cereals and a decline in business on the river with consequences for
employment. This was significant, as this decline would have had an important effect
on the livelihoods o f a substantial number o f people and families, not just in Clonmel
but also throughout South Tipperary. There were over 2,000 adults employed in
Clonmel in the food industry by 1841, which was dependant on agriculture. This
dependence on agriculture meant that Clomnel and indeed Tipperary were vulnerable
to the changing trends o f nineteenth century agriculture.22 By 1841 nearly a third o f
the families in Clonmel and its surrounds were employed directly in agriculture, while
some one fifth o f families in the grater urban area worked in agriculture.
23
This may
indicate that there were a substantial number o f agricultural labourers residing in the
20 P iggott’s National Directory o f Clomnel (Dublin, 1824) p.236
21 Sean O’Donnell, Clonmel 1840-1900: Anatomy o f an Irish Town (Ireland, 1997) p.45
22 ibid
23 ibid
11
town. It could also indicate that some o f the business people o f the town and those
that worked in the various industries owned or leased some farms in the hinterland.24
Carrick-on-Suir was also a fairly well populated area during the period o f 18361850. Like Clonmel to its north the town was serviced by a reasonable network o f
roads and was also able to export and import goods along the river Suir through
Waterford port with the tides aiding the movement o f river traffic. Carrick, like
Clonmel, had a substantial w oollen industry along with mills, breweries and
distilleries. The mills were not as substantial or numerous as those in Clonmel, while
the woollen manufacturers in the town provided much needed employment. The fact
that the town was located on a section o f the river Suir close to Waterford and
affected by tides meant that there was also a tradition o f boat building in the town.
However, Carrick was to suffer substantial econom ic decline due to the Industrial
Revolution in Britain and the advent o f machinery, which allowed industry in Britain
an advantage over those in Ireland.
The importation o f cheap English made woollens, which were manufactured
cheaply by machinery dealt a significant blow to the Carrick-on-Suir woollen
manufacturers and the industry went into terminal decline. Like Clonmel the decline
in tillage also affected Carrick for it meant less river traffic to the port o f Waterford,
which would in turn mean less employment on the river.
Overall the occupation profile o f the people o f South Tipperary by 1841 tells a tale o f
an economy predominately reliable on agriculture. More than 27,000 were classed as
farmers, and probably represented the number o f agricultural holdings in the region.25
There were also 74,000 servants and labourers and even though it is not certain that
all o f these were involved in agriculture, it is probably likely that many o f the males
24 Sean O’Donnell, Clonmel J840-1900: Anatomy o f an Irish Town (Ireland, 1997) p.20
25 Ibid p.20
were farm labourers while many o f the women employed as domestic servants were
so employed by the more prosperous farmers.26 Because so many were directly
employed on or leasing land, which was the mainstay o f the econom y and also crucial
to survival for so many, we have the situation where competition (not just for land but
related employment) for land was intense and there were those elements that would
stop at nothing to secure this access to land.
Population pressure and subdivision combined with the drive by landholders to
consolidate holdings and concentrate more on pasture would make this competition
for land all the more intense with violence perpetrated on those that infringed on what
may have been seen as customary rights. As pointed out by Mamane much o f the
agrarian violence resulted from the interaction between two opposing forces.27 On the
one hand it was the necessity o f a section o f the population to maintain its status quo,
to resist trends that threatened their fragile hold on a bare sufficiency; on the other
hand the drive by a more forceful section o f the people to improve its lot by
increasing its holding or improving its farming.28 It is fair to say therefore that the
source o f these acts o f violence was population pressure especially in relation to
farming practices and landlord attitude placing explosive pressures on the population.
The situation was developing not just in Tipperary but in rural Ireland where agrarian
societies were administering oaths, using intimidatory tactics and violence to set their
agendas which were more often than not directly related to the access to and usage o f
land. This spawned another sort o f violence also, attacks on dwelling houses and
property. This occurred because in order to carry out their intimidatory tactics and
perpetrate their violence, agrarian groups would need firearms, and these could be
26 Sean O’Donnell, Clonmel 1840-1900: Anatomy o f an Irish Town (Ireland, 1997) p.20
27 Denis G. Mamane, ‘Land and Violence in Tipperary in the 1800s ’ in Tipperary Historical Journal
(County Tipperary Historical Society, 1988) p. 67
28 ibid p. 68
13
I
found in private residences. Agrarian groups however did not derive their support
solely from the peasantry for they also had some support from artisans and craftsmen
in towns like Clonmel, Carrick-on-Suir and Clogheen where these and textile/wool
'y q
workers held outlying plots.
Agrarian (and some individuals) groups put pressure on
farmers and other landholders to regulate potato prices, to cease in their farming
practices i.e. consolidation o f holdings, to persuade them not to hire or offer leases to
outsiders and as well as this to stop tithe payments. The point here is that violence
was a mechanism whereby a code o f law or social and econom ic regulation,
alternative to that o f the state, attempted on a localised basis to maintain what were
perceived as customary rights.
TO
Lord Donoughmore explained thus, “The principal
o f the peasan ts o f Tipperary is that once in possession o f land, they have the right to
continue on i f ’.31 The subdivision o f holdings down through generations was rife.
This is the customary ‘right’ spoken o f earlier and as holdings became smaller and
smaller and population increased, it is not difficult to see how this was going to cause
problems in the future and how the potato became so necessary as a valuable food for
it produced more per acre or plot than any other crop. As put by Joseph Tabeteau the
Stipendiary Magistrate o f County Tipperary:
“A man who gets hold o f fifty or sixty acres in the course o f tw enty or thirty years,
subdivides it into fiv e or six farm s and these again are subdivided; according as their
fam ilies grow up they must settle them in some w ay and that is the only w ay they have
o f doing so. ”32
He also went on to explain that eviction put people from the rank o f farmer to
labourer and that these people depended on access to ‘quarter ground’ or conacre.
29 T.P Power, Land, Politics and Society in eighteenth-century Tipperary (Oxford, 1993) p. 183
30 Denis G. Marnane, ‘Land and Violence in Tipperary in the 1800.v ’ in Tipperary H istorical Journal
(County Tipperary Historical Society, 1988) p.69
31 ibid
32 Quoted in Denis G. Marnane, ‘Land and Violence in Tipperary in the 1800s ’ in Tipperary Historical
Journal (County Tipperary Historical Society, 1988) p.69
14
Their w ives he said went around the countryside by day begging potatoes from farmer
to farmer, which they sometimes sold at the market.33 Some large farmers and
landholders also sought to increase the size o f their holdings at the expense o f their
less fortunate brethren and this was the focus o f those organisations determined to
right what they perceived as injustices.
Agrarian secret societies interacted with the remnants o f those groups that were
previously engaged in the faction fighting o f the earlier part o f the century with the
members o f one often being the members o f another. These groups though curtailed to a
large extent were never really eradicated and they contributed to the unrest in both rural
and urban areas. Organisations like the Whiteboys, Rightboys, Shanavests and the
Caravats although weakened and curtailed never really disappeared. The Caravats in
particular were vigorously opposed to the free market in labour, land and goods and
they wanted econom ic life controlled in accordance with their wider social objectives o f
land and food for the poor.34 As the econom ic conditions in Tipperary deteriorated and
large landholders turned to pasture and dairying as well as consolidation o f their
holdings this meant less work for labourers but also more importantly less land for
potato growth. This in tandem with the migration o f dairymen into Tipperary from
neighbouring counties in search o f new pasture along with an influx o f migrant
labourers created a situation where organisations such as the Whiteboys and others
resorted to intimidation, beatings and even murder to try and redress their grievances.
The focuses o f this intimidation were medium to large landholders, landlords, tithe
proctors, land agents, migrant workers and dairymen and even clergy. The struggle for
land was so intense in Tipperary that there were only two possible outcomes,
33 ibid
34 Samuel Clarke, James S. Donnelly, Jr. Irish Peasants: Violence and Political unrest 1780-1914
(Dublin, 1996) p.83
15
betterment or disaster and with stakes so high and survival paramount no quarter was
given.
As shall be seen this intimidation often resulted in serious crimes being perpetrated and
combined with the disaster o f the Famine created the environment for mass deviance and
eventually criminal behaviour as people succumbed to both desperation and opportunism
leading so many to trial and eventual transportation.
16
Chapter Two
Crime and Convict Transportation from Tipperary 1836-1853
The majority o f those convicted and transported to Australia from Ireland were from
the more rural districts o f the country for Ireland unlike Britain was not heavily
urbanised. The lack o f an industrial revolution in Ireland except in the northeast o f the
country and Dublin, undoubtly contributed to this. Irish urban offenders, apart from
their religion, were similar to their British counterparts committing petty larceny, theft
and assaults. This compares with those from the rural areas where cases, even though
some included assaults and thefts, were more or less o f an agrarian nature at perceived
unjust land laws. Urban offenders from Ireland were also on the w hole younger than
their counterparts from rural districts with thirty six percent o f males being under the
age o f twenty while unlike their rural counterparts they were also more unlikely to
partake in social or political revolt.35
The disparities between the various provinces would also to some extent determine
those who were transported. Ulster was different to the rest o f Ireland in that a system
o f tenant right along with industry and domestic industry meant that tenant farmers
here had security o f tenure along with other means o f financial security. Leinster was
the most urbanised region with good communications and less pressure on the land
compared to the more rural regions o f Ireland. The two regions most affected by a
lack o f employment prospects or communications were the provinces o f Munster and
Connacht. Even though Munster was arguably less worse o ff than Connacht in terms
35 John Williams, ‘ Tipperary Convicts a n d Tasmania ’ in Tipperary H istorical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p .54
17
o f poverty it still nonetheless suffered from small subsistence farming combined with
a low standard o f living. The peasantry o f these provinces were to bare the brunt o f
the Famine.36
The literacy rates and occupations o f those transported from Ireland in general
reflects their rural background and therefore sets them apart from those from urban
centres, with nearly seven out o f ten men claiming to be labourers or farm labourers.
37
While a third o f women were country servants some claimed that they were also
nursemaids, laundry maids or simply stated they were in service.38 In terms o f other
occupations a few males were also tradesmen with carpenters, tailors, blacksmiths,
bakers, weavers, and stonemasons all given while some also stated that they were
miners, carters, quarrymen and sawyers. The majority o f these might only have been
able to read or were entirely illiterate despite the introduction o f a national school
system in 1831. A ges and marital status were also different to those from urban
districts. Males were older and more often married than other male prisoners while the
women were younger and more often single compared to other female prisoners.
In
terms o f religious background overall ninety percent o f Irish convicts stated that they
were Catholic.40 These provinces were to provide a sizeable amount o f those
transported during the famine years.
The county o f Tipperary can be considered as representative o f the rural districts o f
Ireland with all its poverty and social problems, affected more than any other county
because o f the presence o f agrarian movements and faction fighting. Add to this the
impact o f the Famine, the numbers transported for crime from the county increases
36 Ibid p. 54
37
38 John Williams, ‘ Tipperary Convicts and Tasmania' in Tipperary H istorical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p.53
39 Ibid
30 Ibid
18
d ra m a tic ally . In 1849 th e a u th o ritie s in Ire la n d re g is te re d s h a rp in c re a s e s in th o s e th a t
w e re s e n te n c e d to tra n s p o rta tio n w ith , 'a n u n p re c e d e n te d in c re a s e o f c rim e
c o n s e q u e n t u p o n th e d e s titu tio n a n d su ffe rin g s e n d u re d b y th e lo w e r c la s se s d u rin g
fo u r c o n se c u tiv e y e a rs ’. B e fo re 1846 th e n u m b e r tra n s p o rte d e a c h y e a r w a s o n
av e ra g e 6 7 3 , b u t b y 1848 th a t a v e ra g e h a d re a c h e d 2 ,6 8 7 .41
W h a t ty p e s o f c rim e th e n d id T ip p e ra ry c o n v ic ts c o m m it th a t w a rra n te d
tra n s p o rta tio n ? F irs tly it h a s to b e sa id th a t n o t all c o n v ic ts tra n s p o rte d fro m Ire la n d
w e re p e rs is te n t o ffe n d e rs d e s p ite th is c a te g o ris a tio n b y so m e. T h e re is n o d o u b t th a t
so m e w e re re g u la r o ffe n d e rs w ith p re v io u s c o n v ic tio n s w ith so m e o f th e s e m a k in g a
liv in g fro m p e tty c rim e a n d re c e iv in g th e m a n d a to ry s e v e n y e a r s e n te n c e , h o w e v e r, a
s iz e a b le n u m b e r w e re also firs t tim e o ffe n d e rs a n d th e s e w e re d e a lt w ith (s o m e tim e s)
h a rsh ly w ith se n te n c e s ra n g in g fro m te n y e a rs to life b e in g m e te d out. T h o se
c o n v ic te d a n d tra n s p o rte d fro m T ip p e ra ry w e re n o d iffe re n t. F o r e x a m p le , D a n ie l
N o o n a n , an 1 8 -y e a r-o ld p o rte r s e n te n c e d in 1841 to s e v e n y e a rs fo r s te a lin g m o n e y ,
h a d 15 p re v io u s c o n v ic tio n s w h ile firs t tim e o ff e n d e r J o h n R y a n w a s s e n te n c e d to te n
y e a rs in 1849 fo r th e ro b b e ry o f m e a l.42 O f c o u rs e th e re w e re th o s e c rim e s su ch as
larcen y , b u rg la ry , ro b b e ry a n d h ig h w a y ro b b e ry , c o in in g , fo rg e ry , a b d u c tio n a n d
re c e iv in g a n d fo r th e m o s t p a rt th e s e ty p es o f c rim e s re c e iv e d th e m a n d a to ry sev e n
y e a rs sen ten c e. A ls o h o w e v e r th e re w e re th o s e c rim e s a s s o c ia te d w ith ru ra l a g ita tio n
s u c h as a tta c k s a n d a rs o n a tta c k s o n d w e llin g h o u s e s , a s s a u lt o n la n d a g e n ts , la n d lo rd s
a n d tith e p ro c to rs , m ig ra n t w o rk e rs a n d d a iry m e n a n d e v e n in so m e c a se s th e m u rd e r
o f la n d lo rd s a n d th e ir a g e n ts. T h e a u th o ritie s to o k a v e ry h a rd lin e w ith th o s e th a t
c o m m itte d a tta c k s o n p ro p e rty , w h ic h th e y v ie w e d as v e ry serio u s. T h is w a s b e c a u s e
th e w h o le b a s is o f a sc e n d a n c y p o w e r in I r e la n d w a s th e o w n e rs h ip o f la n d a n d
41 John Williams, ‘ Tipperaty Convicts and Tasmania ’ in Tipperary Historical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p.54
42 Ibid p. 56
p ro p e rty w ith a n y th re a t to th is d e a lt w ith h a rsh ly . C o m p a re d to E n g la n d , v io le n t
c rim e su c h as a ss a u lts, m a n s la u g h te r a n d m u rd e r w e re m o re w id e s p re a d . S e v e n
p e rc e n t o f Iris h m e n c o m p a re d to tw o p e rc e n t o f E n g lis h m e n w e re tra n s p o rte d fo r su c h
o ffe n c e s.43 C o u n ty T ip p e ra ry w as n o e x c e p tio n w ith a n e v e n h ig h e r p ro p o rtio n b e in g
tra n s p o rte d fro m th e c o u n ty fo r s u c h o ffe n c e s th a n fro m o th e r ru ra l d istric ts. M o s t o f
th o s e tra n s p o rte d fro m th e c o u n ty fo r th e s e o ffe n c e s h a d b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith s e c re t
so c ie tie s a n d o rg a n is a tio n s s u c h as th e W h ite b o y s. T h e m o s t c o m m o n c rim e s
a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s e o rg a n is a tio n s in c lu d e d a s s a u ltin g d w e llin g s, a p p e a rin g a rm e d ,
issu in g th re a te n in g n o tic e s , a d m in iste rin g u n la w fu l o a th s, s te a lin g o r d e m a n d in g a rm s
a n d a s s a u ltin g /a tta c k in g la n d a g e n ts, ste w a rd s o r e v e n th e p o lice. S o m e tim e s e v e n
m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e fa m ily w e re in v o lv e d . J o h n G le e s o n w a s tra n s p o rte d fo r life fo r
a n a rm e d a ss a u lt o n a h a b ita tio n in 1843, h e e x p la in e d h is o ffe n c e as th u s , ‘A s sa u ltin g
a h a b ita tio n .., w ith fire a rm s; a m a n n a m e d M a h e r in th e h o u s e w a s b e a te n . M y b ro th e r
[and] co u sin P a tric k a n d S te p h e n o n b o a rd fo r th e s a m e o ff e n c e ’.44 S o m e a c te d a lo n e ,
fo r e x a m p le J o h n C o n w a y w a s s e n te n c e d to tra n s p o r ta tio n fo r life in 1846 fo r
as s a u ltin g a h a b ita tio n b e in g a rm e d [and] firin g a t P a tric k H o g a n a n a g e n t.45 It is h a rd
th o u g h to a s c e rta in e x a c tly h o w m a n y w e re in a g ra ria n s o c ie tie s u n le ss th e y c o n fe s s e d
o n a rriv a l in N e w S o u th W a le s, T a s m a n ia o r la te r o n , W e ste rn A u stra lia .
W o m e n a ls o c o m m itte d crim e s re la te d to ru ra l a g ita tio n w ith a rs o n b e in g a
p a rtic u la r p o p u la r c h o ic e w ith tw e n ty tw o p e rc e n t o f T ip p e ra ry w o m e n s e n te n c e d fo r
th is c rim e .46 S o m e e v e n c o n fe sse d on re a c h in g A u s tra lia th a t th e y h a d c o m m itte d th e
c rim e in o rd e r to b e tra n sp o rte d . B rid g e t M u rp h y s e n te n c e d in 1841 to fifte e n y e a rs
43 John Williams, ‘ Tipperary Convicts and Tasmania ’ in Tipperary Historical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
P-57
44 Ibid p.58
45 Ibid p.59
46 John Williams, ‘Tipperary Convicts and Tasmania' in Tipperary Historical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p.61
20
c la im e d sh e d id it to b e tra n sp o rte d . S h e w a s a th irty -y e a r-o ld fa rm se rv a n t, m a rr ie d
a n d a firs t o ffe n d e r sh e b ro u g h t tw o c h ild re n w ith h e r.47
T ip p e ra ry fe m a le c o n v ic ts o n th e w h o le th o u g h c o m m itte d th e le s s e r c rim e s o f
la rc e n y a n d th e ft, b u rg la ry , ro b b e ry a n d v a g ra n c y . C lo th e s , m o n e y , je w e lle r y a n d fo o d
w e re all p o p u la r ta rg e ts fo r fe m a le c o n v ic ts. L ik e th e ir m a le c o u n te rp a rts so m e w e re
re p e a t o ffe n d e rs a n d so m e s e n te n c e d fo r first tim e o ffe n c e s. J u d ith F a rre ll h a d fo u r
p re v io u s c o n v ic tio n s b e fo re b e in g c o n v ic te d a n d s e n te n c e d to tra n s p o rta tio n fo r
ste a lin g sh irts in 1 8 4 5 .48 S o m e w o m e n c o m m itte d s e rio u s c rim e s s u c h a s a s s a u lt a n d
m u rd er. O n e th in g th a t th e v a s t m a jo rity o f fe m a le c o n v ic ts fro m n o t o n ly c o u n ty
T ip p e ra ry b u t fro m a ll o v e r Ire la n d in g e n e ra l w e re n o t, w a s d ru n k e n a n d a b a n d o n e d
p ro s titu te s as th e y w e re l a b e l l e d 49 S o m e n o d o u b t w e re p ro s titu te s b u t fo r m o s t
te m p ta tio n , d e s p e ra tio n o r e v e n re v e n g e g o t th e b e tte r o f th e m . E lle n B rie n w a s trie d
in Ju ly 1852 fo r a rs o n a n a c t fo r w h ic h sh e re c e iv e d th e s e n te n c e o f te n y e a rs
tra n s p o rta tio n .50 In J u ly 1843 E lle n B ro p h y r e c e iv e d se v e n y e a rs tra n s p o r ta tio n fo r
la rc e n y .51 O n e c a se , w h ic h m a y in d ic a te p ro s titu tio n , is th a t o f n in e te e n -y e a r-o ld
M a rg a re t B u c k le y w h o w a s trie d a t N e n a g h in M a rc h 1845 fo r v a g ra n c y . S h e re c e iv e d
a se n te n c e o f s e v e n y e a rs tra n s p o rta tio n u n le ss sh e c o u ld p ro v id e s e c u rity in th re e
m o n th s .52 T h e re w e re also c a se s o f m u rd e r, a tte m p te d m u rd e r a n d a c c e s s o ry to
m u rd er. E lle n B e rc a ry w a s tra n s p o rte d in 1846 fo r life fo r b e in g a n a c c e s s o ry to th e
m u rd e r o f h e r h u sb a n d . S h e e x p la in e d th a t, ‘so m e p e rs o n s se rv e d th re e n o tic e s to q u it
th e p re m ise s o n m y h u s b a n d [and] b e c a u s e h e d id n o t go th e y ...k ille d h im in th e b e d
47 Ibid p.62
4X ibid p.61
49 Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, i t ’s Influence on the
M oral State o f Society in the Penal Colonies, and how f a r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, p.ix
50 Transportation Records 11, P 64 (F), National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
31 Transportation Records 6, P 106, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
52 Convict Reference F iles 1845 B 26, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
21
b y m y side. I a m . .. in n o c e n t o f th e c r im e ... w e w e re m a rrie d tw e n ty y e a r s ’.
53
O th e rs
s till w a n te d to b e tra n s p o rte d d e lib e ra te ly c o m m ittin g c rim e in a n tic ip a tio n o f a
sen ten c e. In 1850 a 6 0 -y e a r-o ld c o u n try s e rv a n t se n te n c e d to 15 y e a rs c la im e d she
d id it to b e w ith h e r d a u g h te r w h o h a d e a rlie r b e e n tra n s p o rte d . M a r g a re t L e g g itt
re c e iv e d 15 y e a rs in 1849 fo r arso n . S h e w a s 2 0 y e a rs o ld a n d a c o u n try se rv a n t. S h e
e x p la in e d h e r o ffe n c e as ‘h o u s e b u rn in g tr ie d w ith 4 o th e rs o n b o a r d [w h o ] c o m m itte d
th e o ffe n c e to b e tra n s p o r te d ’.54 S o m e T ip p e ra ry w o m e n w e re p ro s titu te s , so m e
c o m m itte d m u rd e r o r a rso n , b u t th e v a s t m a jo rity c o m m itte d c rim e s s u c h a s la rc e n y ,
th e ft o r stealin g . T h e a ffe c ts o f th e F a m in e s a w in c re a s e s in th e s e ty p e s o f c rim e as
p e o p le p e rp e tra te d su c h c rim e s o u t o f d e sp e ra tio n .
T h e F a m in e a ls o s a w a n in c re a se in c a s e s o f a n im a l ste a lin g as d e s p e ra tio n to o k
h o ld . T h is ty p e o f c rim e a n d th e s e n te n c e s o f tra n s p o rta tio n fo r s u c h c rim e w e re o n
th e w h o le u n iq u e to Ire la n d . V e ry fe w fro m E n g la n d w e re tra n s p o r te d fo r su c h
o ffen ce s. B o th m e n a n d w o m e n c o m m itte d th is ty p e o f c rim e a n d th is re fle c ts th e
d e s p e ra te c irc u m sta n c e s th a t p e o p le fo u n d th e m s e lv e s in d u rin g th e F a m in e . C o w s,
p ig s, s h e e p a n d p o u ltry w e re ta rg e te d .
B rid g e t S m ith w a s s e n te n c e d to s e v e n y e a rs fo r s te a lin g sh e e p in 1847 w h ile in 1851
C a th e rin e S ta c k w as tra n s p o rte d fo r c o w s te a lin g .55 T w o firs t tim e o ffe n d e rs , A lic e
a n d M a ry K a n e re c e iv e d 15 y e a rs e a c h fo r c o w s te a lin g in 1 8 5 0 .56 W o m e n th e n
c o m m itte d c rim e s ra n g in g fro m la rc e n y to m u rd e r to a n im a l ste a lin g . W h a t th o u g h o f
m en ? T h e y a lso c o m m itte d s im ila r c rim e s, b u t b e c a u s e m a le s w e re m o re in c lin e d to
p a rta k e in a g ra ria n o u tra g e a n d so c ia l p ro te st, th e re w a s a h ig h e r ra te o f m o re serio u s
33 John Williams, ‘ Tipperary Convicts and Tasmania ’ in Tipperary Historical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p.61
" Ibid p. 62
53 John Williams, ‘Tipperary Convicts and Tasmania’ in Tipperary Historical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p.61
ibid
crim e s su c h a s a ss a u lts, m u rd e r, a n d a rs o n a m o n g th e m . In J u n e 1839, 2 6 - y e a r-o ld
D a v id B ro w n , ‘ th e so le su p p o rt o f h is th re e siste rs a n d th e ir f a m ilie s ’, w a s trie d fo r
a rm e d b u rg la ry a n d d a m a g e to p ro p e rty fo r w h ic h h e re c e iv e d th e m a n d a to ry sev e n y e a r s e n te n c e o f tra n s p o rta tio n .57 C h a rle s D o o la n a g e d 18 w a s tr ie d in Ju ly 1844 fo r
ste a lin g a w a tc h th e p ro p e rty o f a M r. J o h n C o n n o rs. H is b ro th e r P a tric k w a s h is
p e titio n e r a n d h e w a s a m a s o n w ith C h a rle s b e in g h is a p p re n tic e . T h e p e titio n th o u g h
w a s u n s u c c e ss fu l a n d C h a rle s re c e iv e d a s e n te n c e o f s e v e n y e a rs tra n s p o rta tio n .
58
20-
y e a r-o ld J a m e s C a rro ll w a s trie d in 1837 fo r th e m u rd e r o f a J o h n L a n ig a n , a n a c t fo r
w h ic h h e re c e iv e d a s e n te n c e o f d e a th c o m m u te d to tra n s p o rta tio n fo r life .79 W illia m
D u n n e a g e d 2 6 w a s c o n v ic te d o f a rs o n in 1 8 3 7 a n d g iv e n a s e n te n c e o f d e a th , w h ic h
w a s c o m m u te d to tra n s p o rta tio n fo r life .60 2 8 - y e a r - o ld W illia m B rie n w a s c o n v ic te d
o f, ‘s h o o tin g w ith in te n t to m u rd e r’ in M a rc h 1846 a c rim e fo r w h ic h h e re c e iv e d th e
d e a th p e n a lty c o m m u te d to tra n s p o rta tio n fo r life .61 S o m e c o n v ic ts w e re e v e n r e ­
tra n s p o rte d fo r re tu rn in g b a c k to T ip p e ra ry as w a s th e c a s e w ith 3 5 -y e a r-o ld J o h n
C a rro ll w h o re tu r n e d to T ip p e ra ry a fte r h a v in g b e e n a lre a d y tra n s p o r te d p re v io u s ly ,
w a s c o n v ic te d a n d g iv e n th e se n te n c e o f d e a th c o m m u te d to tra n s p o rta tio n fo r life .62
T im o th y D o n o h u e a g e d 25 w a s s e n te n c e d to tra n s p o rta tio n fo r 15 y e a rs in M a rc h
1840 fo r c o m m ittin g fe lo n io u s a ss a u lt w ith in te n t to d isa b le .63 T h e s e e x a m p le s w e re
th e m o s t se rio u s c rim e s c o m m itte d b y T ip p e ra ry m e n a n d th e y te n d e d in th e m a in to
b e a fo rm o f so c ia l p ro test. T h e e x a m p le s h e re p ro v id e a c c o u n ts o f a tte m p te d m u rd e r,
arso n , a n d a s s a u lt re fle c tin g th e so c ia l d is o rd e r in T ip p e ra ry a t th e tim e . L ik e th e ir
fe m a le c o u n te rp a rts , T ip p e ra ry m e n a lso c o m m itte d c rim e s su c h as la rc e n y , th e ft a n d
57 Convict Reference File 1839 B 25, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
58 Convict Reference File 1844 D 25, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
59 Transportation Records 2, P 149, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
60 Transportation Records 2, P 147, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
61 Transportation Records 6, P 180, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
62 Transportation Records 2, P 152, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
63 Transportation Records 2, P 148, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
23
animal stealing. Patrick Brophy was tried in July 1847 for the theft o f a cow for
which he received 10 years transportation.64 30-year-old Dennis Brien received the
same sentence in July 1847 also for cow stealing.'” Joseph Brown received
7 years
transportation in January 1845 for larceny.uu 30-year-old James Hayes received a 10year transportation sentence in March 1843 for uttering Provincial Bank o f Ireland
coin and notes. This offence was a type o f forgery and deemed very serious by the
authorities. From Drumbane county Tipperary, his wife and six children asked to be
transported with him. "
Assaults, murder, attempted murder, arson, armed robbery, assault on dwellings,
administering unlawful oaths, writing threatening notices were all linked in some way
to the land problem. The need for survival during the Famine exasperated and
contributed to the numbers o f these types o f crimes. The British authorities would find
themselves dealing with far more cases of larceny, theft and animal stealing than was
usual, if there was such a thing. In the county of'Tipperary especially in the rural
districts, the effects o f the Famine would impact itself on the populace with
devastating effect In towns like Clonmel desperation reached such a stage that there
were those that would risk transportation, in some cases even covet it, in order to
relieve their distress. This is in contrast to those that received terms of transportation
but returned home without the permission o f the government or without finishing their
terms. Those that were already sentenced had received their punishment before the
famine or before things got desperate. They may have been tempted to return home
because o f homesickness or because they were not able to adapt to their new
environments. Those that committed crimes during the famine did so because it was
64 Transportation Records 6, P 190, N ational Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
05 Transportation Records 6, P 155, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
*e Transportation Records 12 , P 137, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
07 Convict Reference Files 1:343 H 10, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
p ro b a b ly c o n s id e re d th a t a n y th in g w a s p re fe ra b le to th e ir p re s e n t c irc u m sta n c e s. F lo u r
ca rts b e c a m e ta rg e ts, a m o b a tta c k e d a b a k e ry in C lo n m e l a n d in th e sa m e to w n so m e
flo u rm ills w e re also a ttac k ed . A t le a s t th o se in th e u rb a n d is tric ts h a d a c h a n c e o f
so m e r e lie f w ith th e se ttin g u p o f so u p k itc h e n s in a re a s lik e C lo n m e l.
T h e d e b a c le o f th e 1848 Y o u n g Ire la n d ris in g o n ly m a d e th in g s w o rse as n o w th e
a u th o ritie s c la m p e d d o w n o n p e rc e iv e d tro u b le m a k e rs . T h e re a lity o f th is a tte m p te d
ris in g w a s th a t it d id n o t h a v e p o p u la r o r w id e s p re a d su p p o rt. T h e te n a n t fa rm e rs,
la b o u re rs a n d c o ttie rs o f c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry w e re m o re in te re s te d in su rv iv a l a t th is
tim e th a n in try in g to c h a n g e th e s ta tu s quo. T h is is re p re s e n te d in th e n u m b e rs
tra n s p o rte d fo r so c ia l, ra th e r th a n p o litic a l c rim e s. In T ip p e ra ry a rm s w e re re s o rte d to
n o t fo r p o litic a l c h a n g e b u t fo r so c ia l p ro te s t a n d s e lf-p re s e rv a tio n .
N o t all th o s e c o n v ic te d o f tra n s p o rta b le o ffe n c e s w e re a c tu a lly tra n sp o rte d .
U n fo rtu n a te ly b e c a u s e re c o rd k e e p in g b e c a m e w o rs e a s tim e w o re o n th e n u m b e rs
tra n s p o rte d w ill n e v e r fu lly b e k n o w n . S o m e c o m m itte d c rim e s s u c h as la rc e n y a n d
h a d th e ir se n te n c e s c o m m u te d to te rm s o f im p ris o n m e n t. 3 0 -y e a r-o ld A n n e D u n n e
re c e iv e d a te rm o f 14 y e a rs tra n s p o rta tio n in 1838 fo r fo rg in g a b a n k n o te . T h is w as
c o m m u te d to s ix m o n th s im p r is o n m e n t68 M a ry C o n n o rs a g e d 4 6 w a s c o n v ic te d o f
fo rg in g a b a n k o f Ire la n d b a n k n o te in 1839 fo r w h ic h s h e re c e iv e d a s e n te n c e o f 14
y e a rs tra n s p o rta tio n . T h is s e n te n c e w a s h o w e v e r c o m m u te d to s ix m o n th s
im p ris o n m e n t.69 S o m e tim e s th e re w e re in c o n s is te n c ie s in s e n te n c in g (a s d e m o n s tra te d
o n th e o p p o site p a g e ) a n d o n e h a s to w o n d e r w h y th is w a s th e case. In o th e r w o rd s
a n d a t the ris k o f s o u n d in g c y n ic a l, w as th e re a d e lib e ra te a tte m p t to s e n d as m a n y
y o u n g p e o p le as p o s s ib le to th e c o lo n ie s? J a m e s B la k e a g e d 55 w a s s e n te n c e d to
d e a th in 1839 fo r th e ft. T h is se n te n c e w a s c a rrie d o u t la te r th a t y e a r w h e n h e w a s
68 Convict Reference F iles 1838 D 32, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
69 Convict Reference F iles 1839 C 32, National A rchives o f Ireland, Dublin
25
h a n g e d .70 2 4 -y e a r-o ld J o se p h B la k e w a s c o n v ic te d o f th e ft in 1845 b u t o n ly re c e iv e d
a se n te n c e o f 7 -y e a rs tra n s p o rta tio n .71 W a s th is b e c a u s e a y o u n g c o lo n y w o u ld p re fe r
y o u n g b lo o d ? T h e d e a th p e n a lty w a s g iv e n so m e tim e s i f th e c o n v ic t h a d b e e n a re p e a t
o ffe n d e r, so th is is o n e re a s o n w h y so m e w e re e x e c u te d fo r s u c h c rim e s a s th e ft a n d
o th ers h a n d e d th e m a n d a to ry se v e n - y e a r sen ten c e.
O f c o u rse th e p e r s o n a o f th e p re s id in g m a g is tra te w a s a n o th e r fa c to r th a t d e te rm in e d
th e ty p e s o f s e n te n c e re c e iv e d a n d a g a in th is c o u ld b e a n o th e r re a s o n fo r s u c h
in c o n s is te n c ie s in th e ju d ic ia l p ro c e ss. H o w e v e r d e s p ite fa c to rs su c h as
in c o n s is te n c ie s in th e ju d ic ia l p ro c e s s e s o r re p e a t o ffe n c e s th e o v e rly in g tre n d w as
tra n s p o rta tio n o f re la tiv e ly y o u n g co n v ic ts. O f c o u rse th e re w e re th o s e o f a n o ld e r ag e
g ro u p th a t w e re tra n s p o rte d a lso b u t th e ir n u m b e rs d o n o t a p p ro a c h th o s e o f th e
y o u n g e r c o n v ic ts. T ip p e ra ry c o n v ic ts w e re m o s tly y o u n g w ith th e a g e g ro u p ra n g in g
fro m 15 to 40. T h e re w e re th o s e th a t w e re o ld e r th a n th is b u t n o t as m a n y as th e 15-40
y e a r o ld a g e group.
T h e th re a t o f tra n s p o rta tio n w a s n o lo n g e r a d e te rre n t in tim e s o f d e sp e ra tio n .
S o m e c o v e te d th e c h a n c e o f e s c a p in g th e ir m is e ry b y p e rp e tra tin g c rim e in o rd e r to b e
tra n sp o rte d . T h e Iris h a u th o ritie s e x p re s s e d th e v ie w th a t s ta rv a tio n h a d g re a tly
d im in is h e d th e te rr o r fe lt b y th e p e o p le a t th e p ro s p e c t o f b e in g s e v e re d fro m th e ir
h o m es. It w a s fe lt th a t in m a n y in s ta n c e s th a t th e Iris h c o u rts, ‘m u s t h a v e b e e n
in flu e n c e d ra th e r b y a v a g u e n o tio n o f h u m a n ity th a n o f p u n is h in g o ff e n d e rs ,’ w h e n
se n te n c in g w o m e n .72
T h e p e rio d b e tw e e n 1836 a n d 1853 w o u ld s e e a d e c lin e in Ire la n d as a w h o le in
a g ra ria n o u tra g e s b e in g c o m m itte d b u t it n e v e r re a lly d is a p p e a re d a n d in T ip p e ra ry
70 Transportation Records 3, P 164, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
71 Transportation Records 5, P 164, National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
72 John W illiams, ‘Tipperary Convicts and Tasmania ’ in Tipperary Historical Journal (Ireland, 1995)
p.62
26
w a s still s u ffic ie n tly a c tiv e rig h t u p to a n d in c lu d in g th e F a m in e . T h e e c o n o m ic
e ffe c ts o f th e fa m in e o n th e p o p u la c e c o n trib u te d to a s s is te d e m ig ra tio n to th e U n ite d
S ta tes, B rita in , A u s tra lia a n d e v e n A rg e n tin a . It a lso c o n trib u te d to a ris e in c a se s o f
v a g ra n c y b e in g p u n is h e d w ith tra n s p o rta tio n . T h is v a g ra n c y w a s c a u s e d b y th e
d is p o s s e ss io n o f h o ld in g s, w h ic h w a s in its tu rn c a u s e d b y th e in a b ility to p a y ren t(s).
T h e d e c lin e in ru ra l a n d a g ra ria n o u tra g e s in th e la te 18 4 0 s in to th e 1 8 5 0 s w a s
b e c a u s e o f th e m a ss e m ig ra tio n d u rin g a n d a fte r th e fa m in e a s w e ll a s th e d e a th s
c a u s e d b y it. L a n d lo rd s a n d th e ir a g e n ts as w e ll as te n a n t fa rm e rs to o k th e o p p o rtu n ity
to rid th e m s e lv e s o f ‘tro u b le m a k e rs ’ b y p a y in g p a s s a g e s fo r th e m a n d th e ir fa m ilie s.
L e ss p e o p le a n d m o re la n d m e a n t th a t te n a n t fa rm e rs w e re n o w a b le to c o n so lid a te
th e ir h o ld in g s as th e d e c lin e in th e c o ttie r c la s s w o u ld m e a n th a t s u b d iv isio n w o u ld
n o t b e as rife as in e a rlie r d e c a d e s. It a lso m e a n t th a t p o ta to e s w o u ld n o t b e as
im p o rta n t le a d in g to a d e c lin e in tilla g e a n d a g ro w th in d a iry in g . R u ra l a g ita tio n a n d
o u tra g e w o u ld n o t o c c u r a g a in o n th e s c a le it d id in th e firs t h a l f o f th e 18 00s u n til the
1 8 6 0 s a n d th e L a n d W ar. N o n e th e le s s , b o th V a n D ie m e n ’s L a n d a n d th e n ew ly
e s ta b lis h e d c o lo n y o f W e s te rn A u s tra lia c o n tin u e d to a c c e p t c o n v ic ts fro m B rita in an d
Ire la n d u p to 1853 a n d th e 1 8 60s re sp e c tiv e ly . In te r c o lo n y m ig ra tio n b e tw e e n V a n
D ie m e n ’s L a n d a n d N e w S o u th W a le s b y n e w ly e m a n c ip a te d c o n v ic ts in se a rc h o f
b e tte r e m p lo y m e n t p ro s p e c ts o r w h o h a d b e e n g iv e n la n d o f th e ir o w n a n d w e re n o w
lo o k in g fo r la b o u r to w o rk th is lan d . It is also p o s s ib le th a t th o s e fro m Ire la n d o r
T ip p e ra ry th a t h a d b e e n e m a n c ip a te d a n d g iv e n la n d w o u ld n o w also p a y th e p a ssa g e
fo r th e ir fa m ilie s to g o o u t a n d j o i n th e m . A n y c o n v ic ts n o w b e in g s e n t o u t b y B rita in
to th e c o lo n ie s o f V a n D ie m e n ’s L a n d o r W e s te rn A u s tra lia w o u ld a lso b e w e lc o m e
b e c a u s e g ro w in g c o lo n ie s a ls o m e a n t g ro w in g e c o n o m ie s , w h ic h w o u ld n e e d a su p p ly
o f lab o u r. T h e F a m in e w a s to p ro v id e th is e x tra su p p ly o f la b o u r fo r th e s e co lo n ies.
27
A lth o u g h th e re w a s a lu ll in a g ra ria n a g ita tio n d u rin g th e fiv e - y e a r p e r io d o f 1 8 2 5 -3 0 ,
T ip p e ra ry a lo n g w ith L im e ric k a n d C o rk w a s p ro c la im e d a d is tu rb e d d is tric t u p to a n d
in c lu d in g th e F am in e. T h e re w e re a w id e n u m b e r o f o ffe n c e s th a t c a rrie d th e d e a th
p e n a lty a n d th e v a s t m a jo rity w e re c e rta in ly tra n s p o rta b le o ffe n c e s. I t is a ls o w o rth
n o tin g th a t th e c re a tio n e a rlie r o f a p o lic e fo rc e b y S ir R o b e rt P e e l w o u ld also h a v e a n
e ffe c t o n th e n u m b e rs o f c rim e d e te c te d b y th e a u th o ritie s a n d p u n is h e d in co u rt. T h is
w o u ld in c re a s e th e n u m b e rs tra n s p o rte d c o m p a re d to th a t o f th e e a rlie r d e c a d e s o f th e
n in e te e n th century.
A s s e m b lin g w ith o ffe n siv e w e a p o n s , a d m in is te rin g u n la w fu l o a th s , se n d in g
th re a te n in g le tte rs o r n o tic e s o r p e rs u a d in g a n d c o m p e llin g o th e rs to q u it th e ir
h o ld in g s w e re th e m o re s e rio u s crim e s. A ll o f th e s e o ffe n c e s w e re p u n is h a b le by
d e a th b u t th is w a s g ra d u a lly re d u c e d to tra n s p o rta tio n . A c c o rd in g to th e D e v o n
c o m m is s io n in 1844 a q u a rte r o f all o u tra g e s in Ire la n d w e re c o m m itte d in c o u n ty
T ip p e ra ry .73 H o w e v e r ru ra l d is o rd e r b y th e b e g in n in g o f th e F a m in e c o u ld n o t b e
a ttrib u te d a lo n e to a g ra ria n m o v e m e n ts. R u ra l c rim e in T ip p e ra ry w a s j u s t as
c o m p o s e d o f in d iv id u a l a c ts o f b u rg la ry , a rso n , th e ft, a n im a l s te a lin g , a n d a s s a u lts o n
p ro p e rty a n d p e o p le as th o s e c o m m itte d b y W h ite b o y s o r o th ers. T h e F a m in e th o u g h
w o u ld see a ris e in th e n u m b e rs o f c rim e s c o m m itte d in b o th a re a s a s d e s p e ra tio n to o k
h o ld in tu rn le a d in g to s h a rp in c re a s e s in th e n u m b e rs se n te n c e d to tra n sp o rta tio n .
A fte r N o v e m b e r 1846, n o c o n v ic ts w e re s e n t fro m Ire la n d to A u s tra lia fo r n e a rly tw o
y ea rs. T h e re a so n (s) fo r th is w a s th a t in th e c o lo n ie s m o v e m e n ts , p a rtic u la rly in N e w
S o u th W a le s, a g a in st th e u s e o f tra n s p o rta tio n as a p u n is h m e n t fo r c rim e h a d beg u n .
T h e re w e re a ls o th o s e lib e ra ls in B rita in th a t b e lie v e d th a t tra n s p o rta tio n sh o u ld b e
73 A.G .L Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study o f Penal Transportation from Great Britain and
Ireland to Australia and other parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p .182
28
re p la c e d b y a p riso n sy ste m in ste a d . T h e n b e tw e e n S e p te m b e r 1848 a n d N o v e m b e r
1852 th e re w as a fin al b a tc h o f 4 ,0 0 0 o r a b o u t tw ic e as m a n y e a c h a s in th e e a rly
1 8 4 0 s i.e. tw ic e m o re w e re s e n t b e tw e e n s th e s e y e a rs th a n in th e y e a rs p re c e d in g .
T h e re w e re m o re th a n tw ic e a s m a n y c o n v ic tio n s o f all s o rts i.e. tw ic e as m a n y
c o n v ic te d fo r th e ft etc. p e r h e a d o f p o p u la tio n b e tw e e n 1848 a n d 1852 th a n b e fo re
1847 a n d a fte r 1853.74 T h is w a s b e c a u s e u n lik e N e w S o u th W a le s , V a n D ie m e n ’s
L an d a n d th e n e w ly e s ta b lis h e d c o lo n y o f W e s te rn A u s tra lia c o n tin u e d to a c c e p t
c o n v ic ts. T h is in c re a s e in th e n u m b e rs o f th o s e tra n s p o rte d fro m Ire la n d d u rin g th is
p e rio d is a lso p r o o f o f th e e ffe c ts o f th e F a m in e o n th e c rim e ra te a n d s u b s e q u e n t
tra n s p o rta tio n rates. T h o s e c o n v ic te d in a n d tra n s p o rte d fro m T ip p e ra ry w e re d iffe re n t
to th e ir c o u n te rp a rts tra n s p o rte d a lo n g w ith th em . T h e y w e re fro m a m o s tly ru ral,
p e a s a n t b a c k g ro u n d a n d w e re n o t g re a tly lite ra te . T h e m a jo rity w e re c o n v ic te d d u rin g
th e F a m in e y ea rs a n d c a n n o t b e c o n s id e re d as h a rd e n e d c rim in a ls. A c e rta in
p ro p o rtio n o f m e n w e re in v o lv e d in ru ra l a g ita tio n a n d th e v io le n c e th a t c a m e w ith it.
S o m e w o m e n c o u rte d b e in g tra n s p o r te d w h ile s o m e b e c a u s e o f th e a rs o n th e y
c o m m itte d c o u ld also b e s a id to b e in v o lv e d in ru ra l a g ita tio n . A lth o u g h ru ra l
a g ita tio n m ig h t a lso b e c o n s id e re d as a p o litic a l a c tio n , th o s e th a t w e re in v o lv e d in
su ch a c tio n s d id n o t se e k to c h a n g e th e statu s q u o v is -à -v is g o v e rn m e n t. O n ly a
h a n d fu l c o u ld b e c o n s id e re d as p o litic a l p riso n e rs i.e. th o s e in v o lv e d in 1848
a tte m p te d risin g . T h e o v e rrid in g in flu e n c e in th e c rim e s th e y c o m m itte d w a s a c c e s s to
o r th e la c k o f a c c e ss to la n d a n d la te r d u rin g th e F a m in e su rv iv a l a n d selfp re se rv a tio n .
74 A.G.L Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and
Ireland to Australia and other parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p. 182
29
Chapter Three
T h e C o lo n ie s
T ra n s p o rta tio n a s a p u n is h m e n t w a s in tro d u c e d d u rin g th e re ig n o f E liz a b e th I. S o m e
o f th e C a rib b e a n Isla n d s a n d A m e ric a b e c a m e th e d e s tin a tio n fo r th o s e w h o
c o m m itte d c rim e in B rita in w ith C ro m w e ll u s in g th is fo rm o f p u n is h m e n t to b a n ish
C a th o lic s fro m Ire la n d to th e W e s t In d ies. T h o s e s e n t th e re u s e d fo r la b o u r. T h is ty p e
o f p u n is h m e n t
w as
used
th ro u g h o u t
th e
e ig h te e n th
c e n tu ry
by
th e
B ritis h
e s ta b lis h m e n t to tra n s p o rt c o n v ic ts to th e c o lo n ie s o f N o rth A m e ric a . T h e d e a th
p e n a lty also c a m e to b e s e e n as to se v e re fo r c e rta in crim e s. T h is tra n s p o rta tio n to th e
c o lo n ie s in N o rth A m e ric a b e c a m e p o p u la r in th e a b s e n c e o f a n a lte rn a tiv e fo rm o f
p u n is h m e n t o r sy ste m su c h a s th a t o f a p e n ite n tia ry p ris o n ty p e sy s te m . W ith th e
A m e ric a n w a r o f In d e p e n d e n c e h o w e v e r tra n s p o rta tio n w a s n o lo n g e r a n o p tio n to
th is p a rt o f N o rth A m e ric a w h ile it w a s a lso d e e m e d n o t e x p e d ie n t to o ffe r th o se
C o lo n ie s th a t re m a in e d loyal in A m e r ic a th e in su lt o f m a k in g th e m a n y lo n g e r a p la c e
o f p u n is h m e n t fo r o ffe n d e rs.75 A n e w o p tio n a n d d e s tin a tio n h a d to b e fo u n d . B y th e
tim e a n e w d e stin a tio n w a s c o n s id e re d , th a t o f n e w S o u th W a le s, tra n s p o rta tio n h a d
re p la c e d c a p ita l p u n is h m e n t (e x c e p t in th e c a se s o f v e ry se rio u s c rim e s). L e g isla tio n
in re la tio n to N e w S o u th W a le s b e in g u s e d as a d e s tin a tio n a n d p e n a l c o lo n y h a d firs t
b e e n e n a c te d in
1784 w ith a s im ila r A c t b e in g p a s s e d in Ire la n d . T h e B ritish
le g is la tio n d id n o t m e n tio n a d e s tin a tio n as su ch , j u s t p ro v id in g fo r tra n s p o rta tio n
b e y o n d th e s e a s, e ith e r w ith in h is m a je s ty ’s d o m in io n s o r e ls e w h e re o u ts id e h is
m a je s ty ’s d o m in io n s. H o w e v e r fu rth e r le g is la tio n w a s e n a c te d w h ic h e m p o w e re d h is
m a je s ty in c o u n c il, “ to a p p o in t to w h a t p la c e b e y o n d th e sea s e ith e r w ith in o r w ith o u t
h is m a je s ty ’s d o m in io n s o ffe n d e rs sh a ll b e tra n s p o rte d ” re s u ltin g in th e e a s te rn co a st
75 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, i t ’s Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, iv
30
nr
o f A u s tra lia a n d th e a d ja c e n t is la n d s b e in g c h o s e n as th e d e s tin a tio n .
D u rin g M a y
1787 th e firs t b a tc h o f c o n v ic ts d e p a rte d a n d in th e fo llo w in g y e a r th e re w a s a p e n a l
c o lo n y e sta b lis h e d in N e w S o u th W a le s. T h e a u th o ritie s in Ire la n d m im ic k e d th e ir
c o u n te rp a rts in L o n d o n a n d a n “ A c t fo r th e B e tte r E x e c u tio n o f th e L a w ” fo llo w e d
a llo w in g th e m to also im p o se tra n s p o rta tio n a s a p u n is h m e n t fo r c rim in a l ac tiv ity .
T h e Irish A c t p ro v id e d a t firs t fo r re m o v a l to s o m e o f h is m a je s ty ’s p la n ta tio n s in
N o rth A m e r ic a o r su c h o th e r p la c e o u t o f E u ro p e . W h ile th e B ritish a c t a llo w e d
tra n s p o rta tio n to b e g in im m e d ia te ly , th e Irish a c t d id n o t a llo w th is b e c a u s e it n e e d e d
to b e c h a n g e d to e x c lu d e N o rth A m e ric a . F u rth e r le g is la tio n w a s e n a c te d in 1790 a n d
th is a llo w e d th e tra n s p o rta tio n o f ‘su c h fe lo n s a n d v a g a b o n d s m o re e a sy a n d
e f fe c tu a l’ w ith th e first s h ip lo a d le a v in g in A p ril 1791 fo r N e w S o u th W ales.
77
B y th e tim e tra n s p o rta tio n h a d c e a s e d in 1853 (a p a rt fro m s o m e F e n ia n s th a t w e re
tra n s p o rte d to w e ste rn A u s tra lia in 1 867) th e n u m b e r o f c o n v ic ts s e n t to A u s tra lia w as
70
a p p ro x im a te ly 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 w ith a ro u n d 3 0 ,0 0 0 o f th e s e b e in g s e n t d ire c tly fro m Irelan d .
A n u m b e r o f fa c to rs c o u ld e x p la in as to w h y p e n a l c o lo n ie s w e re e s ta b lis h e d in
A u s tra lia b y th e B ritis h b u t th e m o s t p ro b a b le fa c to r w a s th a t th e B ritis h p ris o n
s y ste m w a s o v e rb u rd e n e d a n d th e p riso n s o v e r c ro w d e d , w h ile u n lik e A m e ric a ,
A u s tra lia w a s also su ffic ie n tly d is ta n t a s to d is c o u ra g e a n y r e tu r n to B rita in . In o th e r
w o rd s th e p e n a l c o lo n y to o k so lo n g to re a c h a n d th e jo u rn e y w a s so a rd u o u s, th a t
th o s e th a t w e re se n t th e re m ig h t th in k tw ic e a b o u t re tu rn in g to B rita in e v e n w h e n th e ir
s e n te n c e h a d e x p ire d o r th e y w e re g ra n te d u n c o n d itio n a l p a rd o n s. A fe w th o u g h d id
re tu rn su c h as Jo h n C a rro ll w h o h a v in g a lre a d y b e e n tra n s p o r te d p re v io u s ly , re tu rn e d ,
re c e iv e d th e d e a th p e n a lty a n d w a s re -tra n s p o rte d fo r life in ste a d . H o w e v e r w ith th e
76 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and howfar it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
[in], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii,
77 www.nationalarchives.ie/transportation/transp 1.html
78 ibid
31
e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a c o lo n y in A u s tra lia , B rita in w o u ld h a v e b o th a c o m m e rc ia l a n d
s tra te g ic in te re st in th e a re a as w e ll a s a n e w m a rk e t fo r its m e rc h a n d is e .
F irs tly th o u g h th e w o rk o f e s ta b lis h in g a c o lo n y h a d to b e u n d e rta k e n a ta s k
w h ic h w o u ld b e d iffic u lt d u e to th e c h a lle n g e o f n a tu ra l b a r rie rs a n d th e d is ta n c e o f
th e c o u n try fro m B rita in in te rm s o f su p p ly . A ls o u n lik e th e fo rm e r c o lo n ie s in
A m e ric a , th e re w a s n o a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d c o lo n y i n A u s tra lia to a b s o rb th o s e b e in g
s e n t w h ile u n lik e th o s e c o lo n ie s se t u p in A m e ric a d u rin g th e p re v io u s ce n tu ry , th o s e
n o w b e in g s e n t to N e w S o u th W a le s as th e c o lo n y b e c a m e k n o w n , w o u ld b e m a d e u p
o f a m o s tly c rim in a l p o p u la tio n .
A
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Figure 1: First Fleet in Sydney Cove, January 27,1788: National Library o f Australia Picture
Gallery available online at http:// www.nationallibrarv o f Australia file:///A:/picture gallerv/nla.ipe
32
T h is p o p u la tio n w o u ld a t firs t b e a ss ig n e d to s o ld ie rs a n d o ffic ia ls u n til a la rg e r
c o lo n y w ith fre e se ttle rs c a m e in to b ein g . T h e p la c e s a p p o in te d w e re th e tw o
A u s tra lia n c o lo n ie s o f N e w S o u th W a le s a n d V a n D ie m e n ’s L a n d , th e sm a ll v o lc a n ic
isla n d , c a lle d N o rfo lk Isla n d s itu a te d a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 m ile s o f f th e e a s te rn s h o re s o f
A u s tra lia a n d th e Is la n d o f B e rm u d a .
7Q
B y 1 8 3 7 -8 a n e s tim a te d 7 5 ,2 0 0 c o n v ic ts h a d b e e n se n t to N e w S o u th W a le s a n d
b y 1836 th e c o n v ic t p o p u la tio n o f th e c o lo n y o f N e w S o u th W a le s a m o u n te d to
2 5 ,2 5 4 m e n a n d 2 ,5 7 7 w o m e n in all 2 7 ,8 3 1.80 T h e n u m b e r o f c o n v ic ts se n t to V a n
D ie m e n ’s L a n d sin c e 1817 (b y 1 8 3 5 ) a m o u n te d to 1 6,968 m a d e u p o f 1 4 ,9 1 4 m e n a n d
2 ,0 5 4 w o m en . T h e n u m b e r o f c o n v ic ts a t N o rf o lk Is la n d b y 1 8 3 7 w a s 1,200 a n d m a n y
o f th e s e h a d b e e n re -tra n s p o rte d fro m N e w S o u th W a le s fo r o ff e n c e s c o m m itte d th ere .
T h e n u m b e r o f c o n v ic ts in B e rm u d a w a s ro u g h ly 9 0 0 .81 V a rio u s o th e r a c ts in re la tio n
to tra n s p o rta tio n also e n a b le d th e g o v e rn o r o f a p e n a l c o lo n y to h o ld a p ro p e rty in th e
tra n s p o rte d o ffe n d e r fo r th e p e rio d o f h is /h e r se n te n c e . T h ey a llo w e d th e g o v e rn o r to
a s s ig n s u c h a p e rs o n o v e r to a n y o th e r p e rso n .
T h e y a llo w e d h is /h e r m a je s ty to
a u th o riz e th e g o v e rn o r o f a p e n a l c o lo n y to re m it, a b s o lu te ly o r c o n d itio n a lly , a p a rt
o f o r th e w h o le se n te n c e . T h e g o v e rn o r o f th e c o lo n y c o u ld g ra n t a te m p o ra ry o r
p a rtia l re m iss io n o f a sen ten c e. T h e y a lso lim ite d th e p o w e r o f a g o v e rn o r in th is
re s p e c t.83 C o n v ic ts w e re also s u b je c t to th e la w s fra m e d b y th e le g is la tu re s o f N e w
S o u th W a le s a n d V an D ie m e n ’s L an d .
79 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and howfar it is Susceptible of Improvement 183 7-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii,
soibid
81Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and howfar it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii,
82 ibid
ibid
33
A b o u t a q u a rte r o f th e C o n v ic ts tra n s p o rte d to A u s tra lia w e re Iris h w ith n e a rly
3 0 ,0 0 0 b e in g tra n s p o rte d a n d w ith 9 ,0 0 0 o f th e s e b e in g w o m e n all w e re tra n sp o rte d
d ire c tly fro m Irelan d . T h e re w e re a lso so m e 6 ,0 0 0 o r so Iris h m e n th a t h a d g o n e ac ro ss
th e Iris h S e a to E n g la n d in se a rc h o f w o rk b u t w h o fo r w h a te v e r re a s o n fell in to
c rim in a l a c tiv ity a n d th u s w e re a lso c o n v ic te d a n d tra n sp o rte d . M e n w h o w e re trie d
a n d se n te n c e d in Ire la n d o n th e a v e ra g e w e re tw o y e a rs o ld e r th a n th e ir B ritis h
co u n te rp a rts, w h ile m o re w e re m a rrie d a n d ju v e n ile s w e re fe w e r.84 M o s t w e re fro m
ru ral Ire la n d b u t a b o u t o n e fifth c a m e fro m D u b lin w h ile a b o u t h a l f o f th o s e fro m
D u b lin a n d C o rk h a d p re v io u s c o n v ic tio n s.
T h e m a jo rity w e re firs t o ffe n d e rs o r n e a rly th re e q u a rte rs o f th o s e w h o se p re v io u s
re c o rd s are k n o w n .85
T h e c rim e ra te in Ire la n d a lso re fle c te d th e c o n d itio n s p re v a ilin g in th e c o u n try a
p o in t o f v ie w a s c rib e d to b y P o u le tt S c ro p e w h e n h e w ro te to M e lb o u rn e in 1834:
“The Law affords the Irish peasant no protection, ” 'It is to their own Whiteboy law
that their allegiance is considered due... They do more or less obtain from the
Whiteboy Associations that essential protection to their existence which the
established law o f the country refuses to afford... The Whiteboy system will never be
put down until the legislature establish a law fo r ...Protecting the lives o f the Irish
peasantry and securing to them the means o f living by their industry.” 86
A v ie w re fle c te d b y W a k e fie ld a n d o th e rs in v a rio u s c o rre s p o n d e n c e s , a c c o rd in g to
th e m th e Irish w ere:
“Taught by their circumstances to hate society and it became difficult fo r either the
moral teachings o f the church or the physical force o f the state to check the spread o f
rural 'o u t r a g e ( s ) ‘The great majority o f people never become rebels without
sufficient r e a s o n w ro te W a k e fie ld . 7
84 A.G.L Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study o f Penal Transportation from Great Britain and
Ireland to Australia and other Parts o f the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p. 167
85 A.G.L Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Pena! Transportationfrom Great Britain and
Ireland to Australia and other Parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p. 167
86 Quoted in A.G.L Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great
Britain and Ireland to Australia and other Parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p .174
87 Quoted in A.G.L Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain
and Ireland to Australia and other Parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p.175
34
A n d a d e c a d e la te r th e M a n c h e s te r G u a rd ia n c la im e d :
“It is not human nature that a whole nation, or any considerable portion o f one,
should reject the comforts and protections o f a civilised life fo r preferences .'1'’ 88
A ll th e sam e, so m e h e ld th a t th e Irish ru ra l te rro ris t w a s ‘u n c iv iliz e d ’, j u s t as o th e rs
b e lie v e th a t h e w a s a h e ro ic d e fe n d e r o f h is r ig h ts ’.89
T h e re w e re m o re Irish c o n v ic ts fro m ru ra l p a rts o f Ire la n d th a n fro m th e u rb a n an d
b e c a u s e o f th is th e y w e re m o re v a lu e d o n th e v a s t ra n c h e s a n d fa rm s o f th e co lo n ies.
O n th e a v e ra g e th e y w e re b e tte r la b o u re rs th a n th e m o re c o m m o n u rb a n t h i e f fro m
E n g la n d ; a n d th o s e w h o w e re ‘W h ite -B o y s ’, a n d h a d re je c te d th e so cial o rd e r w h ic h
se e m e d to th e m u n ju s t b a c k in Ire la n d , s h o w e d th e m s e lv e s re a d y e n o u g h to a c c e p t th e
d iffe re n t o n e w h ic h p re v a ile d in A u s tra lia .90 T h o s e fro m th e m o re ru ral a re a s s u c h as
th o s e fro m c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry , w e re in d e e d p riz e d b y th o s e th a t h e ld la n d in th e
c o lo n ie s a n d th e y w e re e v e n m o re v a lu e d i f th e y h e ld s o m e so rt o f a tra d e s u c h as a
m e c h a n ic o r sm ith . T h e s e tra d e s w e re o f th e h ig h e s t im p o rta n c e fo r th e e c o n o m ie s o f
th e c o lo n ie s a n d e s p e c ia lly th o s e th a t h a d a c q u ire d la rg e tra c ts o f la n d o r fo r th o s e th a t
h a d th riv in g b u s in e s s e s in th e p o rts a n d c ities. A c o n v ic t th a t h a d a tra d e w a s o n e of,
i f n o t th e m o st, so u g h t a fte r in th e c o lo n ie s. A tra d e c o u ld a lso a llo w a c o n v ic t to
‘b a r g a in ’ w ith h is m a s te r o r it c o u ld a lso , as sh all b e se e n , m e a n tro u b le fo r h im fo r
s e e in g th a t a c o n v ic t w ith a tra d e w as h ig h ly s o u g h t a fte r, a n y m a s te r lu c k y e n o u g h to
h a v e o n e w o u ld n o t b e w illin g to re lin q u is h h is p riz e d a s s e t to a tic k e t-o f-le a v e o r
ev e n a c o n d itio n a l p a rd o n w h ile so m e w o u ld fo rc e , th ro u g h c o e rc io n , th e ir c o n v ic t(s)
to c o m m it so m e m is d e m e a n o u r in o rd e r so th a t h e c o u ld re ta in p o s s e s s io n o f him .
88 Quoted in A.G.L Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportationfrom Great Britain
and Ireland to Australia and other Parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p. 175
89 A.G.L Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland
to Australia and other Parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p. 176
90 A.G.L Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland
to Australia and other Parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p . 183
35
Figure 2: Disem barkation, Botany Bay: “National Library o f Australia Picture Gallery available
online at http:// wwvv.nationallibrarv o f Australia file:///A;/picture aallerv/nla.ipe
W h e n th e c o n v ic ts re a c h e d th e ir d e s tin a tio n th e y w e re k e p t o n b o a rd sh ip u ntil
a rra n g e m e n ts w e re m a d e fo r th e ir d ise m b a rk a tio n . T h e sh ip s c a rry in g Irish p ris o n e rs
a rriv e d w ith w h a t w e re k n o w n as in d e n ts i.e. a lis t o f th o s e tra n s p o rte d s p e c ify in g th e
o ffe n c e , w h ic h is n o t lis te d in th e E n g lish in d e n ts. T h is d o c u m e n t is th e o n ly p r o o f o f
th e
id e n tity
o f th o s e
c o n v ic te d
and
is
c o n s id e re d
p r o o f o f c o n v ic tio n
and
tra n sp o rta tio n . T h e y w e re th e n re c e iv e d in w h a t w a s c a lle d a c o n v ic t b a rra c k s. T h e re
w as a lso a b o a rd c a lle d th e a ss ig n m e n t b o a rd , th is w a s m a d e u p o f th re e o ffic e rs
n a m e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t, a n d th e s e w e re e n tru s te d w ith th e c la s s ific a tio n a n d
d is trib u tio n o f th e c o n v ic ts u p o n th e ir a rriv a l.91 W h e n a sh ip d id a rriv e th e re w a s g re a t
91 Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State o f Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838(669), xxii,
36
c u rio s ity a n d e x c ite m e n t in re la tio n a s to w h o m th e n e w a rriv a ls w e re o r e v e n i f th e y
w e re fro m a fe llo w c o u n ty w ith p e rh a p s s o m e n e w s a b o u t lo v e d o n e s le ft b e h in d . T h e
arriv a l o f th e sh ip m e a n t a n o th e r su p p ly o f th e m o s t p re c io u s c o m m o d ity in th e
c o lo n ie s th a t o f lab o u r.
A m o n g th o s e in te re s te d in th e n e w p o o l o f la b o u r w e re th o s e w h o h a d a p p lie d fo r
c o n v ic ts to b e a ss ig n e d to th e m a s s e rv a n ts o r la b o u re rs. It w a s g e n e ra lly a n n o u n c e d
th a t a sh ip h a d a rriv e d a n d a n o tic e w o u ld b e p la c e d in n e w sp a p e rs su c h a s th e
Sydney
Gazette. B y th e re g u la tio n s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, a p p lic a n ts m u s t b e se n t to th e
a s s ig n m e n t b o a rd fo r s e rv a n ts a n d w e re th e n d is trib u te d o n a s c a le in c o n fo rm ity w ith
th e g o v e rn m e n t re g u la tio n s a n d a c c o rd in g to th e q u a n tity o f la n d p o s s e s s e d b y th e
assig n ee .
T h e a ss ig n e e h a d to a b id e b y c e rta in g o v e rn m e n t ru le s a n d re g u la tio n s la id do w n
b y th e a s s ig n m e n t b o a rd . A s s ig n e e s c o u ld n o t p u n is h th e ir a s s ig n e d s e rv a n ts o r
m is tre a t th e m in a n y w ay . I f th e y h a d a g rie v a n c e o r a p ro b le m to a d d re ss it h a d to b e
b ro u g h t b e fo re th e lo cal m a g is tra te w h o th e n d e c id e d w h a t th e p u n is h m e n t w as. A
m a jo rity o f a p p lic a n ts fo r s e rv a n ts w e re th e m s e lv e s re c e n tly e m a n c ip a te d co n v ic ts
w h o h a d b e e n g iv e n la n d a n d n o w re q u ir e d la b o u r to w o rk th a t lan d .
O n c e a rra n g e m e n ts h a d b e e n m a d e th e c o n v ic ts w e re d is e m b a rk e d a n d m u s te re d in
th e c o n v ic t b a rra c k s. T h o s e th a t h a d a p p lie d to b e a s s ig n e d c o n v ic ts w e re th e n
a p p ra is e d o f th e n u m b e rs a n d n a m e s o f th o s e to b e a s s ig n e d to th e m a n d th e y w e re
th e n b o u n d to se n d fo r a n d re c e iv e th e m at th e c o n v ic t b a rra c k s (in th e c a se o f w o m e n
it w a s th e fa c to ry a t P a rra m a tta , n e a r S y d n e y ) o r th e y w o u ld fo rfe it th e rig h t o f
re c e iv in g a serv an t. O n c e th e c o n v ic ts h a d a rriv e d a su m o f £1 w a s p a id b y th e
a s s ig n e e in re s p e c t o f th e p ro v is io n o f c lo th in g a n d b e d d in g . T h e c o n v ic t w a s th en
d e liv e re d to th e a ssig n e e , w h o h a d th e m b ro u g h t to h is farm o r w h e re v e r th e y w e re to
37
b e p u t to la b o u r a n d th is w a s a t th e a s s ig n e e ’s d is c re tio n w ith th e a s s ig n e d e n d in g u p
as la b o u re rs o r d o m e stic se rv a n ts e m p lo y e d e ith e r o n th e fa rm o r in th e h o u s e h o ld o r
w h a te v e r w a y th e assig n e e , w h o w a s n o w to a ll in te n ts a n d p u rp o s e s , th e ir m a ste r,
sa w fit. T h e re w as n o d is tin c tio n m a d e fo r a g e o r te rm s o f s e n te n c e , w h ic h ra n g e d
fro m s e v e n to fo u rte e n y e a rs to life. I f a c o n v ic t w a s lu c k y e n o u g h to p o s s e s s an
e d u c a tio n , th e y w e re o r c o u ld h a v e b e e n s e n t to P o rt M a c q u a rie to b e re ta in e d in th e
p u b lic se rv ic e s a n d a d m in is tra tio n o r p u t to w o rk o n lig h te r task s.
T h e re w e re so m e re g u la tio n s in re la tio n to fo o d a n d c lo th in g a n d th e re w a s a
stip u la te d am o u n t. E v e ry m a s te r w a s b o u n d to su p p ly a w e e k ly ra tio n a n d th is
c o n s is te d o f 7 lb s o f b e e f o r m u tto n o r o th e r m e a t, 8 o r 9 lb s o f flo u r, a p o rtio n o f salt
a n d s o u p a n d a re g u la te d a m o u n t o f b la n k e ts a n d clo th in g . D e p e n d in g o n th e p e rs o n
c o n v ic ts w e re a s sig n e d to th e y c o u ld h a v e a lso re c e iv e d a s u p p le m e n t to th e s e ra tio n s
fro m th e ir m a s te r in th e fo rm o f te a , su g a r a n d o th e r fo o d stu ffs. T h e re w e re n o
re g u la tio n s o n lo d g in g s o r w ith th e a m o u n t o f w o rk h a n d e d out. L ik e w is e th e re w e re
n o re g u la tio n s o n le isu re tim e e x c e p t in re s p e c t to th e S a b b a th d ay , w h ic h w a s
o b se rv e d as a d a y o f rest. T h e a m o u n ts o f w o rk a n d le is u re tim e a llo c a te d w e re a t th e
d is c re tio n o f th e m a ste r. T h e m a s te r w a s a ls o b o u n d to p ro te c t a n d m a in ta in so cial
c o n tro l o v e r th e ir se rv a n ts a n d la b o u re rs a c c o rd in g to th e la w s o f th e co lo n ie s. T h e re
w e re m e a n s o f re d re s s fo r a n y c o n v ic t s e rv a n ts o r la b o u re rs m is tre a te d b y a m aster.
M a s te rs c o u ld n o t in flic t a n y fo rm o f c o rp o ra l p u n is h m e n t o n th e ir s e rv a n ts a n d
la b o u re rs as th is w a s fo rb id d e n b y th e lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts ) . I f a n y fo rm o f p u n is h m e n t
w a s in flic te d su ch as th e w ith h o ld in g o f fo o d o r c lo th in g , th e s e rv a n t c o u ld a p p ly to
th e lo c a l m a g is tra te w h o w o u ld th e n se e to it th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t re g u la tio n s w e re
e n fo rc e d a n d p o ss ib ly h a v e th e s e rv a n t re m o v e d fro m th e c u sto d y o f th e m a s te r a n d
38
p la c e d b a c k in th a t o f th e g o v e rn m e n t.92 T h e re w e re a ls o re g u la tio n s re g a rd in g th e
m is c o n d u c t o f se rv a n ts a n d th e s e v a rie d d e p e n d in g o n th e g e n d e r o f th e o ffen d er. In
re la tio n to m a le s a n d in o rd e r to c o m p e l th e se rv a n t to p e rfo rm a n y d u tie s a s k e d o f
h im b y h is m a s te r o r o v e rse e r, h e w a s s u b je c t to s u m m a ry tria l a n d d is c ip lin e b e fo re a
lo c a l m a g is tra te o r ju s tic e o f th e p ea ce. Ju stic e s o f th e p e a c e c o u ld n o t b e a c o n v ic t’s
m a s te rs as la w fo rb a d e th is. C o n v ic ts w e re lia b le to b e p u n is h e d fo r o ffe n c e s su c h as
d ru n k e n n e ss , a b sc o n d in g , n e g le c t o f w o rk , d is o b e d ie n c e o f o rd e rs o r o th e r d iso rd e rly
c o n d u c t a n d w a s p u n is h e d a c c o rd in g to th e s c a le o f th e p u n is h m e n t p re s c rib e d b y th e
lo c a l le g islatu re. F o r s o m e o ffe n c e s s u c h a s in s o le n c e a n o ffe n d e r c o u ld re c e iv e fifty
la s h e s w h ile tw o m a g is tra te s d e a lt w ith o th e r m o re se rio u s c rim e s in p e tty sessio n s,
w h ic h h a d th e p o w e r to in flic t h a rs h e r p u n is h m e n ts s u c h a s re -tra n s p o rta tio n to
N o rfo lk Isla n d .93 D u rin g h is e v id e n c e to th e s e le c t c o m m itte e o n tra n s p o rta tio n in
1837, S ir F ra n c is F o rb e s d e s c rib e s th e p u n is h m e n t fo r w o m e n :
the case o f misconduct a master may send the women back (to the female
factory in Parramatta) or he may take them before a magistrate and i f it is an offence
that comes within the description o f a misdemeanour according to the local code, the
magistrate may punish the women, but not in the same way as men. Punishments
include solitary confinement, bread and water or some other punishment 94
‘7 n
T h e fe m a le fa c ilitie s a t P a rra m a tta a n d H o b a rt w e re n o t j u s t u se d fo r fe m a le
c o n v ic ts o n th e ir firs t a rriv a l b u t a ls o fo r th o s e re tu r n e d to th e g o v e rn m e n t fo r
m is c o n d u c t o r e v e n fo r th o s e w h o h a d b e c o m e p re g n a n t.95 F e m a le C o n v ic ts , o n c e
th e y h a d b e e n m u s te re d lik e th e m a le a n d o n c e th o s e th a t w e re re q u e s te d b y a s sig n e e s
92 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and how far it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
[hi], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, p.iiv
3 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and how far it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence of Sir Francis Forbes (November, 1837) p .7
94Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and howfar it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence of Sir Francis Forbes (November, 1837) p. 7
95 ibid p.7
39
w e re d is trib u te d to th e m , w e re s e n t to th e fe m a le fa c to ry a t P a rra m a tta . T h e fe m a le
fa c to ry a t P a rra m a tta w a s lo c a te d n e a r S y d n e y a n d w a s a la rg e b u ild in g s im ila r to a
p o o r h o u se. W o m e n s e n t to th is fa c ility w e re k e p t th e re u n til a s s ig n e d o r m arrie d .
T h e re w a s a lw a y s a la rg e b o d y o f w o m e n a t th e fe m a le fa c to ry b e c a u s e th e n u m b e rs
a ssig n e d as d o m e stic se rv a n ts w e re g e n e ra lly to o lim ite d .
Figure 3: Female Factory at Parramatta: National Library o f Australia Picture Gallery available
online at http:// www.national library o f Australia file:///A:/picture gallerv/nla.ipe
S ir F ra n c is F o rb e s e x p la in e d th e r e a s o n fo r th is la c k o f d e m a n d :
'It is the consequence o f the characters o f female servants! They are very bad
and generally create so much disturbance and annoyance in the establishments o f the
settlers that they are unwilling to receive them \ 96
96Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the
Moral State o f Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement, 1837-68, p.
pH], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence o f Sir Francis Forbes (November, 1837) p.7
40
F o rb e s also g o e s o n to d e s c rib e o th e r a sp e c ts o f th e fe m a le facto ry :
“The women at Parramatta were there for assignment if needed or wanted;
sometimes they were allowed to marry convict men, if the master allowed. The women
at Parramatta were also divided into classes according to their grades o f offences in
the colony. When they go fo r assignment is the first instance they are grouped in what
is calledfirst class and are ready fo r assignment they used to be employed in spinning
wool, but there is great difficulty in finding employment fo r them
O n e o f th e m a in re a s o n s fo r w o m e n n o t b e in g a c c e p te d fo r w o rk as d o m e s tic s e rv a n ts
w as b e c a u s e o f th e ir la c k o f p re v io u s tra in in g as d o m e s tic s e rv a n ts a n d th is is tru e o f
m a n y o f th e w o m e n w h o c a m e fro m Ire la n d b o th fro m th e ru ra l a n d th e u rb a n areas.
U n le s s a w o m a n h a d b e e n a d o m e s tic s e rv a n t b e f o re th e y w e re c o n v ic te d a n d
tra n s p o rte d , th e y w o u ld n o t h a v e th e s k ills to w o rk as d o m e s tic s e rv a n ts in th e
c o lo n ie s
e sp e c ia lly
th o s e
fro m
Ire la n d .
O ver
tim e
how ever
tra in in g
in
d o m e s tic /h o u s e h o ld w o rk w a s in tro d u c e d in th e fa c to ry to p ro v id e w o m e n w ith th e
sk ills n e c e ss a ry fo r d o m e s tic serv an ts. T h e re w e re th o u g h o th e r a lte rn a tiv e s to th e
w o m e n o f P a rra m a tta a n d o n e o f th e s e w a s m a rria g e . T h is c o u ld b e a rra n g e d w ith th e
c o n s e n t o f th e m a s te r a n d th e a u th o ritie s th a t ra n th e fe m a le fa c to rie s a t P a rra m a tta
a n d H o b a rt. B e c a u s e th e p o p u la tio n o f th e c o lo n ie s m o stly c o n s is te d o f c o n v ic ts w ith
th e m a jo rity o f th e s e b e in g m a le s , th e re w a s a n e e d fo r a fe m a le p o p u la c e to p ro v id e
w iv es. T h e re w a s th e fe a r th a t i f th e c o lo n y w a s m a in ly o r e x c lu s iv e ly m a le , th e m e n
w o u ld tu rn in to in v e rts a n d th a t h o m o s e x u a lity w o u ld ta k e ro o t, so m e th in g th a t w as
h ig h ly fro w n e d u p o n in B rita in . T h e c o n v ic t fa c to ry a t P a rr a m a tta w o u ld p la y its p a rt
in th e su p p ly o f w iv e s fo r b o th c o n v ic ts a n d e m a n c ip a te d c o n v ic ts. T h e p re s e n c e o f
fe m a le c o n v ic ts w o u ld d e c re a s e th e p o s sib ility o f h o m o s e x u a lity ta k in g ro o t a n d a t th e
sa m e tim e a n y m a rria g e s th a t w e re p ro d u c e d w o u ld le a d to a n in c re a s e in p o p u la tio n ,
w h ic h in its tu rn w o u ld a lso le a d to th e b u ild in g o f a c o n v ic t fre e so ciety . P a rr a m a tta
97 Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence o f Sir Francis Forbes (November, 1837) p .7
41
w o m e n ’s c o n v ic t fa c to ry w a s to p la y a ro le in th e a rra n g e m e n t o f m a rria g e s a s th e
fa c to ry a lw a y s h a d a su p p ly o f w o m en . S o m e tim e s m a le c o n v ic ts a n d fe m a le c o n v ic ts
o n th e s a m e e s ta te o r fa rm w o u ld m arry , b u t i f a m a n c o u ld n o t fin d a w ife o n th e
fa rm o r e sta te th e fe m a le fa c to ry w o u ld b e v is ite d b y h im a n d h is m a s te r in s e a rc h o f a
w ife. Ja m e s M a u d ie esq. p re s e n te d th e fo llo w in g d e ta ils o n th is a rra n g e m e n t as
e v id e n c e to th e s e le c t c o m m itte e o n tra n s p o rta tio n 21 A p ril 1837
‘Masters sometimes, i f he wants to keep his convict and i f that convict is well
behaved gives permission to that convict to get a wife from the factory. The master
must enter into an arrangement with the government and have permission from them
to fee d and support the woman and in fa ct any offspring in order to prevent them from
becoming a burden on the government. This being done, the man goes and gets an
order to the matron o f the factory and o f course this is fo r a wife ’.
M a u d ie g o e s o n to d e s c rib e th e a c tu a l w a y a m a rria g e is arran g e d :
‘ There
are a certain number o f women who are not allowed to marry, but those
that are turned out are inspected by the convict and if he sees one he fancies, then he
makes a motion to her and she steps to one side. Some will not, but stand still, and
have no wish to marry but that is very rare. Then they have a conversation and if the
lady is not agreeable she steps back, and the same ceremony goes on two or three
more times. I f he finds one that pleases him and they get married and on returning to
his master’s estate, he knocks up a hut fo r him self and his wife and they live together
when he is not working. The master allows generally what is known as a h a lf ration
fo r the wife in addition to the m an’s ration \ 9
C o n v ic ts w e re also a llo w e d to m a rry fre e w o m e n a s lo n g as a n y c h ild re n p ro d u c e d d id
n o t b e c o m e a b u rd e n to th e g o v e rn m e n t.
In re s p e c t to th o s e c o n v ic ts th a t w e re e v e n tu a lly a ss ig n e d , it m u s t b e m e n tio n e d th a t
e a c h se rv e d a fix e d te rm o f p u n is h m e n t a n d h a d th e rig h t, w ith in lim its o f c o u rse , to
se ll so m e o f th e ir la b o u r o n th e fre e m a rk e t. O n so m e o f th e la rg e r fa rm s a n d ra n c h e s
th e re c o u ld h a v e b e e n a s m a n y as fifty to s ix ty m e n lab o u rin g . T h e m e n w e re lo d g e d
in o u th o u se s w ith s ix o r m o re u n d e r a sta b le ro o f. T h e y w o u ld h a v e s le p t o n tru c k le
b e d s te a d s, g e n e ra lly w ith o u t u n d re ssin g . T h e flo o rs o f th e s e o u th o u se s w e re g e n e ra lly
98 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the
Moral State o f Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence o f James Maudie Esq. (A p ril, 1837) p.45
42
soft. T h e m e n a lso c o o k e d a n d a te in th e sa m e p la c e o r in o n e im m e d ia te ly ad jo in in g .
S o m e e le m e n ts in B rita in v ie w e d th e c o n v ic t la b o u re rs a n d s e rv a n ts in A u s tra lia as
‘s la v e s ’ b u t th is w a s n o t th e case. O f c o u rs e e v e ry c o n v ic t fa c e d th e s a m e so c ia l
p ro sp e cts. H e o r sh e s e rv e d th e C ro w n o r, o n th e C ro w n ’s b e h a lf a p riv a te p e rs o n , fo r
a g iv en sp an o f y ears. " T h e c o n v ic t la b o u re rs a n d s e rv a n ts o f N e w S o u th W a le s o r
V a n D ie m e n ’s L a n d w e re n o t sla v e s a n d o n c e th e ir te rm o f p u n is h m e n t h a d e x p ire d
th e y w e re a llo c a te d la n d a n d a ss ig n e d c o n v ic t la b o u re rs to w o rk it. T h is m u s t h a v e
s e e m e d a p p e a lin g to Iris h c o n v ic ts p a rtic u la rly th o s e fro m a re a s lik e T ip p e ra ry w h e re
la n d a n d th e a c c e ss to a n d o w n e rs h ip o f la n d w a s so im p o rta n t a n d th e ro o t o f so
m u c h c rim e a n d m o s t lik e ly th e c a u s e o f th e m b e in g tra n s p o rte d in th e f irs t p lace .
T h u s it w a s th a t c o n v ic ts fro m c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry w e re m o v in g fro m o n e ru ral se ttin g
to a n o th e r, fro m la c k o f w o rk to ste a d y e m p lo y m e n t a lb e it as s e rv a n ts a n d fro m
h a v in g little o r n o la n d to a c h a n c e to o w n th e ir o w n . In th is re s p e c t, c o n d itio n s in th e
c o lo n ie s o f A u s tra lia w e re m o re fa v o u ra b le th a n th o s e b a c k in c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry .
T h e re w e re o th e r m e a su re s th a t fa v o u re d c o n v ic ts in th e g o v e rn m e n t a tte m p t to
in stil so m e e le m e n t o f re fo rm in th e m . F ro m th e b e g in n in g s o f th e c o lo n ie s , the
g o v e rn o rs o f th e c o lo n ie s g ra n te d w h a t w e re k n o w n as a ‘tic k e t o f le a v e ’ as a re w a rd
fo r g o o d c o n d u c t, e x tra w o rk a n d la b o u r, sk ill o r in g e n u ity . S ir F ra n c is F o rb e s in his
e v id e n c e p ro v id e s a n a c c o u n t o f h o w a tic k e t o f le a v e is g ran ted :
“During the time o f Sir Francis Brisbane, a regular scale o f time was
established by which a convict transported fo r seven years and who behaved and
conducted himself well fo r four, or those convicted fo r fourteen but who behaved and
conducted himself well fo r six, or those convicted to life but who conducted
themselves well fo r eight were entitled to a ticket o f leave. This instrument is
resumable at the discretion o f the governor and is forfeited upon any p ro o f o f
misconduct or conviction ”.i0°
99 Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore (Great Britain, 1987) pp.282-3
100 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it ’s Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and howfar it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence of Sir Francis Forbes (November, 1837) p.9
43
A tic k e t o f le a v e g a v e th e c o n v ic t th e rig h t to w o rk fo r h im s e lf fo r h is o w n b en e fit.
T h e tic k e ts th o u g h h a d lim ita tio n s in o th e r re s p e c ts su c h a s a p a r tic u la r d is tric t
a p p o in te d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t w h ile th e h o ld e r o f a tic k e t o f le a v e w a s a ls o lia b le to
th e sam e p u n is h m e n t a n d ju s tic e as h e w o u ld h a v e re c e iv e d fo r w ro n g d o in g b e f o re h e
w as is s u e d w ith th e tic k e t in th e first p lace . S o m e tic k e t o f le a v e h o ld e rs w e re a lso to
b e fo u n d in g o v e rn m e n t s e rv ic e s u c h a s c o n s ta b le s in th e p o lic e , o v e rs e e rs o f ro a d
g a n g s o r c h a in g a n g s w h ile th e m o re e d u c a te d tic k e t o f le a v e h o ld e rs w e re to b e fo u n d
e m p lo y e d as s u p e rin te n d e n ts o f e s ta te s, c le rk s to b a n k e rs , to la w y e rs a n d s h o p k e e p e rs
a n d e v e n as tu to rs in p riv a te fa m ilie s. T h is th o u g h c r e a te d th e p ro b le m o f c o rru p tio n
a n d b rib e ry e s p e c ia lly in th e p o s itio n s o f a d m in is tra tio n o r law .
S o m e m a rr ie d free
w o m e n a n d b e c a m e p ro s p e ro u s a n d s o m e e v e n b e c a m e w e a lth y .101
A s s ig n m e n t w a s b e n e fic ia l in a n u m b e r o f w ay s. It e n s u re d th a t c o n v ic ts w e re
w e a n e d o f f g o v e rn m e n t sto re s a n d b y s h iftin g th e c o s t o f th e ir fo o d a n d u p k e e p to
p riv a te citiz e n s; it s a v e d th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t th o u s a n d s o f p o u n d s e v e ry y ea r. It
also in d u c e d w e a lth y p e rs p e c tiv e fre e s e ttle rs to e m ig ra te to A u s tra lia b e c a u s e th e y
w o u ld h a v e a fre e s u p p ly o f lab o u r. It a lso m e a n t th a t th e re w a s a so c ia l c o n tro l a s p e c t
to th e p o lic y o f a s s ig n m e n t as all c o n v ic ts w e re d is p e rs e d th ro u g h o u t th e c o lo n ie s a n d
n o t c o n c e n tra te d in p o te n tia lly re b e llio u s g ro u p s o r g a n g s .102
H o w e v e r n o t all o f
th o se a s s ig n e d o r g iv e n tic k e ts o f le a v e b e n e fite d . T h e re w e re o c c a s io n s w h e n m a ste rs
a c te d to p re v e n t th o s e w h o h a d n e a re d th e e n d o f th e ir a s sig n m e n t, e s p e c ia lly i f th e y
w e re h a rd w o rk in g a n d in d u strio u s , re c e iv in g a tic k e t o f leave.
A m a s te r m ig h t g o a d a n a s sig n e d m a n to c o m m it a n a c t o f d e fia n c e o r in s o le n c e b y
sim p ly in su ltin g h im in o rd e r to h a v e h im re ta in e d in h is se rv ic e fo r a n o th e r y ear.
101 Report of the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it's Influence on the
Moral State of Society in the Penal Colonies, and how far it is Susceptible of Improvement 1837-68, p.
riii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, Evidence of Sir Francis Forbes (November, 1837) p.9
02 Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore (Great Britain, 1987) p.286
44
G o v e rn o r G ip p s a g re e d u p o n th is v ie w w h e n h e re p o rte d to th e s e c re ta ry o f w a r a n d
th e c o lo n ie s in 1838:
“Since convict labour has become so exceedingly valuable as it is now, it is a
matter o f very frequent complaint that masters prevent their servants from getting
Tickets o f leave from an unwillingness to lose their labour; and that they even cause
[in some cases] their men to be punished, fo r the sake o f retaining their
services... Each punishment which an assigned man receives, ¡outs him back a year in
getting his ticket. I am willing to hope that the cases are few
T h e e s c a p e fro m th is w a s th ro u g h lib e ra tio n b y w a y o f c o m p le tin g s e n te n c e o r b y
p a rd o n fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t. O v e ra ll th e re w e re th re e w a y s th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t
m ig h t re le a s e a m a n fro m assig n m e n t. O n e w a s a n a b s o lu te p a rd o n fro m th e g o v e rn o r,
w h ic h a llo w e d th e m a n to re tu rn to E n g la n d . N e x t th e re w a s a c o n d itio n a l p a rd o n ,
w h ic h g a v e th e tra n s p o r te d p e rs o n c itiz e n s h ip w ith in th e c o lo n y b u t w h ic h a ls o m e a n t
th a t th e c o n v ic t c o u ld n o t re tu rn to E n g la n d a n d fin a lly th e re w a s th e tic k e t o f le a v e
w h ic h m e a n t th a t a c o n v ic t n o lo n g e r h a d to w o rk fo r a m a s te r as a n a ss ig n e d m an . A
c o n v ic t w a s a ls o fre e to s p e n d th e re s t o f h is s e n te n c e w o rk in g fo r h im s e lf a n d h e w as
fre e fro m la b o u r o b lig a tio n s to th e g o v e rn m e n t.
H o w e v e r n o t a ll c o n v ic ts w e re a s s ig n e d a n d so m e w e re k e p t b y th e g o v e rn m e n t,
e sp e c ia lly th o s e th a t p o s se s se d a tra d e , to w o rk o n p u b lic p ro je c ts su c h a s th e b u ild in g
o f ro a d s, ja ils , c o u rth o u s e s , sto re s a n d ro a d s th ro u g h th e b u sh . T h e s e g ro u p s w e re
k e p t in m o b ile w a g o n s in w h a te v e r d is tric t th e y w o rk e d in a n d w e re p u t to w o rk in
ro a d p artie s. T h e s e c o n v ic ts w e re c o n v ic ts th a t h a d b e e n h a n d e d b a c k to th e
g o v e rn m e n t b y m a s te rs o r th o s e th a t h a d c o m m itte d so m e c rim e a n d se n t as
p u n ish m e n t. T h e so c ie ty o f th e A u s tra lia n p e n a l c o lo n ie s w a s u n d o u b tly d iffe re n t th a n
th a t o f Ire la n d o r fo r th a t m a tte r c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry . It w as c h ie f ly m a d e u p o f a n
in te rm ix in g o f c o n v ic ts, tic k e t o f le a v e h o ld e rs , e m a n c ip is ts , a n d fre e settlers. B y
l0i Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore (Great Britain, 1987) p.286
45
1 8 3 7 S y d n e y c o v e re d a n a r e a o f s o m e 2 ,0 0 0 a c re s a n d c o n ta in e d a r o u n d 2 0 ,0 0 0
in h a b ita n ts. S y d n e y lik e a n y la rg e u rb a n a r e a s u ffe re d fro m c rim e s s u c h a s b u rg la rie s ,
ro b b e rie s, th e f t a n d larc en y . T h e p ro b le m it a p p e a rs a n d w h ic h p ro b a b ly h a d a n a ffe c t
o n th e c rim e ra te w a s th a t d ru n k e n n e ss w a s w id e s p re a d in S y d n e y w ith th e re p o rt o f
th e s e le c t c o m m itte e c o m m e n tin g t h a t ‘more
immorality occurred in Sydney than in
any other town o f comparable size in the British dominions’} M
National n o t a r y o i A u s tia lio ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ n
l
a
t
0287» v
Figure4: Convicts breaking rocks: N ational Library o f Australia Picture Gallery available online at
http:// www.national library o f Australia file:///A:/picture gallerv/nla.ipe
M o s t o f th e s e c rim e s w e re c o m m itte d b y c o n v ic t se rv a n ts a s s ig n e d to b u s in e s s p e o p le
a n d th e m id d le c la ss in S y d n ey , m a n y o f w h o m w e re e x -c o n v ic ts th e m s e lv e s a n d h a d
c o m e in to p ro p e rty b e c a u s e o f p o s s e s s in g a tra d e w h ic h g av e th e m a n a d v a n ta g e o v e r
fre e settlers. E m a n c ip is ts a ls o h e ld p ro p e rty in th e u rb a n a r e a o f S y d n e y a n d n o t a ll b y
h o n e s t w o rk o r m e a n s. S o m e a c q u ire d p ro p e rty th ro u g h ille g a l m e th o d s su c h as
104 Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the
Moral State o f Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[in], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, p.xxx-xxxi
46
k e e p in g w h a t w e re c a lle d ‘g ro g s h o p s ’ (ille g a lly s u p p ly in g liq u o r a n d a lc o h o l) a n d
a lso b y k e e p in g ille g a l g a m b lin g -h o u s e s a n d b y p a s s in g a n d re c e iv in g s to le n g o o d s,
w h ic h th e y m a y h a v e g o t fro m c o n n e c tio n s in th e c h a in g an g s. B e c a u s e th e s e p e o p le
h a d c o m e in to p ro p e rtie s a n d th e re fo re w e a lth , th e y a lso h a d in flu e n c e . T h is in flu e n c e
e n a b le d o n e fifth o f th o s e s ittin g o n ju r ie s b e tw e e n th e y e a rs o f 1 8 3 4 -’36 to c o m e
fro m th is ty p e o f b a c k g ro u n d .105
S o m e lib e ra ls in E n g la n d s u g g e s te d th a t th e life o f a c o n v ic t w a s n o th in g sh o rt o f
slav ery a n d th a t c o n v ic ts w o u ld in th e e n d b e th e ru in o f th e c o lo n ie s th ro u g h c rim in a l
b e h a v io u r o r ac tiv ity a n d th a t th e c o lo n ie s w o u ld d e s c e n d in to so c ia l c h a o s a n d
la w le ssn e ss. T h is th o u g h w a s n o t th e case. O b v io u s ly th e re w e re th o s e th a t still
c a rrie d o u t c rim in a l a c ts a n d h a rb o u re d c rim in a l in te n t a lo n g w ith th o s e th a t c o u ld n o t
b e re fo rm e d . I t m a y b e tru e to sa y th a t th e s e so rt w e re to b e fo u n d n e a r e n o u g h to th e
la rg e u rb a n a re a s lik e S y d n e y w h e re th e re w a s s u ffic ie n t o p p o rtu n ity to p a rta k e in
crim in a l b e h a v io u r. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e re w e re th o s e th a t liv e d in th e b u s h o r
o u tb a c k w ith th e ir m a s te rs o n la rg e fa rm s o r ra n c h e s. T h e re w a s n o a lc o h o l o r
g a m b lin g h o u se s, n o p ro s titu te s o r o th e r o p p o rtu n itie s fo r v ice. T h e re w e re n o
o rg a n is a tio n s lik e th e W h ite b o y s o r C a ra v a ts b e c a u se th e re w a s n o n e e d fo r th em . O u t
h e re c o n v ic ts fro m th e ru ra l p a rts o f Ire la n d a n d c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry c o u ld le a d a u se fu l
life o f la b o u r, w e ll c lo th e d a n d w e ll fe d w ith th e p ro s p e c t o f a c h ie v in g th e ir freed o m .
In th e o u tb a c k a n d th e b u s h o f V a n D ie m e n ’s L a n d a n d N e w S o u th W a le s p ro b a b ly
th re e fifth s o f m a s te rs e n c o u ra g e d th e c o n v ic ts fo r th e ir o w n in te re sts. S o m e m ig h t
105 Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the
Moral State o f Society in the Penal Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, p.
[iii], H.C. 1838 (669), xxii, p .xxx-xxxii
47
tr e a t th e ir a ss ig n e d se rv a n ts lik e fa rm e q u ip m e n t, b u t a t le a s t th e y w o u ld a ls o te a c h
th e m sk ills a n d k e e p th e m a w a y fro m b a d c o m p a n y .106
T h e c ity w a s a c a u ld ro n a n d m a g n ifie r o f c rim in a lity . In th e b u s h th e re w e re m o re
ro u tin e s a n d le s s c o m p a n y w h ile th e m a s te r a rg u a b ly s h a re d m o re o f th e h a rd s h ip s o f
th e s e rv a n ts th a n th o s e in th e to w n s. In th is p la c e th e c o n v ic t fro m T ip p e ra ry c o u ld a t
la s t o w n h is o w n p ie c e o f la n d a n d b e re c o g n is e d fo r th e e f fo rt p u t in to m a k in g it
p ro d u c tiv e . T h e re w a s n o th re a t o f e v ic tio n , n o c o m p e titio n to fig h t o f f fo r a le a s e th a t
h e h a d h e ld fo r y ea rs. T h e re w e re n o d a iry m e n o r w o rk e rs fro m n e ig h b o u rin g c o u n tie s
u n d e rc u ttin g w a g e s o r b u y in g u p g ra ssla n d s. H e re in th e v a s tn e s s o f th e o u tb a c k , th e
c o n v ic t fro m c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry c o u ld b u ild a b e tte r life a n d p e rh a p s o ffe r a c h a n c e o f
a s im ila r life to o n e fro m h is h o m e co u n ty .
106 Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore (Great Britain, 1987) p.321
48
Conclusion
T h e c o n v ic ts s e n t fro m T ip p e ra ry to A u s tra lia m u s t b e c o n s id e re d in th e e ra in w h ic h
th e y liv e d a n d th e fa c to rs th a t in flu e n c e d th e ir d e c is io n s to c o m m it c rim e a n d
th e re fo re b e p u n is h e d w ith tra n s p o rta tio n . I t w a s a c o m b in a tio n o f fa c to rs th a t
c o n triv e d to e a rn T ip p e ra ry s u c h a b a d re p u ta tio n as a c o u n ty o f la w le s s n e s s as S ir
R o b e rt P e e l e x p re s s e d in a le tte r to th e c h ie f sec retary :
“My opinion is decidedly in favour o f putting down by any means (justifiable o f
course in the eyes o f the law) the insurrectionary spirit o f Tipperary. That county by
far is the most troublesome county in Ireland-and my firm belief is that the turbulence
o f it has become habitual, that it arises out o f sheer wickedness encouraged by the
apathy o f one set o f magistrates and the help and connivance o f another. For the last
thirty years and probably fo r the last three hundred- this same county o f Tipperary
has been conspicuous even in the Irish annals o f violence and barbarity-having less
excuse in the distress and sufferings o f its inhabitants than most other parts o f
Ireland. ’2
T h is d istre ss a n d s u ffe rin g w a s b o u n d to b e e x p re s s e d in a c ts o f v io le n c e
a n d th e p e rp e tra tio n o f crim e . C o n v ic ts fro m c o u n ty T ip p e ra ry w e re th e p ro d u c ts o f
th e e n v iro n m e n t th a t th e y liv e d in, h ig h u n e m p lo y m e n t b e fo re th e h a rv e s t m o n th s,
d e p e n d in g o n w h a te v e r la n d th e y h a d to b o th p a y re n ts a n d e e k o u t a n ex iste n c e ,
p e rio d s o f p o ta to fa ilu re a n d s u b je c t to s o m e w h a t h a rs h la n d law s.
T h e c o u n ty c o n ta in e d so m e o f th e b e s t a g ric u ltu ra l la n d in I r e la n d a n d th is la n d w a s
m u c h so u g h t after. L a n d w a s th e b a s is o f th e e c o n o m y o f th e c o u n ty a s it h a d little o r
n o in d ig e n o u s in d u stry . S u c h in d u s trie s h a d b e e n m o s tly e n d e d in th e e a rlie r p a rt o f
th e c e n tu ry d u e to c o m p e titio n a n d in n o v a tio n fro m s im ila r E n g lis h in d u s trie s
a llo w in g th e m to c o n tro l th e m a rk e t p la c e . B ritis h g o v e rn m e n t p ro te c tiv e ta riffs also
p la y e d th e ir p a rt. T h e p o p u la c e o f th e m o re ru ra l a re a s d e p e n d e d m o s tly o n th e p o ta to
as a m e a n s o f p a y in g th e ir re n ts a n d a lso fo r fe e d in g th e m s e lv e s a n d th e ir fam ilies.
T h e p ro b le m th o u g h w a s, th a t T ip p e ra ry lik e m o s t o th e r p a rts o f Ire la n d , also
2 Quoted in W illiam Nolan, Tipperary: history and society; interdisciplinary essays on the history of an
Irish county (Dublin, 1985) p.244
49
e x p e rie n c e d a p o p u la tio n b o o m , w h ic h p u t p re s su re o n th e lan d . T h e d e te rm in a tio n by
la n d h o ld e rs a n d th e ir a g e n ts to c o n s o lid a te th e ir h o ld in g s a lso a d d e d to th e p re s su re
o n th e p o p u la c e th a t d e p e n d e d o n th is land. D a iry in g w a s o n th e ris e w ith tilla g e b e in g
o n th e d e c lin e a n d th is w a s to c a u s e p ro b le m s, as le ss la n d w o u ld b e a v a ila b le fo r th e
c u ltiv a tio n o f p o tato es. P o ta to e s w e re im p o rta n t to c o ttie rs a n d la n d le s s la b o u re rs
b e c a u s e in c o m p a riso n to o th e r c ro p s th e y p ro d u c e d m o re p e r a c re. D a iry in g also
p ro m o te d c o m p e titio n fo r le a se s w ith re v e n g e a tta c k s o r th re a te n in g b e h a v io u r b e in g
p e rp e tra te d o n th o se th a t h a d a c c u m u la te d o r a d d e d to th e ir h o ld in g s in th is w ay.
B e c a u s e T ip p e ra ry h a d s o m e o f th e b e s t a g ric u ltu ra l la n d in th e c o u n try , it also m e a n t
th a t m o re in th e w a y o f c ro p s w o u ld b e p ro d u c e d . T h is in its tu r n w o u ld m e a n th a t at
h a rv e s t tim e s w o rk w a s a v a ila b le . T h is e n c o u ra g e d w o rk e rs fro m o th e r c o u n tie s to
m ig ra te in to th e c o u n ty in s e a rc h o f th is w o rk . T h is le d to c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n th o se
in d ig e n o u s to th e c o u n ty a n d th o s e th a t h a d re c e n tly a rriv e d fo r e m p lo y m e n t w ith th e
n e w c o m e rs o fte n u n d e rc u ttin g th o s e re s id in g in th e c o u n ty in te rm s o f ra te o f p a y
le a d in g to c o n flic t a n d v io le n c e b e tw e e n n e w c o m e rs a n d n ativ es.
In 1847 L o rd J o h n R u ss e ll, P rim e M in iste r, c o m p a rin g th e sta te o f Ire la n d w ith th a t
o f E n g la n d c o m m e n te d , ‘L a n d lo rd s in E n g la n d w o u ld n o t lik e to b e sh o t lik e h a re s
a n d p a rtrid g e s b y m is c re a n ts b a n d e d fo r m u rd e ro u s p u rp o s e s; b u t n e ith e r d o e s a n y
L a n d lo rd in E n g la n d tu rn o u t fifty a t o n c e a n d b u m th e ir h o u s e s fro m th e ir h e a d s
g iv in g th e m n o p ro v is io n fo r th e fu tu re .’1 N o d o u b t T ip p e ra ry h a d its m isc re a n ts a n d
th a t th e y d id c a rry o u t a s sa u lts o n th o s e la n d h o ld e rs th e y d e e m e d u n ju st, b u t it is also
h ig h ly u n lik e ly th a t a n y la n d lo rd in T ip p e ra ry e v e r e v ic te d fifty a t once.
B y lo o k in g in to a n d in v e s tig a tin g th e s o c io -e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s in T ip p e ra ry b o th
d u rin g th e d e c a d e s le a d in g u p to a n d d u rin g th e p e rio d in q u e stio n , it is p o s s ib le to
1 A.G.L Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and
Ireland to Australia and other parts of the British Empire (Ireland, 1998) p. 175
50
b u ild a p ic tu re o f w h a t c o n d itio n s w e re like. T h is e n a b le d a lin k b e tw e e n th e n u m b e rs
tra n s p o rte d a n d th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d . W e h a v e lo o k e d a t h o w th e a g r a ria n s o c ie tie s o f
th e p re v io u s d e c a d e d e a lt w ith p e rc e iv e d in ju stic e s. W e h a v e a ls o lo o k e d a t h o w th e
p ro s p e rity o f th e d e c a d e s im m e d ia te ly b e fo re th e p e r io d u n d e r stu d y g ra d u a lly g a v e
w a y to e c o n o m ic d ep re ssio n . T h e s o c io -e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n , o p p o rtu n is m , te m p ta tio n ,
c rim in a l a c tiv ity fo r a liv in g a n d la te r o n th e e ffe c ts o f th e F a m in e w e re th e ro o t
c a u se s o f m u c h crim e. C rim e s lik e la rc e n y , th e ft, b u rg la ry , fo rg e ry a n d a n im a l
s te a lin g w e re all c a rrie d o u t b y in d iv id u a ls in a n e ra w h e n th e re w a s n o re a l
a lte rn a tiv e to la b o u rin g o n th e la n d , e x c e p t e m ig ra tio n . O n ly in th e to w n s a n d u rb a n
a re a s w a s th e ir e m p lo y m e n t o th e r th a n la b o u rin g o n th e la n d , b u t th is e m p lo y m e n t
w a s also d e p e n d e n t o n a g ric u ltu re . F lo u r m illin g , b u tte r m a k in g , b re a d b a k in g ,
b u tc h e rin g , le a th e r m a n u fa c tu rin g , b re w in g , a n d e v e n C h a rle s B ia n c o n i’s c o a c h
se rv ic e s d e p e n d e d o n a g ric u ltu re .
M a n y w o rk s h a v e b e e n w ritte n a b o u t c o n v ic t tra n s p o r ta tio n to A u s tra lia fro m
Ire la n d a n d B rita in . M a n y o f th e m c o v e r th e w h o le o f th e tra n s p o r ta tio n p e rio d in th e
fo rm o f h isto rie s o r g e n e ra l su rv e y s o f th e e ra in q u e stio n . S o m e a re o n th e a c tu a l
v o y a g e s o f th e c o n v ic t tra n s p o rts a n d w h a t h a p p e n e d o n th e m d u rin g th e ir jo u rn e y .
S o m e fo c u s o n th e p e n a l c o lo n ie s th e m se lv e s. O th e r w o rk s fo c u s o n fe m a le o r m a le
c o n v ic ts w h ile o th e rs still fo c u s o n p a rtic u la r e th n ic g ro u p s s u c h a s th e Iris h a n d h o w
th e y fa re d in A u stra lia . S o m e w o rk s ro m a n tic is e c o n v ic t tra n s p o rta tio n as a te rrib le
w ro n g in flic te d o n a p o o r p e o p le . S o m e a re m o re o b je c tiv e th a n th is a n d c o n s id e r
tra n s p o rta tio n , as it a c tu a lly w a s, a d e te rre n t to c rim e a n d a n a lte rn a tiv e to a
p e n ite n tia ry sy stem . T h is w o rk fo c u s e d o n o n e c o u n ty a n d in p a rtic u la r th e e ffe c ts o f
a n u m b e r o f c irc u m sta n c e s a n d e v e n ts th a t c o n triv e d to g e th e r to in flu e n c e th e
n u m b e rs tra n sp o rte d . T h e re a lity w a s th a t th e e c o n o m y o f T ip p e ra ry w a s a t th e m e rc y
51
o f th e la n d , w h ic h i n its tu r n w a s a f fe c te d b y p o p u la tio n p re s s u r e a n d c lim a te . I t w a s
th is c lim a te th a t w a s g o in g to c o n trib u te to a n u n k n o w n p o ta to d is e a s e (b lig h t)
d e s tro y in g th e c ro p a n d le a d in g to th e F a m in e , d e s p e ra tio n a n d in c re a s e s in b o th
c rim e a n d tra n sp o rta tio n .
T h is d istre ss a n d s u ffe rin g w a s b o u n d to b e e x p re s s e d i n a c ts o f v io le n c e a n d th e
p e rp e tra tio n o f crim e .
F o r so m e tra n s p o rta tio n w a s a w a y to le a v e th is d is tre s s b e h in d a n d sta rt afresh . F o r
o th e rs i t w a s th e in e v ita b le re s u lt o f c o m m ittin g c rim e , c rim e th a t w a s d ire c tly
in flu e n c e d b y th e ir c irc u m s ta n c e s , c irc u m sta n c e s i n tu r n t h a t w e re s h a p e d a n d
in flu e n c e d b y c lim a tic a n d e c o n o m ic e v e n ts b e y o n d th e ir c o n tro l.
52
Primary Sources
Archival Collections
National Archives o f Ireland, Dublin
The following files were consulted:
Convict Reference Files, 1836-1853
Prisoners Petitions and Cases, 1836-1853
Transportation Registers
Parliamentary Publications
The following Parliamentary Papers (located in the John Paul II Library) were
consulted in the National University o f Ireland, Maynooth, County Kildare, Republic
o f Ireland:
British Parliamentary Papers Report o f the Select Committee on Transportation, its
Efficacy as a Punishment, it’s Influence on the Moral State o f Society in the Penal
Colonies, and how fa r it is Susceptible o f Improvement 1837-68, H.C. 1838 (669)
British Parliamentary Papers Report o f the Commissioner ofInquiry on the Colony o f
New South Wales 1822-35
British Parliamentary Papers Crime and Punishment. Transportation 1837
Works o f Reference
Piggott 's National Directory o f Clonmel (Dublin, 1824)
53
Secondary Sources
General Histories and Surveys
Brie, Maurice J "The Whiteboy movement in Tipperary 1760-80’, in Nolan, William
(ed) Tipperary: History and Society: Interdisciplinary essays on the history o f an Irish
county (Dublin, 1985) pp 149-169
Clarke, Samuel, Donnelly James S, Jr. Irish Peasants: Violence and Political unrest
1780-1914 (Dublin, 1996)
Cole, W.A, Deane P., British Economic Growth, 1668-1959 (Cambridge, 1969)
Costello, Con ‘Botany Bay: The Story o f convicts transported from Ireland to
Australia 1791-1853’ (Cork, 1986) '
Daly, M.E., Social and Economic History o f Ireland Since 1800 (Dublin, 1981)
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