CICERO
ON
PHILOSOPHY
AND
HISTORY
by G.W.R.Ardley*
(1)
Modern e s t i m a t e s o f C i c e r o as a p h i l o s o p h e r a r e
u s u a l l y t e p i d and a p o l o g e t i c ; s o m e t i m e s , as i n t h e c a s e
o f Mommsen, e v e n c o n t e m p t u o u s .
I n t h i s paper we s h a l l
argue t h a t such d e p r e c i a t o r y e s t i m a t e s are narrowly
conceived;
t h a t C i c e r o was a p h i l o s o p h e r i n a more r o b u s t and p r o f o u n d s e n s e t h a n h i s c r i t i c s a r e wont t o
recognise;
t h a t C i c e r o ' s f o r t e was i n p r o m o t i n g an a l l i a n c e between p h i l o s o p h y and h i s t o r y , an a l l i a n c e w h i c h
b r i n g s b o t h p h i l o s o p h y and h i s t o r y t o f u l f i l m e n t .
By
p o i n t i n g to the n e c e s s i t y f o r t h i s a l l i a n c e ,
Cicero set
t h e c o u r s e o f what was t o be, e v e r s i n c e , t h e c e n t r a l
t r a d i t i o n o f E u r o p e a n manners and t h o u g h t , a t r a d i t i o n
w h i c h i s sometimes e x p l i c i t - as w i t h Edmund B u r k e and
t h e Comte J o s e p h de M a i s t r e , but i s more o f t e n a t a c i t
and u n s p o k e n g o v e r n o r .
we
C i c e r o ' s d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e theme a r e d i s c u r s i v e :
can i n d i c a t e h e r e o n l y some o f t h e p r i n c i p a l n o t e s .
(2)
The h i s t o r i c c o n s t i t u t i o n .
C i c e r o n e v e r w a v e r e d i n h i s l o y a l t y to the h i s t o r i c c o n s t i t u t i o n o f Rome, t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h was
h i s n u r s e and m e n t o r ,
that constitution
t o w h i c h he
owed a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e w h i c h c o u l d n e v e r be d i s c h a r g ed.
T h u s , i n t h e De o r a t o r e ( i , x l i v ) , he makes t h e
s t u r d y p a t r i o t and g u a r d i a n o f p r e c e d e n t , C r a s s u s ,
observe:
"Though t h e whole w o r l d grumble, I w i l l s p e a k
my mind.
I t seems t o me, I s o l e m n l y d e c l a r e ,
t h a t , i f anyone l o o k s to t h e o r i g i n s and
s o u r c e s o f the l a w s , the s m a l l manual of the
T w e l v e T a b l e s by i t s e l f s u r p a s s e s t h e l i b r a r i e s of a l l the p h i l o s o p h e r s , i n weight of
a u t h o r i t y and w e a l t h o f u s e f u l n e s s a l i k e .
And i f our own n a t i v e l a n d i s our j o y , as
to t h e u t t e r m o s t i t ought t o be, ... w i t h
l o v e how a r d e n t must we s u r e l y be f i r e d f o r
a c o u n t r y s u c h as o u r s , s t a n d i n g a l o n e among
a l l l a n d s as t h e home o f e x c e l l e n c e , imperi a l power, and good r e p o r t !
(domus e s t v i r t u t i s , imperii, dignitatis.)
I t i s her
s p i r i t , c u s t o m s , and c o n s t i t u t i o n (mens,
mos, d i s c i p l i n a ) t h a t we a r e bound f i r s t to
l e a r n , both b e c a u s e we must needs h o l d t h a t
*Mr. A r d l e y i s S e n i o r L e c t u r e r i n P h i l o s o p h y , U n i v e r s i t y
of Auckland.
28
w i s d o m ( s a p i e n t i a ) as p e r f e c t w e n t t o t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h e r l a w s , as t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f the vast might o f her empire."
1
I n a l l C i c e r o ' s e x c u r s i o n s i n t o Greek p h i l o s o p h y ,
t h i s r o c k - l i k e d e c l a r a t i o n o f Crassus stands f i r m i n
t h e b a c k g r o u n d as a s o b e r i n g a n d s t e a d y i n g p o i n t o f
reference.
Recollection o f the historic principle
d r a w s C i c e r o b a c k f r o m t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l h y b r i s b y which
he m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e b e e n e n g u l f e d .
The theme may be i l l u s t r a t e d a g a i n b y t h e r e m a r k s
o f C o t t a , t h e P o n t i f e x , i n t h e De n a t u r a d e o r u m . C o t t a
l i s t e n s while the n a t u r a l theologies o f t h e Epicurean
and S t o i c s c h o o l s a r e e l o q u e n t l y e x p o u n d e d .
On b e i n g
asked f o r h i s o p i n i o n , C o t t a observes d r i l y t h a t , w h i l e
he h i m s e l f b e l i e v e s f i r m l y i n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e gods,
he f i n d s none o f t h e p r o f f e r e d a r g u m e n t s c o n v i n c i n g ;
indeed, t h e arguments serve o n l y t o render d o u b t f u l
and p e r p l e x e d a m a t t e r w h i c h p r o p e r l y a d m i t s o f no doubt
a t a l l ( i l l , i v ) . No w e l l b r o u g h t up man h a s a n y h e s i t a t i o n o n t h e s u b j e c t . The t r u e b a s i s f o r r e l i g i o n i s
r e s p e c t f o r a u t h o r i t y and t r a d i t i o n :
"For my p a r t , I s h a l l a l w a y s u p h o l d t h e
b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e i m m o r t a l gods w h i c h have
come down t o us f r o m o u r a n c e s t o r s , a n d
t h e r i t e s and c e r e m o n i e s and d u t i e s o f r e l i g i o n , a n d a l w a y s h a v e done s o ; a n d no e l o quence o f anybody, l e a r n e d o r u n l e a r n e d ,
s h a l l e v e r d i s l o d g e me f r o m t h e b e l i e f as t o
t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e i m m o r t a l gods w h i c h I
have i n h e r i t e d f r o m o u r f o r e f a t h e r s .
I
h a v e a l w a y s h e l d t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t Romulus
by h i s a u s p i c e s a n d Numa b y h i s e s t a b l i s h ment o f o u r r i t u a l l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f
our s t a t e , w h i c h a s s u r e d l y c o u l d n e v e r have
b e e n as g r e a t as i t i s h a d n o t t h e f u l l e s t
measure o f d i v i n e f a v o u r been o b t a i n e d f o r
it."
( l l l , i i ) .
S o t t a i s n o t an i n t e l l e c t u a l s c e p t i c , b u t q u i t e
the reverse:
f o r w h a t c o u l d be m o r e e m i n e n t l y r e s p e c t a b l e than t h e a u c t o r i t a s m a i o r u m ?
The i n t e l l e c t u a l
s c e p t i c s a r e t h o s e who p r e s u m p t u o u s l y r e j e c t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s i n w h i c h t h e y were r e a r e d , and v a i n l y
t r e a t o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e gods as i f i t w e r e a n
o p e n q u e s t i o n t o b e d e c i d e d ab i n i t i o b y a p r o c e s s o f
reasoning.
( A s t h e r e h a v e e v e n b e e n some whose w i t s
h a v e b e e n so d i s a r r a y e d as t o t r e a t o f t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d , n o t as a p l a y f u l e x e r c i s e , b u t
as a g e n u i n e o p e n q u e s t i o n ) . C o t t a ' s p o s i t i o n i s t h a t
the p a t h t o r e l i g i o n i s by n u r t u r e ;
f o r this there
c a n n o t be a n y s u b s t i t u t e .
N a t u r a l t h e o l o g y m i g h t be
29
a n a d m i r a b l e r e f l e c t i v e a n d e n r i c h i n g e x e r c i s e f o r one
who a l r e a d y b e l i e v e s . The e r r o r o f t h e n a t u r a l t h e o l o g i a n s i s t o make n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y a u s u r p e r o f b e l i e f .
2
W h e t h e r i t be i n p o l i t i c s , i n m a n n e r s , o r i n r e l i g ion, Cicero holds f i r m t o t h e primacy o f n u r t u r e i n
the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n .
However, though h i s t o r y
i s m a g i s t r a v i t a e (De o r . I I , i x ) ,
Cicero i s f a r from
r e s t i n g content with the passive transmission o f inheri t e d custom:
"The m o s t f o o l i s h n o t i o n o f a l l i s t h e
b e l i e f t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s j u s t which i s
found i n t h e customs o r laws o f n a t i o n s ,
(populorum i n s t i t u t i s a u t l e g i b u s ) .
Would
t h a t be t r u e , e v e n i f t h e s e l a w s h a d b e e n
e n a c t e d b y T y r a n t s ? " (De l e g . I , x v ) .
The a n c i e n t m o d e l s , t h e mos m a i o r u m , a r e t o b e
r e s p e c t e d , b u t t h e y a r e t o be r e c e i v e d a n d p a s s e d o n ,
n o t b l i n d l y , b u t i n t e l l i g e n t l y and c r i t i c a l l y .
This i s
w h e r e a p h i l o s o p h i c e d u c a t i o n c a n be a s o u r c e o f s t r e n g t h .
F o r , s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e t e m p o r a l , i t r a i s e s us t o a v a n t age p o i n t a b o v e t h e t e m p o r a l ;
i t l e a d s us t o a g r a s p
o f u n i v e r s a l s t a n d a r d s o f j u d g e m e n t ; e q u i p p e d w i t h these
s t a n d a r d s we c a n d e s c e n d t o t h e t e m p o r a l f o r i t s i l l u m ination
o f t h e temporal . I h e t r u e p h i l o s o p h e r works
w i t h i n t h e t r a d i t i o n , i s prompted by t h e t r a d i t i o n , f o r
the e n r i c h m e n t o f t h a t t r a d i t i o n .
I t i s t h e mark o f t h e
f a l s e p h i l o s o p h e r t h a t he s e v e r s h i m s e l f f r o m t r a d i t i o n .
(3)
The v a l u e o f p h i l o s o p h y
A w o r k no l o n g e r e x t a n t , t h e H o r t e n s i u a , c o n t a i n e d
Cicero's p r i n c i p a l apology f o r philosophy.
Cicero calls
t h e H o r t e n s i u s *a r e p l y t o t h e r e v i l e r s o f p h i l o s o p h y . '
( T u s ~ I I , i i ).
I t m u s t have b e e n a d i s c o u r s e o f some
power, f o r S t . A u g u s t i n e i n t h e Confessions ( B k . I I l ) r e l a t e s how, as a y o u n g s t u d e n t a t C a r t h a g e , he t o o k up
the H o r t e n s i u s , and t h e work changed h i s l i f e .
I t turned h i m f r o m c a r n a l bondage t o t h e p u r s u i t o f w i s d o m .
B u t , he a d d s , t h e p h i l o s o p h y , e v e n o f t h e H o r t e n s i u s ,
was n o t e n o u g h ;
as a n i n t e r i m s t e p i t was c o m m e n d a b l e ;
the danger l a y i n b e i n g a r r e s t e d a t t h e p h i l o s o p h i c l e v e l
(an arrestment conducive t o P e l a g i a n i s m ) .
B e s p i t e t h e l o s s o f t h e H o r t e n s i u s , we can g a t h e r
from e t h e r works o f C i c e r o , n o t a b l y from t h e Tusculans,
the Academics and t h e O f f i c e s , h i s g e n e r a l e s t i m a t e o f
G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y , a n d h i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e t i m e was now
r i p e f o r Greek w i s d o m t o be i n f u s e d more f u l l y i n t o Roman
life.
I n Tusc. I I , i i , C i c e r o w r i t e s :
" I e n c o u r a g e a l l who h a v e t h e c a p a c i t y
t o w r e s t f r o m t h e now f a i l i n g g r a s p o f Greece
t h e r e n o w n won f r o m t h i s f i e l d o f s t u d y a n d
30
transfer
i t to this
city..."
Roman o r a t o r y , he goes o n , h a v i n g r i s e n f r o m humb l e b e g i n n i n g s t o i t s z e n i t h , i s now i n d e c l i n e ; a
c a r e e r c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e g e n e r a l n a t u r a l l a w o f growth,
f r u i t i o n and d e c a y .
" I n consequence o f these e v i l days,
l e t i t be now t h e b i r t h d a y o f p h i l o s o p h y i n L a t i n l i t erature."
B u t , i n c a l l i n g G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y t o Rome,
l e t us be d i s c r i m i n a t i n g .
The d o g m a t i s m o f t h e m u l t i tudinous H e l l e n i s t i c schools, e s p e c i a l l y that of the
E p i c u r e a n s , s h o u l d be g i v e n no l o d g i n g i n Rome.
What
i s o f v a l u e i s t h e d i a l e c t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y s t e m m i n g from
S o c r a t e s and e x p r e s s e d b y t h e A c a d e m i c s a n d P e r i p a t e t i c s .
F o r t h e S o c r a t i c mode o f e n q u i r y a p p r o a c h e s t h e t r u t h
by l o o k i n g a t e v e r y s i d e o f a q u e s t i o n ( e s c h e w i n g t h e
d o c t r i n a i r e , and s e e k i n g what C i c e r o c a l l s p r o b a b i l i a ,
a t e r m w h i c h i s b e s t r e n d e r e d as ' w o r t h y o f a p p r o b a t i o n ) .
The S o c r a t i c s p i r i t e n l i g h t e n s e v e r y d a y l i f e ;
i t is
t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f h e a r t h , home, a n d c i t y ;
by i t , t h e
Roman t r a d i t i o n o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p w i l l r e a c h i t s consummation .
1
I n h i s more r h e t o r i c a l m o m e n t s , p h i l o s o p h y f o r
C i c e r o becomes a q u a s i - r e l i g i o n ( p r e c i s e l y w h a t S t .
Augustine objected t o ) .
Philosophy i s the discovery
o f t h i n g s s a c r e d a n d human, as w e l l as o f t h e b e g i n n i n g s and causes o f e v e r y phenomenon:
thereby i t gained i t s g l o r i o u s name w i t h t h e a n c i e n t s .
( T u s c . V, i i i ) ;
i t i s medicine f o r the s o u l (Tusc, I I I , i ) ; under i t s
m i n i s t r a t i o n s t h e i n b o r n seeds o f v i r t u e r i p e n ; i t
counteracts the depraving e f f e c t of v i c i o u s p u b l i c o p i n i o n , and t h e p r e t e n s i o n s o f t h e p o e t s ( T u s c . I l l , i i ) .
When i n f u s e d w i t h p h i l o s o p h y , t h e p u r s u i t o f c i v i l
o f f i c e , m i l i t a r y command, a n d p o p u l a r g l o r y , i s r e s c u e d
from v a n i t y .
P h i l o s o p h y i s a g i f t o f t h e gods ( T u s c .
I , x x v i ) , and t h e m o t h e r o f a l l t h e a r t s .
I t instructs
us i n t h e r i g h t w o r s h i p o f t h e g o d s , i n t h e r e i g n o f
j u s t i c e , i n t h e s o c i a l b o n d s w h i c h u n i t e men i n communi t i e s , i n temperance, i n greatness o f s o u l .
I t teaches
us t o see a l l t h i n g s a b o v e and b e l o w , s a c r e d and human.
"0 p h i l o s o p h y , t h o u g u i d e , 0 t h o u e x p l o r e r o f v i r t u e
and e x p e l l e r o f v i c e !
W i t h o u t t h e e , what c o u l d have
become n o t o n l y o f me, b u t o f t h e l i f e o f man a l t o g e t h e r ? "
( T u s c , V, i i ) .
I f such a d u l a t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y exhausted
Cicero's
resources,
t h e r e w o u l d be g o o d g r o u n d f o r d i s m i s s i n g
C i c e r o as no s e r i o u s p h i l o s o p h e r ;
i t s s h a l l o w optimism,
i t s P e l a g i a n i s m , w o u l d be a m p l e w a r r a n t f o r S t .Augustine's
censure.
But, i n f a c t , these b u r s t s of enthusiasm
do
not r e p r e s e n t the whole o f C i c e r o .
He has o t h e r and
g r a v e r moods, moods w h i c h e x p r e s s t h e d e e p e r c h a r a c t e r
o f t h e man.
31
When w r i t i n g c o m p o s e d l y , C i c e r o has an a d m i r a b l e
grasp o f everyday r e a l i t i e s .
He h o l d s f i r m t o t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t the c o n t i n u i t y o f custom, the stream
of
l i f e , t h e l i f e o f t h e Roman c o m m u n i t y t o w h i c h he belongs, i s the f i r s t e s s e n t i a l .
Philosophy i s a serv a n t , a handmaiden.
I t s h o u l d n o t d e s t r o y t h e sense
of h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y , b u t b r i n g i t t o p e r f e c t i o n .
G e n u i n e p h i l o s o p h y d e e p e n s o u r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e models
o f p a s t t i m e , t h e mos m a i o r u m .
I t s e r v e s t o make
us more w o r t h y r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e i n h e r i t a n c e .
Accordi n g l y , C i c e r o was s a v e d f r o m e m b r a c i n g a n y p h i l o s o p h i c
c u l t , any s p e c u l a t i v e s e c t , w h i c h s e t a t n o u g h t t h e
t r a d i t i o n s o f the c i t y .
He l i k e d t o b r i n g men down t o
e a r t h , t h e i r proper h a b i t a t i o n ;
i n w h i c h he showed h i m s e l f t o be a t r u e d i s c i p l e o f S o c r a t e s .
C i c e r o had
none o f t h e s u b t l e a n a l y t i c a l p o w e r s o f a
P l a t o o r an
Aristotle.
B u t he was a d i s c r i m i n a t i n g j u d g e o f p h i l osophers.
Does t h e p r o p o s e d p h i l o s o p h y r i n g t r u e a g a i n s t
the
a n v i l o f t h e c i t y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l i f e , does i t f u l f i l l the ancient aspirations?
I f s o , t h e n l e t us w e l come i t e a g e r l y .
I f n o t , t h e n l e t i t be c a s t o u t as an
i n t e l l e c t u a l e c c e n t r i c i t y , a t once f o o l i s h and s u b v e r s ive.
O r , t o p u t t h e m a t t e r i n a n o t h e r way, o n l y t h e
l o y a l c i t i z e n , one d e v o t e d t o r e s p o n s i b l e p u b l i c s e r v i c e , c a n be a g e n u i n e p h i l o s o p h e r .
(4)
P o l i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n a n d Greek p h i l o s o p h y .
The De r e p u b l i c a i s C i c e r o ' s m o s t a m p l e t r e a t m e n t
of t h e u n i o n o f Greek p h i l o s o p h y and t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f
Roman l i f e .
Of t h e t w o , he i n s i s t s , t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f
m a n n e r s i s more f u n d a m e n t a l ;
b u t t h o s e who a r e e n t r u s t ed w i t h b e a r i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a r e more a b l e t o s u s t a i n
t h a t t r u s t , i n new a n d t r y i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i f t h e y
have a j u d i c i o u s f o r m a t i o n i n Greek modes o f t h o u g h t .
The a c c e n t i s on ' j u d i c i o u s ' .
F o r , as we h a v e s e e n ,
i n C i c e r o ' s e s t i m a t e much i n Greek p h i l o s o p h y i s m e r e l y s p e c u l a t i v e , u s e l e s s , and e v e n m i s c h i e v o u s .
Socrates,
who b r o u g h t p h i l o s o p h i c r e f l e c t i o n down t o e a r t h , and
t h o s e G r e e k s who have c a u g h t t h e S o c r a t i c s p i r i t , a r e
the
p r e c e p t o r s most w o r t h h e e d i n g .
I n t h e p r e a m b l e t o t h e De r e p u b l i c a ,
C i c e r o makes
his
p o s i t i o n c l e a r as r e g a r d s p h i l o s o p h y and t h e v i r t u e
e n g e n d e r e d b y p h i l o s o p h y . The t o u c h s t o n e i s use ( u s u s ) .
Thus he w r i t e s ( i , i i ) :
" i t i s n o t enough t o p o s s e s s v i r t u e , as i f i t
w e r e an a r t o f some s o r t , u n l e s s y o u make use
of i t .
Though i t i s t r u e t h a t an a r t , e v e n i f
y o u n e v e r use i t , c a n s t i l l r e m a i n i n y o u r p o s s e s s i o n by t h e v e r y f a c t o f y o u r k n o w l e d g e o f
i t , y e t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f v i r t u e depends e n t i r e l y
upon i t s u s e ; and i t s n o b l e s t use i s t h e g o v e r n ment o f t h e S t a t e , and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n i n f a c t ,
32
not i n words, o f those very t h i n g s t h a t
the p h i l o s o p h e r s , i n t h e i r c o r n e r s , are
c o n t i n u a l l y d i n n i n g i n our e a r s . . . " .
Use, i n C i c e r o ' s s e n s e o f t h e t e r m , means
enlightened p r a c t i c e , a p p l i c a t i o n , experience, i n the
inherited
h i s t o r i c a l context.
Thereby one's r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s bear f r u i t .
Use i s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
from u t i l i t y .
Whereas u s u s i s sub s p e c i e a e t e r n i t a t i s ,
u t i l i t a s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mean c o n t r i v a n c e and a d v a n tage.
U t i l i t a s i s the degenerate form o f usus.
A c c o r d i n g l y , t h o u g h f r o m a l i t e r a r y p o i n t o f view
t h e De r e p u b l i c a i s a n a l o g o u s t o P l a t o ' s R e p u b l i c
(as
t h e De l e g i b u s i s a n a l o g o u s t o P l a t o ' s Laws ) ,
the
modes o f t r e a t m e n t o f t h e theme d i f f e r w i d e l y . P l a t o ' s
Republic i s professedly a - h i s t o r i c a l ? ;
Cicero, i n
t h e De r e p u b l i c a , w e a v e s t h e h i s t o r y o f Rome i n t o h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n on t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p o l i t i c s .
The t o n e o f C i c e r o ' s d i a l o g u e i s s e t b y t h e words
o f S c i p i o (De r e p . I , x x i i ) .
L a e l i u s has
invited
S c i p i o t o p r e s e n t h i s i d e a s on t h e Roman r e p u b l i c ; he
has i n v i t e d h i m as an e m i n e n t s t a t e s m a n who i s known
t o h a v e w e i g h e d t h e m e r i t s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Roman
m a n n e r s a g a i n s t t h e more a b s t r a c t c l a i m s o f t w o e m i n e n t G r e e k v i s i t o r s t o Rome, P a n a e t i u s a n d P o l y b i u s .
S c i p i o r e p l i e s by i n v o k i n g t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n
the
c o n s c i e n t i o u s s t a t e s m a n and t h e c r a f t s m a n s e e k i n g t o
perfect his craft.
S c i p i o ' s g u a r d i a n s h i p and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e r e p u b l i c i s a t r u s t h a n d e d down by
his
forefathers.
L i k e t h e c r a f t s m a n , S c i p i o i s anxious to p e r f e c t h i m s e l f f o r his task.
Of w h a t use i s
t h e Greek l e a r n i n g f o r t h i s p u r p o s e ? S e i p i o i s n o t p r e pared t o accept i t s m i n i s t r a t i o n s u n r e s e r v e d l y ,
nor
to d i s m i s s i t o u t o f hand:
" I ask y o u t o l i s t e n t o me as t o one who i s
n e i t h e r e n t i r e l y i g n o r a n t o f t h e Greek a u t h o r i t i e s , n o r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , p r e f e r s
t h e i r views, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h i s subject,
t o o u r own;
b u t r a t h e r as t o a Roman who,
t h o u g h p r o v i d e d by a f a t h e r ' s care w i t h a
l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n , and e a g e r f o r k n o w l e d g e
f r o m b o y h o o d , y e t has b e e n t r a i n e d by experi e n c e ( u s u s ) and t h e maxims l e a r n e d a t home
( d o m e s t i c i s p r a e c e p t i s ) much more t h a n b y
books".
•
T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n f r o m S c i p i o i n t i m a t e s t h e subsequent path o f the d i a l o g u e .
Instead of proceeding
i n t h e G r e e k f a s h i o n t o an a b s t r a c t and e x p l i c i t d i s c u s s i o n o f the s t r u c t u r e o f the body p o l i t i c , S c i p i o
goes on t o r e l a t e t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f Rome, t h e r e b y
a c k n o w l e d i n g t h a t p o l i t i c s i s t o o deep f o r c o m p l e t e
33
formulation,
t h a t the depths are best suggested
i m p l i c i t l y i n a n a r r a t i v e of the concrete events o f
an a c t u a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , v i z . t h e Roman; t h a t a r e f l e c t i v e n a r r a t i v e s h a r e d by a c i r c l e o f m i n d s e n l i v e n e d by a G r e e k e d u c a t i o n i s t h e p r o p e r way t o a t r u l y
philosophical
understanding.
S c i p i o h a v i n g e m b a r k e d on t h e h i s t o r i c a l
L a e l i u s o b s e r v e s (De r e p . I I , x i ) :
course,
"We p e r c e i v e t h a t y o u h a v e e n t e r e d u p o n a
new s t y l e o f d i s c u s s i o n , one w h i c h i s now h e r e e m p l o y e d i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e Greeks.
F o r t h a t e m i n e n t Greek [ P l a t o ] , whose works
have n e v e r been s u r p a s s e d , began w i t h t h e
a s s u m p t i o n o f an u n o c c u p i e d t r a c t o f l a n d ,
so t h a t he m i g h t b u i l d a S t a t e u p o n i t t o
suit himself.
H i s S t a t e may p e r h a p s be an
e x c e l l e n t one, but i t i s q u i t e u n s u i t e d t o
men's a c t u a l l i v e s and h a b i t s .
His successo r s have d i s c u s s e d t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f
S t a t e and t h e i r b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s w i t h o u t
p r e s e n t i n g any d e f i n i t e e x a m p l e o r m o d e l .
B u t y o u , I i n f e r , mean t o c o m b i n e t h e s e two
methods;
f o r you have a p p r o a c h e d y o u r subj e c t as i f y o u p r e f e r r e d t o g i v e t h e c r e d i t
f o r y o u r own d i s c o v e r i e s t o o t h e r s , r a t h e r
t h a n , f o l l o w i n g t h e example o f S o c r a t e s i n
Plato's work,
t o i n v e n t a new S t a t e y o u r self."
Later, Scipio
est imate:
identifies
himself with
Laelius'
" I s h a l l e n d e a v o u r , i f I am a b l e t o accomp l i s h my p u r p o s e , e m p l o y i n g t h e same p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h P l a t o d i s c e r n e d , y e t t a k i n g no
shadowy c o m m o n w e a l t h o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ,
b u t a r e a l and v e r y p o w e r f u l S t a t e , t o seem
t o y o u t o be p o i n t i n g o u t , as w i t h a demons t r a t i n g r o d , the causes o f e v e r y p o l i t i c a l
g o o d and i l l . "
(De r e p . I I ,
xxx)
The e x e r c i s e s h o u l d l e a d t o t h a t f a r - s e e i n g
dence w h i c h i s t h e u l t i m a t e i n s t a t e s m a n s h i p :
pru-
"For t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h a t p o l i t i c a l w i s dom ( c i v i l i s p r u d e n t i a e ) w h i c h i s t h e a i m
o f o u r w h o l e d i s c o u r s e i s an
understanding
o f the r e g u l a r c u r v i n g path t h r o u g h which
g o v e r n m e n t s t r a v e l , i n o r d e r t h a t , when you
know w h a t d i r e c t i o n any c o m m o n w e a l t h t e n d s
t o t a k e , y o u may be a b l e t o h o l d i t b a c k or
t a k e m e a s u r e s t o m e e t t h e c h a n g e . " (De rep •
II,
xxv)
The
words w M c h C i c e r o
3'»
here gives
to S c i p i o
are
oropbetic:
w i t h i n a few d e c a d e s t h e y o u n g O c t a v i a n ,
as Emperor A u g u s t u s , w o u l d d i s p l a y a m a s t e r l y employment o f c i v i l i s p r u d e n t i a .
(5)
The new way o f p h i l o s o p h y .
I n t h e p r e a m b l e t o Book I I I o f t h e De r e p u b l i c a ,
Cicero confirms Scipio's sentiments.
The m a r k o f
genuine p h i l o s o p h y i s t h a t i t i s capable o f being the
servant o f wise statesmanship;
indeed, a b s t r a c t prec e p t s , however e x c e l l e n t , a r e n o t p h i l o s o p h y , b u t only
prolegomena t h e r e t o ;
g e n u i n e p h i l o s o p h y i s t o be
f o u n d i n g o o d w o r k s , and i s f a r r i c h e r t h a n any f o r m u l a t i o n o f w h i c h we a r e c a p a b l e .
The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g
is not 'philosophy' i n the a b s t r a c t , but the q u a l i t y
of the p h i l o s o p h e r ;
and b e s t o f a l l t h e q u a l i t y o f
t h e e x p e r i e n c e d and p h i l o s o p h i c s t a t e s m a n .
The s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f t h e De r e p u b l i c a i s
f r a g m e n t a r y a t t h i s p o i n t , but the s a l i e n t passage
r u n s as f o l l o w s ( D e r e p . I I I , i i i ) :
" W h e r e f o r e l e t us a d m i t t h a t t h o s e who
discuss the p r i n c i p l e s o f l i v i n g are g r e a t
men, w h i c h i s i n d e e d t h e t r u t h ;
l e t us
r e c o g n i s e t h e m as l e a r n e d , a n d as t e a c h e r s
o f t r u t h and v i r t u e , i f o n l y we do n o t f o r g e t t h a t a n o t h e r s c i e n c e i s b y no means t o
be s c o r n e d , w h e t h e r i t was d i s c o v e r e d b y
men who h a d a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e w i t h v a r i o u s
k i n d s o f S t a t e s , o r was d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h
t h e q u i e t s t u d y o f t h e s e same l e a r n e d men I mean t h e a r t o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e t r a i n i n g o f p e o p l e s , w h i c h , i n men o f a b i l i t y
and g o o d c h a r a c t e r , c a l l s i n t o b e i n g , as
i t has v e r y o f t e n done i n t h e p a s t , an a l m o s t i n c r e d i b l e and d i v i n e v i r t u e . "
L e t us r e c o g n i s e , C i c e r o c o n t i n u e s , t h a t t h e
c o n d i t i o n i s an a m a l g a m a t i o n o f S o c r a t i c l e a r n i n g
t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p u b l i c a f f a i r s - as e x e m p l i f i e d
s u c h men as S c i p i o i n t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f G r e e k
dom and t h e Roman mos m a i o r u m :
" T h e r e f o r e t h o s e who h a v e h a d t h e d e s i r e
and a b i l i t y t o a t t a i n b o t h t h e s e o b j e c t s who, t h a t i s , h a v e p e r f e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s
by a c q u i r i n g l e a r n i n g as w e l l as b y t h e
observance o f t h e i r a n c e s t r a l customs,
d e s e r v e f r o m e v e r y p o i n t o f v i e w , i n my
o p i n i o n , the h i g h e s t honour.
But i f o n l y
one o f t h e s e two p a t h s t o w i s d o m c a n be
chosen, even though a q u i e t l i f e
devoted
t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e n o b l e s t a r t s w i l l seem
h a p p i e r t o some, s u r e l y t h e l i f e o f a
s t a t e s m a n i s more d e s e r v i n g o f p r a i s e
35
best
and
in
wis-
and
more c o n d u c i v e
t o fame..."
(6)
E x p e r i e n c e and p h i l o s o p h i c d o c t r i n e b o t h m e r i t
the
name o f 'wisdom'.
C i c e r o p r o c e e d s i n t h e p r e a m b l e (De r e p . I I I , i v )
to observe t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l l e a r n i n g and p r a c t i c a l
e x c e l l e n c e a l i k e d e s e r v e t h e name o f w i s d o m ( s a p i e n t i a )
the
f i r s t n o u r i s h i n g n a t u r e ' s f i r s t g i f t s t o man ( n a t u r a e p r i n c i p i a ) b y way o f a d m o n i t i o n a n d i n s t r u c t i o n ,
the
s e c o n d b y way o f i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d l a w s .
The G r e e k
p h i l o s o p h e r s have j e a l o u s l y r e s t r i c t e d t h e t e r m 'wise'
t o t h o s e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t . B u t Rome h a s p r o d u c e d many men o f o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r a n d p r a c t i c a l
s a g a c i t y , who, i f n o t ' w i s e ' i n t h e n a r r o w G r e e k s e n s e ,
a r e c e r t a i n l y w o r t h y o f t h e h i g h e s t p r a i s e . And t h i s
for two reasons.
I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , because i t i s
t h e s e men o f p r a c t i c a l s a g a c i t y who h a v e f o s t e r e d t h e
p r e c e p t s and d i s c o v e r i e s o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y w i s e .
So t h a t ( a s A r i s t o t l e h a d l o n g b e f o r e o b s e r v e d ) , s t a t e s manship i s t h e h i g h e s t a r t , since w i t h o u t wise s t a t e s m a n s h i p t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l e x c e l l e n c e s w o u l d be s t i l l born.
And i n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , we m u s t remember t h a t
the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c i v i t a s w h i c h i s s t a b l e enough
t o e n d u r e f o r ages r e q u i r e s b y f a r t h e h i g h e s t p o w e r s
of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( c o n s i l i u m ) t h a t nature a f f o r d s .
On
b o t h c o u n t s , t h e n , t h o s e whose c o n c e r n i s w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n s and laws a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t l o w e r i n t h e r a n k s
o f w i s d o m t h a n t h o s e who p u r s u e p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l
goals.
(7)
The h i g h e s t w i s d o m i s f o u n d i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
e x p e r i e n c e and p h i l o s o p h i c d o c t r i n e .
The c o n c l u s i o n t h a t emerges f r o m t h e p r e a m b l e t o
Book I I I o f t h e De r e p u b l i c a i s t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
Roman a n d Greek v i r t u e s s h o u l d n o t be r e g a r d e d as r i v a l s t o one a n o t h e r ; f o r each i s o n e - s i d e d ; a n d t h e
s u m m i t o f human e x c e l l e n c e a n d w i s d o m i s t o be f o u n d
in t h e i r combination.
I f we s h o u l d , u n h a p p i l y , have
t o c h o o s e one o r t h e o t h e r , t h e n l e t us p r e f e r t h e
Roman h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e , t o t h e
Greek s t y l e o f p h i l o s o p h i c w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e w o r l d .
But b e t t e r f a r t o e x e r c i s e s t a t e s m a n s h i p
fortified
by t h e mos m a i o r u m
and e n l i g h t e n e d by t h e b r o a d i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r s p e c t i v e p r o v i d e d by Greek t h o u g h t a t i t s
b e s t , t h a t i s Greek t h o u g h t e x e m p l i f i e d i n S o c r a t e s .
Some t e n y e a r s b e f o r e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e De
republica,
C i c e r o had e x p r e s s e d s i m i l a r s e n t i m e n t s
c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p e r a l l i a n c e o f t r a d i t i o n and l e t t e r s
i n h i s d e f e n c e o f A r c h i a s t h e p o e t , whose c i t i z e n s h i p
had been c h a l l e n g e d .
I n h i s opening words, C i c e r o exp l a i n s how i t i s t h a t he p e r s o n a l l y , t h o u g h h i s p r o f e s s i o n i s o r a t o r y , y e t f e e l s a bond o f sympathy w i t h
the p o e t a n d h i s a r t . F o r no a r t ( i n c l u d i n g o r a t o r y )
36
can
reach i t s f u l f i l m e n t w i t h o u t the support o f a l l
tl e o t h e r a r t s .
I f C i c e r o has any s k i l l i n o r a t o r y ,
e owes i t t o h i s a s s o c i a t i o n f r o m y o u t h u p w a r d s w i t h
s u c h g i f t e d men as A r c h i a s .
"There i s a s u b t l e bond
of m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p l i n k i n g t o g e t h e r a l l a r t s w h i c h
have any b e a r i n g u p o n t h e common l i f e o f m a n k i n d . "
(Pro A r c h i a i )
;
A f t e r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e c a s e , Cicero
r e t u r n s t o t h e g r e a t theme o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e a r t s ,
the v a l u e o f p a r a d i g m s , t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g r e p o s e o f
c o n t e m p l a t i o n , and t h e i s s u e o f t h e w h o l e i n p r a c t i c a l
a c t i v i t y (Pro A r c h i a v i ) :
"Do y o u t h i n k t h a t I c o u l d f i n d i n s p i r a t i o n
f o r my d a i l y s p e e c h e s on so m a n i f o l d a v a r i e t y o f t o p i c s , d i d I n o t c u l t i v a t e my m i n d
w i t h s t u d y , o r t h a t my m i n d c o u l d e n d u r e so
great a s t r a i n d i d not study too provide i t
w i t h r e l a x a t i o n ? 1 am a v o t a r y o f l i t e r a t u r e , and make t h e c o n f e s s i o n u n a s h a m e d ;
shame b e l o n g s r a t h e r t o t h e b o o k i s h r e c l u s e ,
who knows n o t how t o a p p l y h i s r e a d i n g t o
t h e good o f h i s f e l l o w s , o r t o m a n i f e s t i t s
f r u i t s t o t h e eyes o f a l l . . .
A l l l i t e r a t u r e , a l l philosophy, a l l
h i s t o r y , abounds w i t h i n c e n t i v e s t o n o b l e
a c t i o n , i n c e n t i v e s w h i c h w o u l d be b u r i e d i n
b l a c k d a r k n e s s were the l i g h t o f t h e w r i t ten word n o t f l a s h e d upon them.
How many
p i c t u r e s o f h i g h e n d e a v o u r t h e g r e a t authors
o f G r e e c e and Rome h a v e d r a w n f o r o u r u s e ,
and b e q u e a t h e d t o u s , n o t o n l y f o r o u r c o n t e m p l a t i o n , but f o r our e m u l a t i o n !
These
I h a v e h e l d e v e r b e f o r e my v i s i o n t h r o u g h o u t my p u b l i c c a r e e r , a n d h a v e g u i d e d t h e
w o r k i n g s o f my b r a i n and my s o u l b y medi t a t i n g upon p a t t e r n s o f e x c e l l e n c e . "
I t i s t r u e , he goes o n , t h a t o u r f o r e f a t h e r s w e r e
n o t men o f l e a r n i n g . T h e i r g r e a t v i r t u e s , w h i c h h a v e
become o u r m o d e l s , w e r e t h e r e s u l t o f e x c e p t i o n a l n a t u r a l endowment.
Indeed, n a t u r a l g i f t s w i t h o u t educati o n have more o f t e n a t t a i n e d t o g l o r y and v i r t u e t h a n
education without natural g i f t s .
"Yet I a s s e r t t h a t when t o a l o f t y and b r i l l i a n t character i s a p p l i e d the moulding i n f l u ence o f a b s t r a c t s t u d i e s , t h e r e s u l t i s o f t e n
i n s c r u t a b l y and u n a p p r o a c h a b l y n o b l e . "
Such Romans as S c i p i o A f r i c a n u s and M a r c u s G a t o
i l l u s t r a t e the theme.
They p u r s u e d l i t e r a t u r e i n o r d.er t o a u g m e n t t h e i r p r a c t i c a l m e r i t .
But, even p u t t i n g aside t h i s immediate advantage, the c u l t i v a t i o n
37
of l i t e r a t u r e
whole o f l i f e
f o r t h e sake o f i t s d e l i g h t
t o a nobler plane:
elevates the
"No m e n t a l e m p l o y m e n t i s so b r o a d e n i n g t o
the
s y m p a t h i e s o r so e n l i g h t e n i n g t o t h e
understanding.
Other p u r s u i t s belong n o t
to a l l t i m e s , a l l ages, a l l c o n d i t i o n s ;
b u t t h i s g i v e s s t i m u l u s t o o u r y o u t h and
d i v e r s i o n t o o u r o l d a g e ; t h i s adds a
charm t o s u c c e s s , and o f f e r s a haven o f
consolation to failure.
I n t h e home i t
d e l i g h t s , i n t h e w o r l d i t hampers n o t .
Through t h e n i g h t w a t c h e s , on a l l o u r
j o u r n e y i n g , and i n our hours o f c o u n t r y
ease, i t i s o u r u n f a i l i n g companion."
(Pro A r c h i a v i i ) ^
(8 )
Cicero's o r i g i n a l i t y
I f o r i g i n a l i t y be t h o u g h t a v i r t u e , t h e n how o r i g i n a l was C i c e r o i n h i s new s t y l e o f p h i l o s o p h y ?
Und o u b t e d l y C i c e r o b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t o be a p i o n e e r i n
his b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r o f p h i l o s o p h y and h i s t o r y .
As
r e g a r d s t h e u n i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y w i t h t h e Roman h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n , t h e b e l i e f was w e l l f o u n d e d .
B u t as
r e g a r d s t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e , t h o u g h C i c e r o Seems
u n a w a r e o f i t , he was i n f a c t r e - d i s c o v e r i n g t h e e a r l i e r wisdom o f Greek l a n d s .
This h i s t o r i c a l a n t i c i p a t i o n
does n o t , h o w e v e r , d e t r a c t f r o m C i c e r o ' s a c h i e v e m e n t ;
r a t h e r i t p r o v i d e s t h a t a c h i e v e m e n t w i t h a happy conf i r m a t i o n by l i n k i n g C i c e r o ' s ideas w i t h those o f h i s
most r e s p o n s i b l e p r e d e c e s s o r s .
L i k e C i c e r o , P l a t o and
A r i s t o t l e had endeavoured t o b r i n g p h i l o s o p h y i n t o t h e
s e r v i c e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l eustoms o f t h e c i t y ; a s e r v i c e i n which a c r i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h i c understanding
would c o n f i r m and ennoble custom.
I n t h i s , P l a t o and
A r i s t o t l e are s h a r p l y separated from t h e s o p h i s t s ; f o r
the
s o p h i s t s h a d no v e n e r a t i o n f o r i n h e r i t e d c u s t o m .
Thus A r i s t o t l e , i n t h e E t h i c s , i s no l e s s i n s i s t e n t than i s C i c e r o on t h e emptiness o f c l a i m s t o w i s dom a n d v i r t u e u n l e s s t h e y a r e e m p l o y e d i n u s e , an employment w h i c h p r e - s u p p o s e s l o y a l t y t o t h e m i l i e u o f a
t r a d i t i o n o f manners.
T h i s i s b u t one i n s t a n c e o f
A r i s t o t l e ' s endeavour, throughout h i sw r i t i n g s , t o h o l d
t o g e t h e r t h e e t e r n a l and t h e t e m p o r a l .
Socrates' dialogue w i t h t h e p e r s o n i f i e d laws i n t h e C r i t o
expresses
s e n t i m e n t s o f g r a t i t u d e and l o y a l t y t o t h e h i s t o r i c
c o n s t i t u t i o n i n unison w i t h Cicero's Crassus, S c i p i o
and C o t t a .
The p r e - e m i n e n c e o f t h e s a p i e n t i a o f t h e
s t a t e s m a n who i s n o t o n l y i n t e l l e c t u a l l y e d u c a t e d b u t
i s a t t h e same t i m e s t e e p e d i n h i s c i t y ' s mode o f l i f e
and w i d e l y e x p e r i e n c e d i n i t s a f f a i r s , i s a theme r u n n i n g t h r o u g h Book v i i o f t h e R e p u b l i c , w h e r e i t i s
i l l u s t r a t e d f i g u r a t i v e l y b y t h e r e t u r n t o t h e Cave.
38
How was i t t h a t C i c e r o , as a d i l i g e n t s t u d e n t
o f t h e a n c i e n t s , missed t h i s deeper k i n s h i p w i t h P l a t o
and A r i s t o t l e ?
I n t h e case o f A r i s t o t l e , t h e r e a s o n
is obvious.
I t was due t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t t h a t
t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n t r e a t i s e s w h i c h we now p o s s e s s w e r e
unknown t o C i c e r o - t h o s e t r e a t i s e s , p r i n c i p a l l y t h e
E t h i c s and t h e P o l i t i c s ,
i n w h i c h A r i s t o t l e seeks t o
d e t e c t and d e l i n e a t e t h e t i m e l e s s p h u s i s i n i t s i n c a r n a t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r i c nemoi o f t h e Greek c i t y - s t a t e s .
As r e g a r d s P l a t o , t h e r e a s o n i s d i f f e r e n t :
The D i a l o g u e s a r e composed i n so e u t r a p e l i c a s t y l e t h a t Plato's
profound respect f o rthe h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
p o l i s , a n d f o r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t r a d i t i o n , h a s t o be
sought w e l l beneath t h e s u r f a c e .
(Except occasionally,
n o t a b l y i n t h e C r i t o , where i t emerges i n t o c l e a r v i e w ) .
C i c e r o was w e l l a w a r e t h a t S o c r a t e s h a d b r o u g h t p h i l o s o p h y f r o m h e a v e n down t o e a r t h ;
b u t he was n o t aware
o f t h e e x t e n t t o which P l a t o had c a r r i e d o u t t h i s i n carnational principle.
I f C i c e r o was b l i n d t o t h e
mos m a i o r u m i n t h e P l a t o n i c D i a l o g u e s he i s i n g o o d
company.
F o r e v e n t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y , P l a t o i s commonl y t a k e n t o be a n a - h i s t o r i c m e t a p h y s i c a l v i s i o n a r y .
(9 )
C i c e r o ' s a c h i e v e m e n t and d e f e a t .
Here l i e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f C i c e r o ' s r o b u s t r e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e t r u t h t h a t t h e h i g h e s t wisdom l i e s
i n j o i n i n g p h i l o s o p h y w i t h h i s t o r y , phus i s w i t h nomos;
t h a t o n l y a c i t i z e n c a n be w i s e ;
t h a t o n l y he who i s
l o y a l t o h i s p a t r i a c a n be f u l l y a p e r s o n . A p r i n c i p l e
w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e have r e m a i n e d i n c l o i s t e r e d s e c l u s i o n i s w i t h Cicero, shouted from t h e house-tops.
The s o p h i s t , h o w e v e r s u b t l e h i s a r g u m e n t s , i s immedi a t e l y unmasked b y t h i s t e s t ;
a l l men may know h i m
by h i s i n f i d e l i t y t o t h e h i s t o r i c c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h
n u r t u r e d h i m . The s o p h i s t h a s n o p a t r i a , he b e l o n g s
n o w h e r e , he i s s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n a man.
The e s p o u s a l o f t h e p a t r i a , h o w e v e r , l e f t C i c e r o
i n a quandary (as i t d i d t o o w i t h P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e ) .
On t h e one h a n d , he was c o n v i n c e d , t h e o n l y p a t h t o
wisdom i s i n f i d e l i t y t o one's p a t r i a ;
thesophists'
r e j e c t i o n o f the p a t r i a leads t o d e s t r u c t i o n .
On t h e
o t h e r >iand h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e u n i v e r s a l m o r a l l a w , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e demands o f Rome's
i m p e r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , l e d h i m away f r o m p a r o c h i a l ism i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a c i t i z e n s h i p o f t h e w o r l d one o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , we may s u p p o s e , w h i c h
prompted him t o g i v e a guarded a p p r o v a l t o S t o i c doctrine.
C i c e r o was t o r n b e t w e e n t w o a l l e g i a n c e s , a n d
he seems n e v e r t o h a v e f o u n d a s o l u t i o n .
We m u s t l o o k f o r w a r d t o t h e n e x t age f o r a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a c h i e v e d by t a k i n g a h i g h er p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e . I n t h e t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f
^9
C h r i s t e n d o m , c i t i z e n s h i p i s c o n c e i v e d as h i e r a r c h i c a l .
C h r i s t i a n u n i v e r s a l i t y does n o t d e s t r o y l o c a l a l l e g i a n c e , b u t grows o u t o f i t , and p e r f e c t s i t .
Whereas
the
s o p h i s t s moved on a p l a n e b e l o w t h e p a t r i a , t h e
C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s s o u g h t t h e i r u n i v e r s a l i t y on a
p l a n e above t h e p a t r i a ,
a plane w h i c h comprehended
and c o n f i r m e d t h e p a t r i a .
The C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s
r e s c u e d a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e p a t r i a f r o m p a r o c h i a l i s m and
r a i s e d i t up t o h o n o u r a b l e s e r v i c e .
They c o u l d achieve
t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n because t h e i r r e l i g i o , f o r the f i r s t
t i m e i n t h e w o r l d ' s h i s t o r y , was t r u l y s y n o p t i c .
C i c e r o was r e a c h i n g o u t t o a g e n u i n e u n i v e r s a l i t y ,
b u t l a c k e d t h e means t o a t t a i n i t . T h o u g h he was
frust r a t e d t h r o u g h no f a u l t o f h i s own, h i s s t a r t i n g p o i n t
was s o u n d .
Cicero's proclamation concerning the indispensable
r o l e of the p a t r i a
ensured t h a t the p h i l o s o p h i a perennis,
on t h i s v i t a l p o i n t o f p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e , w o u l d
be r e a d y a t t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e F a t h e r s i n t h e i r t a s k
o f b u i l d i n g up t h e o r d e r o f C h r i s t e n d o m .
*
•
*
NOTES
1.
Q u o t a t i o n s f r o m C i c e r o ' s w o r k s a r e f r o m t h e Loeb
editions.
2. The m a t t e r h e r e b r o u g h t f o r w a r d by C i c e r o i s one o f
p e r e n n i a l concern.
I s n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y a handmaiden t o b e l i e f ?
Or i s i t s u p e r i o r t o b e l i e f ?
The f o r m e r has e v e r s i n c e b e e n t h e way o f o r t h o d o x y .
The l a t t e r , t h e way o f ' r a t i o n a l i s m ' i n r e l i g i o n .
3. The c h a l l e n g e t h r o w n down t o S o c r a t e s i n R e p . i i
r e q u i r e s him t o a b s t r a c t from the t e m p o r a l i n o r d e r
to d i s p e l the c o n t a g i o n o f u t i l i t y .
The a - h i s t o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f the subsequent d i s c o u r s e i s thus
a conscious a r t i f i c e designed to achieve a set purpose.
The R e p u b l i c i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o be a t r e a t i s e
on p o l i t i c s , b u t o n l y a p r o l e g o m e n o n t h e r e t o .
Cicero, i n blaming Plato f o r h i s a b s t r a c t treatment
o f p o l i t i c s , seems n o t t o h a v e n o t i c e d t h e s t y l i s e d
t e r m s w h i c h P l a t o had s e t f o r h i m s e l f .
U.
C i c e r o ' s s e n t i m e n t s may be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i v e w o r d s o f a g r e a t m o d e r n h i s t o r i a n on t h e use
of h i s t o r y :
" i t i s the t a l e o f t h e t h i n g done,
e v e n more t h a n i t s c a u s e s and e f f e c t s , w h i c h t r a i n s
t h e p o l i t i c a l j u d g e m e n t by w i d e n i n g t h e r a n g e o f
s y m p a t h y and d e e p e n i n g t h e a p p r o v a l and d i s a p p r o v a l
of conscience;
t h a t s t i m u l a t e s by example y o u t h
HO
t o a s p i r e a n d age t o e n d u r e ;
t h a t e n n o b l e s us
b y t h e l i g h t o f w h a t men o n c e have b e e n , t o s e e
t h e t h i n g we a r e , a n d d i m l y t o d e s c r y t h e f o r m
o f w h a t we s h o u l d b e . ' I s n o t Man's h i s t o r y a n d
Men's h i s t o r y a p e r p e t u a l e v a n g e l ? ' " - G.M.
Trevelyan, Clio Rediscovered.
hi