Historical Setting for Booker T. Washington and the Rhetoric of Compromise, 1895
Author(s): Melbourne Cummings
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Sep., 1977), pp. 75-82
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2783690 .
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HISTORICAL SETTING FOR
BOOKER T. WASHINGTON AND
THE RHETORIC OF
COMPROMISE, 1895
MELBOURNE CUMMINGS
Howard University
anddespairgripped
thenation.
Bythemid1890's,hollowness
Economiccollapsecutdeeplyintoall classes.Wealthyand
as wellas immigrant
middleclass businessmen
farmers
and
destitute
blackandwhitesharecroppers
searched
fora wayout
of 1893.The entirenationwas tornby everything
shortof
anarchism-riots,
strikes,
bloodshed,property
damage,and
bitterrace conflicts.Lynchingssoared to all timehighs
thoughout
theSouth.At thebottomof theeconomicheap
blackssuffered
most.Theirincomeswerealmostnilwhenfarm
pricesdropped.Theynearlystarvedfortheygrewhardly
any
oncottonandtobacco
foodcrops;theyweredependent
mostly
(Calista,1964:242).
Their politicsreflectedthe economicsituation.They
toagitatethrough
allianceswithpoorwhites.
attempted
These
Thismovement,
alliancesgrewintothePopulistmovement.
too muchwiththepolitically
however,
failedforitidentified
silverforgoldas thenational
unpopularmoveto substitute
withthe"radical"Democratic
moneystandard;it identified
toomuchwithblack
itidentified
Party;andmostimportantly,
people.Their(blacks')hopesforequality,
justice,andpolitical
leadershipthattheyhad withPopulismwerereplacedby
despairand fear.Directpoliticalagitationhad provedto be
painfuland costlyto blacksin themid-i890s(Calista,1964:
a new
245).Theydoubtless
begantowonderifa newdoctrine,
be ableto avoiddisheartenora newleadermight
movement,
ing politicalpanaceassuch as the one theywerepresently
facing,and lead themout ofthedepressedeconomicstate.
JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES, Vol. 8 No. 1, September1977
? 1977 Sage Publications,Inc.
[75]
[76] JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / SEPTEMBER
1977
Blackswereplaguedby further
confusionwhenthedisfranchisement
and segregation
movements
startedin 1890.
The Southrobbedblackpeopleoftheirvotesand theNorth
treatedthemwithscorn.Theywereexcludedpolitically
and
sociallyby acts of states'laws. One-timesupporters
of the
black"cause"turned
theirbacksandbegansympathizing
with
theWhiteSouth.TheRepublican
Partyalsoabandonedthem.
By 1893theracequestionas a politicalissuewas dead and
nationalsolidarity
was,to a largeextentachieved,butat the
blackman(Calista,1964:249).
expenseofthesouthern
Thetimewas ripefornewblackleadership,
newdoctrines,
and new"solutions."
Evenifblackswantedto agitateas they
had successfully
doneduringReconstruction,
theycouldnot,
forall earsweredeaf,andall avenueswereclosed.Thenation
andblackpeoplewere
wasinneedofa rhetoric
ofcompromise
inneedofa leaderwhocouldgaintherespect
andearofa white
The leaderneededto be virtually
all
supremist
government.
to be successful,
couldnot
thingsto all people;hisrhetoric,
inanysense.Thesouthern
situation
be extreme
wasnotbeing
box
at
all
with
ballot
aided
raiding,
opencorruption,
political
It was believedto be improbable
at
and lynchings.
agitation,
thattime,to obtainpoliticalequalityforblackpeople,andit
to finda blackmanwhowas ableto recognize
was necessary
theproblemand worktowarda solutionthat
and articulate
to bothblacksand whites.
wouldbe satisfactory
The policythatwas soughtwas one of appeasement
and
Therewas in the 1890sa whitereignofterror
compromise.
thenation,andespecially
gripping
theSouth.Something
and/
or someonewas neededto lessentheterror.
BookerT. Washington
seemedto fitthequalifications.
He
had expressedand shownconcernforthefutureof black
accumulation
oftroubles
peoplelongbeforethemassive
inthe
andnormalschoolforblacks
1890s.He hadbeguna technical
inTuskegee,Alabama,andhadall hislifeprepared
to"better
himself'and in theprocess,helphisfellowman.
tospeakbefore
Washington
wasinvited
a biracialaudience
fortheopening
ofthe1895AtlantaCottonStatesand
gathered
International
Exposition.
It wasthefirst
timethata blackman
Cummings/ BOOKER T. WASHINGTON [77]
hadbeenaskedto sharetheplatform
withwhiteSoutherners
onan occasionofnationalimportance.
He realizedthegravity
oftheoccasion,andwasdetermined
to saynothing
thathedid
notbelieveand nothing
thatcouldbe interpreted
as offensive
intheaudience,
to thewhiteSoutherners
yethewaspainfully
consciousofthefactthathe"mustbe trueto myownracein
myutterances"
1956:144).Thestagewassetfor
(Washington,
therhetoric
thatwas laterto be knownas "compromise."
the speechand, in fact,his wholespeaking
Throughout
advocateda program
ofeconomicbettercareer,Washington
mentoftheSouthandindividual
Southerners
through
cooperationbetweenblackand white.He admonished
blacksthat
theyshouldstop seekingsocial and politicalequality,and
to attaineconomicrespectability.
beginworking
Whiteswere
urgedto lessen theirantagonismtowardblacks if they
expectedto getrich,forit couldnotbe donewithout
black
whenconditions
people'shelp,andanypeopleworkbetter
are
peaceful.
In Washington's
theAtlantaExposition
speeches,
especially
Address,he used ideas and materialthatseemedto cement
to bringtogether
thatattempted
relationships,
tworaces,and
mostimportantly,
materialthatwouldnot alienatewhites
fromblacks.His rhetoric
any further
was meantto cause
whitesto feela senseofduty,responsibility,
and satisfaction
in theexisting
situation.He alwaysendeavored
to appealto
themin sucha waythattheywouldfeeltheneedto donate
moneyand suppliesto supportthecontinuedbuildingand
maintenance
oftheschool(s)forblacks.His contention
was
thatone-third
thepopulationoftheSouthwasblack,andno
enterprise
couldthriveifthatportionofthepopulationwas
ignored(Washington,
1956:155).
Anotherof the themesof Washington's
rhetoric
was the
necessity
of educatingblacks.He stressedthatit wouldbe
advantageousnot only to blacks,but to whitesand the
southern
economyas well.He explainedthatifblackswere
educated,trained,and experienced,
theycould helpthemselves,and byso doing,helpwhitesmoreefficiently
and together
theycouldbuilda moreproductive
South.
[78] JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / SEPTEMBER
1977
He realizedthattheidea of educatingblackswas notso
fortheiridea ofan educatedblack
palatableto somewhites,
dresseddandywithspats,
manwasan affected,
incongruously
gloves,and cane.Some feltthatthebestwayto ruina good
wastoeducatehim(Washington,
farm-hand
1904:15).Washingtonmade it clear to whiteswhatkindof educationhe
envisionedforblacks.He disagreedverystrongly
withthe
typethathadbeenprovided
bytheNewEnglandmissionaries
who had goneSouthafterthewarand had educatedblack
as they(themissionaries)
peopleinthesamemanner
hadbeen
taught.He acknowledged
that"We had scoresofyoungmen
ormechanical
learnedinGreek,butfewincarpentry
drawing.
We hadtrainedmanyin Latin,butalmostnoneas engineers,
Numbers
weretakenfrom
the
bridgebuilders,
andmachinists.
in
else
farmandeducated,
butwereeducated everything except
ofcourse,
1904:10). Washington,
agriculture"
(Washington,
believedineducation
forutilitarian
purposes.He proposedto
takeyoungmenand womenfromthefarm,educatethemin
andsendthembackas thebackboneofa solidand
agriculture,
Whiteswereableto respect
prosperous
citizenry.
Washington
becausetheycouldlivewiththetypeofeducation
andtraining
he talkedaboutforblackpeople.Thoseblackseducatedin
of "their
academicswere whites"uppity"and unmindful
places"fortheywantedtoenjoythesamekindoflifeas whites.
Theywantedto go intopolitics,be engineers
and lawyers,
speakLatinandGreek,andenjoyreading
poetry.
Washington
wantedto teach blacks"whattheyneeded,"an industrial
andagrarian
andwhitescouldrelatetothis.So this
education,
was thestrategy
oflanguagehe usedon themin orderto get
and acceptancefor blacks.
money,recognition,
Thiswasexactlywhyblacksrespected
andhis
Washington
It seemsthatrhetorically
and historicompromise
strategy.
all inhimself.
wasa movement
He wasable
cally,Washington
to securemoneyfrompreviously
fisted"
whitesinorder
"tight
tobuildandmaintain
a schoolforblacks,whennooneelsewas
able to do so. He wantedto "lifttheveilofignorance"'
from
themassesof blacksand helpthemgaineconomicsecurity.
Thoughhisultimate
goalwastogainequalityforblacksonall
Cummings/ BOOKER T. WASHINGTON [79]
circumtheconfining
triedtoworkwithin
levels,Washington
goalsoftenseemed
stancesof the 1890s,and his immediate
However,lookingback on the political,
accommodating.
social, and economicsituation,Washington'srhetorical
was probablythe onlykindthatwouldworkfor
strategy
ofblack
and actualcompromise
blackpeople.The rhetorical
in
1895
wide
accepgained
peoplethatbeganwithfullsteam
Andthatwasthepurpose
tanceamongbothblacksandwhites.
towardwhichWashingtonwas working.The nation,he
thatwouldwork,one thatwas
neededa rhetoric
thought,
togeton
andonethatwouldaid blacksandwhites
acceptable,
the conditionsof
withthebusinessof livingand bettering
blacks.
ideaswereamongthe
to Washington's
adherents
Strongest
middleclass,particularly
southern
and influential
articulate
blackteachers."The Negrowillhaveto workout his own
andmoneywillmakeanyrace
salvation.Religion,
education,
schoolprincipal
saida blackVirginia
(Meier,1953:68).
great,"
somefeltblacks
as spokesman,
WithBookerT. Washington
Blacks'problems
wouldbe
forthefuture.
had somedirection
of
the
classes
race
unite
resolved"whenthemoreintelligent
classesbyexamplerather
to educatetheignorant
theireffort
a blackteacherhoped(Meier,1953:70).
thanbyprecept,"
Washington's
views were opposed by the black "intelpolitical
emphasize
lectuals."Theyfelthedidnotsufficiently
educationmight
result
andthathisstresson industrial
rights,
virtual
they
Washington,
in keeping
in
bondage.
blackpeople
inmakingblackpeopleworthy
believed,
wasmoreinterested
forit in waysthatmight
of thefranchise,
thanin agitating
thecontroversy
severalgeninflame
publicopinion.Judging
onbothsides,butas faras
erations
therewastruth
afterwards,
andconsidering
theblackpeopleintheSouthwereconcerned
politicsofthetime,which
publicopinionand theprevailing
he adoptedtheonlypolicy
Washington
wishedto influence,
whichcouldbe effective.
intheAtlantaspeech
Washington
madeno clearstatements
concerning
politics.He probablythoughtit inadvisableto
to
mention
theviewsthathehadexpressed
a fewweeksbefore
[80] JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / SEPTEMBER
1977
the congressionalcommitteethatblack people should not be
robbed of the vote by unfairmeans. Silence concerningthe
black vote was, in hisopinion,bestat thattime.The audience
was morethanlikelynotofa mindto be agitatedby"radical"
views.
The temperof the South was such that in 1895 a black
speakerhad to use everyavailablemeansofaudienceanalysis.
He did not wantto alienateeithergroup(he had bothblacks
and whitesin theaudience),neitherdid ne wantto misrepresent the plightof the oppressedin an effortto appease the
whitesortheoppressorsintheaudience.Washingtonknewthe
tempterof the South and its inhabitants,he knew how to
appeal to them.He was aware thatwhiteswerenotinterested
in openlysocializingwithblack people,thattheylooked with
on allowingthemtheirpoliticalrights,butthey
bewilderment
werenotas averseto theidea ofeconomicprogressand industrialgains.Since whiteswereagainstsocial equalityforblacks,
Washingtondenouncedit and held up economicsas a reason
forcooperativeefforts.
socialwecan be as separateas thefingers,
In all thingspurely
essential
to mutualprogress.
yetone as thehandinall things
1956:156)
(Washington,
Blacks,ofcourse,weretiredofbeingdiscriminated
against,
harassed,lynched;tiredof not havinga decenthome,enough
food for theirchildren,and clothes. They wanted schools,
respect,and peace of mind.They believedtheycould get all
theywanted withan economic base. Washington,knowing
this about theirnatureand believingas theybelieved,gave
thema basis forhope, by sayingto them:
Whenit comesto business,
pureand simpleitis in theSouth
thattheNegroisgivena man'schanceinthecommercial
world.
ofourhands,and
Themassesofusaretolivebytheproductions
weshallprosper
inproportion
as welearntodignify
andglorify
commonlabor.(Washington,
1956:157)
Cummings/ BOOKER T. WASHINGTON [81]
On subjectsof thisnature,such emotionalargumentswere
absolutelynecessaryin the South. Appeals had to be made to
possible latent sentimentsof trustand understandingthat
whitesheldforblacks,and to confidencethatblacksdisplayed
in whites.
The triumphof Washington'srhetoricalstrategyof compromise resultedfroma numberof reasons. First was the
matterof timing:theAtlantaspeechin 1895came as thepeak
of black people's troubles.By themid-1890stheforcesworking againstthemabruptlyand painfullyerupted;depression
raged on, the governmentdesertedthem,"friends"disappeared,disfranchisement
gained momentum,lynchingswere
rampant,and FrederickDouglass, the recognizedleader of
black people,died; a yearlater,1896,Populism,thelast hope
for equality and political representation,collapsed. The
AtlantaCompromiseAddresswas a rayofhope; itwas virtually salvationfor blacks (and some tend to thinkwhitesas
well).
The effectof the speechand oftheidea ofcompromisewas
overwhelming.
Washingtonreportedinhisautobiography,Up
From Slavery,that
The first
thingthatI remember,
afterI finished
speakingwas
thatGovernor
Bullockrushed
acrosstheplatform
andtookme
so manyand
bythehand,and othersdidthesame.I received
suchhearty
togetoutof
congratulations
thatI founditdifficult
thebuilding.
This same kindof reactionfollowedhimeverywhere
he went.
Boston Script,New York
Newspapers(Atlanta Constitution,
World) throughoutthe South and North proclaimed the
speech"the most notable everdeliveredto a Southernaudience." The speech was consideredto be thekingof platform
thatboth blacks and whitescould "stand withfulljustice to
each other."
This speechmarkedsimultaneously
theend and the beginningof an era forblack people and theirmethodsof striving
inAmerica.1895markedan
forequal rightsand opportunities
[82] JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / SEPTEMBER
1977
ofthemoveofagitation
andthebeginning
endtotherhetoric
of BookerT. Washmentforcompromise
and therhetoric
ington.
rhetoric
wasalwaysthesameThethemeofWashington's
he talkedabout afterthe
Almosteverything
compromise.
of that
AtlantaExpositionspeechwas an amplification
died,other
address.From1895until1915whenWashington
otherideas,otherproposedsolutions
otherrhetors,
rhetoric,
to the problemsof black people werenotjust secondary,
andhis
byBookerT. Washington
butvirtually
overshadowed
Movement."
"Compromise
NOTE
1. The excerptis part of an inscriptionon a monumentto Washingtonon the
is: "He liftedtheveilofignorThe completeinscription
campusofTuskeegeeInstitute.
ance fromhis people and pointedthe way to progressthrougheducation."
REFERENCES
CALISTA, D. (1964) "Booker T. Washington:anotherlook." J. of Negro History
69 (October): 240-255.
MEIER, A. (1953) "BookerT. Washingtonand theNegropress."J.ofNegroHistory
38 (January):67-90.
WASHINGTON, B. T. (1956) Up From Slavery.New York: Bantam Books.
---(1904) WorkingWithithe Hands. Garden City,NY: Doubleday.
Melbourne Cummingsis an Associate Professor in the Departmentof
CommunicationArtsand Sciencesat Howard University.
Herinterests
include
Africanand Afro-American
rhetoricand literature.