CERMES Technical Report No 69
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Future of Reefs in a Changing Environment: an
ecosystem approach to managing Caribbean coral reefs in
the face of climate change
Barbados Country Profile
ANGELIE PETERSON, RACHEL TURNER, DAVID GILL, JOHANNA FORSTER,
CLARE FITZSIMMONS, ROBIN MAHON, HAZEL OXENFORD AND SELINA STEAD
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Centre!for!Resource!Management!and!
Environmental!Studies!(CERMES)!!
The!University!of!the!West!Indies!
Cave!Hill!Campus,!Barbados!
!
School!of!Marine!Science!&!Technology!
Ridley!Building!
Newcastle!University!
Newcastle!upon!Tyne,!NE1!7RU,!UK
2014!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS!
The! research! leading! to! these! results! has! received! funding! from! the! European! Union! 7th!
Framework!programme!(P7/2007Q2013)!under!grant!agreement!No.!24416.
The!research!was!only!possible!through!the!efforts!and!contributions!of!a!multitude!of!people.!
Field!assistance!was!provided!by!Rohan!Ford!and!Myles!Phillips.!Assistance!with!data!entry!and!
transcription!was!provided!by!Chike!Barrow!and!Catrina!Hinds.!In!Barbados,!the!research!team!
was!assisted!by!staff!at!CERMES.!The!research!would!not!have!been!possible!without!the!many!
participants! who! gave! up! their! valuable! time! to! contribute! their! knowledge! and! experiences!
towards!the!research!presented!here.!
This!report!has!been!translated!to!Spanish!by!Bertha!Simmons!and!is!available!on!the!CERMES!
website.!
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TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS!.....................................................................................................................!i!
TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!......................................................................................................................!ii!
ACRONYMS!....................................................................................................................................!iv!
EXECUTIVE!SUMMARY!....................................................................................................................!v!
1! INTRODUCTION!........................................................................................................................!1!
1.1! Introduction!to!the!FORCE!project!....................................................................................!1!
1.2! Governance!of!coral!reefs!.................................................................................................!3!
1.3! Livelihoods!and!coral!reefs!................................................................................................!3!
1.4! Objectives!of!this!report!....................................................................................................!4!
2! OVERVIEW!OF!WORK!................................................................................................................!5!
2.1! Household!interviews!........................................................................................................!6!
2.2! Governance!interviews!......................................................................................................!6!
2.3! Social!network!analysis!......................................................................................................!7!
2.4! Economics!of!reef!fish!........................................................................................................!7!
2.5! Community!meetings!........................................................................................................!8!
2.6! National!consultation!........................................................................................................!8!
2.7! Scenario!and!feedback!meetings!.......................................................................................!8!
3! COUNTRY!AND!SITE!PROFILES!..................................................................................................!8!
3.1! Country!profile!...................................................................................................................!8!
3.2! Site!profiles!......................................................................................................................!12!
3.3! Demographics!..................................................................................................................!14!
4! HISTORICAL!TIMELINES!...........................................................................................................!16!
4.1! National!key!events!.........................................................................................................!17!
4.2! Pile!Bay!key!events!..........................................................................................................!17!
4.3! Six!Men’s!key!events!........................................................................................................!17!
4.4! Holetown!key!events!.......................................................................................................!18!
5! REEF!HEALTH!..........................................................................................................................!23!
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ii!
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5.1! Perceived!drivers!of!reef!health!......................................................................................!23!
5.2! Household!perceptions!of!reefs!......................................................................................!27!
6! GOVERNANCE!OF!REEFS!.........................................................................................................!30!
6.1! Policy!analysis!..................................................................................................................!30!
6.2! Household!perceptions!of!reef!governance!....................................................................!32!
7! SOCIAL!NETWORK!ANALYSIS!..................................................................................................!34!
8! ECONOMIC!VALUATION!OF!REEF!FISH!...................................................................................!36!
8.1! Overview!..........................................................................................................................!36!
8.2! Commercial!fishing!..........................................................................................................!36!
8.3! Dive!tourism!....................................................................................................................!39!
8.4! Responses!to!future!change!............................................................................................!39!
9! SUMMARY!..............................................................................................................................!42!
10! REFERENCES!.........................................................................................................................!42!
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Citation:!
Peterson,!A.,!R.!Turner,!D.Gill,!J.!Forster,!C.!Fitzsimmons,!R.!Mahon,!H.!Oxenford,!S.!Stead.!2014.!
Future!of!reefs!in!a!changing!environment:!an!ecosystem!approach!to!managing!Caribbean!
coral!reefs!in!the!face!of!climate!change.!Barbados!country!profile.!Centre!for!Resource!
Management!and!Environmental!Studies,!The!University!of!the!West!Indies,!Cave!Hill!Campus,!
Barbados.!CERMES!Technical!Report!No.!69.!44pp.
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ACRONYMS!
BARNUFO!
Barbados!National!Union!of!Fisherfolk!Organisations!
BHTA!! !
Barbados!Hotel!and!Tourism!Association!
BTA!! !
Barbados!Tourism!Authority!
BTII!!
Barbados!Tourism!Investment!Inc.!
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CDB!! !
Caribbean!Development!Bank!
CERMES!!
Centre!for!Resource!Management!and!Environmental!Studies!
CRFM!! !
Caribbean!Regional!Fisheries!!Mechanism!
CTO!! !
Caribbean!Tourism!Organization!
CZMU!!!
Coastal!Zone!Management!Unit!
EIA!!
Environmental!Impact!Assessment!
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EPD!! !
Environmental!Protection!Department!
FAC!! !
Fisheries!Advisory!Committee!
GIS!
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Barbados!Government!Information!Service!
IDB!!
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InterQAmerican!Development!Bank!
IMM! !
International!Marine!Management!Ltd.!
NCC!! !
National!Conservation!Commission!
NGOs!! !
NonQGovernmental!Organisations!
NHD!! !
National!Heritage!Department!
PADO!! !
Professional!Association!of!Dive!Operators!
PPP!
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Purchasing!Power!Parity!(PPP)!dollars!
SNA!
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Social!network!analysis!
TCPO!! !
Town!and!Country!Planning!Office!
TDC!! !
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Tourism!Development!Corporation!
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EXECUTIVE!SUMMARY!
This! report! provides! a! summary! of! governance! and! livelihoods! research! conducted! as! part! of!
the!Future!of!Reefs!in!a!Changing!Environment!(FORCE)!project.!The!health!of!Caribbean!reefs!
has!deteriorated!rapidly!in!the!last!few!decades,!posing!a!threat!for!human!societies!through!a!
loss! of! ecosystem! services.! There! is! an! urgent! need! to! improve! coral! reef! management! to!
mitigate!or!adapt!to!these!threats.!Successful!management!requires!a!better!understanding!of!
the! relationships! between! people! and! reefs.! The! research! conducted! through! the! FORCE!
project!contributes!to!further!developing!our!understanding!of!these!relationships.!The!primary!
aim!of!the!work!conducted!was!to!develop!a!greater!understanding!of!coastal!communities!in!
the! Caribbean! and! how! changes! in! coral! reefs! affect! these! communities! given! the! current!
governance!context.!
Research! in! Barbados! was! conducted! in! 2011! and! had! a! multiQlevel! focus;! research! was!
conducted! at! the! community! level! and! the! national! level.! At! the! community! level! three!
communities! were! studied:! Pile! Bay,! Holetown,! and! Six! Men’s.! At! the! national! level,! research!
focused!on!views!from!different!agencies!and!organisations!involved!in!coral!reef!governance!
across! both! islands.! Over! 500! interviews! and! surveys! were! completed! as! part! of! this! study.!
These! included! interviews! with! community! members,! fishing! and! tourism! resource! users,!
recreational!divers,!government!agents,!and!representatives!of!NGOs.!
This!report!begins!with!an!overview!of!the!FORCE!project!and!the!governance!and!livelihoods!
work! completed! within! the! project.! Following! this,! six! sections! provide! details! on! the! studied!
communities!and!different!aspects!of!reefs!and!their!management!investigated!by!the!research.!
First,! Barbados! and! the! three! studied! communities! are! briefly! described,! including!
demographics!and!characteristics!of!reef!use.!Second,!timelines!developed!through!community!
and! national! consultation! meetings! are! presented.! These! provide! historical! context! and! an!
overview!of!key!events!that!affected!the!reefs!or!people’s!relationships!with!the!reefs.!Third,!
current! views! on! reef! importance,! reef! health,! and! drivers! of! reef! health! are! explored! from!
both!a!community!and!national!perspective.!Fourth,!governance!of!coral!reefs!is!investigated!in!
terms!of!the!actors!involved!in!reef!related!policymaking!and!community!perceptions!of!good!
governance.! Fifth,! informationQsharing! interactions! are! mapped! and! analysed! using! social!
network! analysis.! And! finally,! sixth,! reef! fish! are! valued! from! both! a! fishing! and! tourism!
perspective,!giving!a!quantitative!overview!of!the!value!of!reefs!to!two!existing!industries.!
The! purpose! of! this! report! is! to! summarise! data! collected! pertaining! to! coral! reefs,! their! use!
and!governance!in!Barbados,!to!highlight!differences!within!and!between!coastal!communities,!
and!to!illustrate!contrasts!between!local!and!national!level!viewpoints.!!
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1
1.1
INTRODUCTION!
Introduction!to!the!FORCE!project!
Coral!reefs!provide!important!ecosystem!services!to!coastal!communities!including!support!of!
fisheries,!tourism,!coastal!defence!from!hurricanes,!generation!of!sand!and!building!materials,!
and!the!highest!marine!biodiversity!on!Earth!(Moberg!and!Folke!1999;!Burke!et!al.!2011).!In!the!
Caribbean!alone,!the!annual!net!benefits!of!reefs!through!fisheries,!dive!tourism,!and!shoreline!
protection! were! valued! at! US$3.1! billion! to! $4.6! billion! in! the! year! 2000! (Burke! and! Maidens!
2004).! However,! despite! this! high! value,! the! ecological! state! of! Caribbean! reefs! has!
deteriorated!rapidly!in!the!last!few!decades!(Gardner!et!al.!2003;!Mora!2008;!Burke!et!al.!2011).!
This! decline! in! coral! ecosystems! poses! a! real! threat! for! human! societies! because! most! of! the!
ecosystem! services! derived! from! coral! reefs! stem! from! the! coral! itself;! it! is! the! coral! that!
provides!the!complex!reef!structure!that!underpins!biodiversity,!fisheries!production,!and!the!
provision!of!a!structural!barrier!to!wave!energy!(Barbier!et!al.!2011).!
There!is!an!urgent!need!to!improve!coral!reef!management,!due!to!the!current,!and!growing,!
demand! for! ecosystem! services! of! reefs! brought! on! by! rapid! population! expansion! and!
predicted!impacts!from!climate!change!and!other!environmental!stressors!(Burke!and!Maidens!
2004;! Mimura! et! al.! 2007;! Burke! et! al.! 2011;! McClanahan! et! al.! 2012).! For! successful!
management!of!reefs!to!be!achieved,!the!interactions!between!people!and!coral!reefs!need!to!
be! better! understood,! and! integrated! into! reef! management! (Cinner! et! al.! 2009a).!
Implementing!practical!marine!resource!management!to!promote!coral!reef!ecosystem!health!
requires!an!understanding!of!the!management!and!governance!systems!that!influence!success!
or!failure!of!particular!management!measures!(e.g.!marine!protected!areas).!The!overall!aim!of!
the! Future! of! Reefs! in! a! Changing! Environment! (FORCE)! project! is! to! provide! coral! reef!
managers! with! a! ‘toolbox’! of! sustainable! management! practices! that! they! can! choose! to!
implement!within!the!governance!constraints!in!operation!for!their!particular!situation.!!
The!project!recognises!that!the!threats!to!coral!reefs!are!complex!and!addressing!them!requires!
a! management! approach! that! integrates! natural,! social! and! economic! disciplines.! The! project!
combines!natural!and!socioQeconomic!sciences!to!help!provide!new!insights!into!how!the!reefs!
are!likely!to!change!and!how!these!changes!will!affect!coastal!communities!and!livelihoods!such!
as! fisheries! and! tourism.! The! project! sought! to! identify! ways! of! managing! reefs! that! are! best!
suited!to!regional!and!local!contexts,!providing!better!guidance!on!how!to!protect!the!reefs!on!
which!so!many!Caribbean!people!depend.!
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The! FORCE! project! is! a! fiveQyear! collaborative! initiative! funded! by! the! European! Union! that!
commenced! in! 2010.! FORCE! brings! together! a! unique! multiQdisciplinary! team! of! researchers!
from!20!organisations!based!in!10!countries!within!the!Caribbean,!Europe,!the!US!and!Australia.!
The! project! is! organised! into! 11! work! packages! (Figure! 1).! This! report! presents! a! selection! of!
results! from! social! science! work! packages! 1! and! 2:! governance! and! livelihoods! of! coral! reefs.!
This! research! was! conducted! in! four! countries:! Barbados,! Belize,! Honduras,! and! St! Kitts! and!
Nevis!(Figure!2).!
WP#11.##
Dissemina-on#of#results#
#
#
WP#10.#Evalua-on#of#the#
WP#9.#Evalua-on#of#
efficacy#and#constraints#to#
restora-on#methods#
management#tools#
WP#7.#Integrated#Modeling#
of#Processes#
WP#8.#Ecosystem#based#
fisheries#management#and#
reserve#design#
WP#1.#
Governance#of#
coral#reefs#
WP#2.#
Livelihoods#and#
coral#reefs#
WP#3.#Physical#
Environments#
WP#4.#Ecological#
Status#
WP#5.#Ecological#
Processes#
WP#6.#Impacts#of#
Climate#Change#
Figure! 1! An! overview! of! the! work! plan! for! the! FORCE! project! (WP! =! work! package).! Data! from! WPs! 1R6! is!
combined!into!the!more!integrative!work!completed!in!WP!7R10.!
!
Figure! 2! Maps! of! a)! study! countries! where! WP1! and! WP2! work! was! conducted,! and! bRe)! study! sites! within!
Barbados,! St! Kitts! and! Nevis,! Belize! and! Honduras.! Symbols! represent! reefRuse! characteristics! of! each!
community;! circle! =! predominantly! fishing,! triangle! =! mixed! fishing! and! tourism,! square! =! predominantly!
tourism.!
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2!
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1.2
Governance!of!coral!reefs!
The! governance! component! of! the! FORCE! project! broadly! seeks! to! understand! the! decisionQ
making! processes! underpinning! the! ways! coral! reefs! are! managed! in! the! Caribbean,! with! the!
aim! of! addressing! how! management! can! be! improved.! The! work! was! conducted! through! a!
partnership! between! the! Centre! for! Resource! Management! and! Environmental! Studies!
(CERMES)!at!the!University!of!the!West!Indies!in!Barbados,!and!the!School!of!Marine!Science!
and!Technology!based!at!Newcastle!University!in!England.!
Many! proximate! causes! of! environmental! decline! have! been! ultimately! attributed! to! poor!
governance,! which! has! failed! to! limit! anthropogenic! impacts! and! constrained! the! effective!
implementation! of! management! tools! (Mora! et! al.! 2009;! Hughes! et! al.! 2010).! Improved!
governance!is!considered!critical!to!how!effectively!coral!reefs!are!managed!in!the!future,!and!
ultimately! to! the! survival! of! coral! reefs.! Governance! is! defined! here! as! the! structures! and!
processes! that! determine! how! decisions! are! made,! power! is! exercised! and! responsibilities!
allocated! (Graham! et! al.! 2003).! Governance! occurs! at! many! scales! and! includes! interactions!
among! many! different! ‘actors’! in! society,! including! government,! civil! society! and! the! private!
sector.!!
The! FORCE! project! aims! to! develop! a! multiQlevel! (local! to! national! level)! perspective! of! good!
governance! by! building! an! understanding! of! the! socioQeconomic! characteristics! of! coral! reefQ
dependent! communities,! perceptions! and! opinions! about! governance,! and! the! types! of! reef!
management!in!place.!With!this!perspective,!we!hope!to!better!understand!governance!and!the!
links! between! governance! structure! and! management! implementation! in! order! to! inform!
formulation! of! policies! that! are! more! likely! to! be! effective! in! supporting! sustainable!
management,!and!use!of!coral!reefs.!
The!FORCE!project!aims!to!explore!and!understand!Caribbean!governance.!Its!objectives!are!to:!
1. Identify!and!collate!reef!management!tools;!
2. Quantify!and!map!the!complexity!of!marine!resource!governance!in!a!variety!of!societal!
contexts!at!multiple!scales!(local,!national!and!regional)!taking!into!consideration!the!
geoQpolitical!diversity!of!the!Caribbean!region;!
3. Determine!the!ultimate!causes!of!proximate!drivers!of!reef!health;!
4. Complete!social!network!analysis!of!relationships!between!reef!resource!users!and!
managers;!
5. Identify!governance!constraints!to!the!implementation!of!management!tools;!
6. Develop!an!adaptive!governance!framework!
1.3
Livelihoods!and!coral!reefs!
The! livelihoods! and! reefs! component! of! the! FORCE! project! is! concerned! with! exploring! the!
relationship! between! people! and! coral! reefs! in! the! Caribbean.! The! research! was! led! by!
International! Marine! Management! (IMM)! Ltd.,! in! partnership! with! CERMES! and! Newcastle!
University.!
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Considered!in!its!simplest!form,!this!relationship!may!be!defined!by!how!people!use!coral!reefs!
and! in! turn! what! services! are! provided! by! coral! reefs! to! those! people.! Coral! reef! ecosystems!
provide!services!which!people!may!depend!on!directly!and!indirectly,!and!which!go!beyond!the!
provision!of!food!and!income.!As!highlighted!by!the!Millennium!Ecosystem!Assessment!(2005),!
human!wellQbeing!is!supported!by!a!range!of!services,!including!supporting!services!(e.g.!habitat!
provision,! support! for! life! cycles,! nutrient! cycles);! provisioning! services! (e.g.! fish! for! food! and!
sale,! employment! and! income);! regulating! services! (e.g.! protection! from! coastal! erosion! and!
storm!damage,!maintenance!of!water!quality,!formation!of!beaches!and!islands);!and!cultural!
services!(e.g.!cultural!identity,!tourism!and!recreation,!research!and!interest).!
A!key!part!of!understanding!the!relationship!between!coral!reefs!and!associated!resourceQusers!
is! to! understand! the! dependency! people! have! on! coral! reefs,! what! forms! that! can! take,! and!
how! that! is! changing.! This! understanding! will! have! significant! implications! for! how! managers!
can! respond! to! future! changes! in! ecosystem! services! flows! and! the! benefits! which! people!
derive! from! them.! To! that! end,! the! livelihoods! component! of! the! FORCE! project! aims! to!
characterise!the!varied!nature!of!people’s!dependency!on!coral!reefs!in!the!Caribbean!and!their!
vulnerability! to! changes! in! the! ecosystem! services! coral! reefs! provide,! including! those!
provisioning,! regulating,! cultural! and! supporting! services! previously! mentioned.! New!
information! collected! from! the! FORCE! project! is! articulated! through! the! following! three!
research!questions:!
1. How!do!people!in!the!Caribbean!depend!on!coral!reef!resources?!!
2. How!are!people’s!relationships!with!coral!reefs!affected!by!change!in!reefs!and!access!to!
reef!services?!!
3. How!do!people!in!coastal!communities!respond!to!changes!in!coral!reefs?!!
1.4
Objectives!of!this!report!
This! report! presents! findings! of! the! social! science! research! conducted! in! Barbados! in! 2011! as!
part!of!the!FORCE!Project.!The!document!is!presented!in!the!following!eight!sections:!
1. Overview!of!work:!an!introduction!to!the!research!approaches!used!and!summary!of!
work!completed!
2. Country!and!site!profiles:!a!brief!description!of!the!country!studied!and!the!three!
communities!where!research!was!conducted!including!community!demographics!
3. Historical!timelines:!a!review!of!key!events!and!changes!that!affected!the!reefs!or!
people’s!relationships!with!reefs!at!a!country!and!community!level!
4. Reef!health:!an!overview!of!perceived!drivers!of!reef!health!and!perceptions!of!reef!
health!
5. Governance!of!coral!reefs:!a!review!of!actors!involved!in!reef!related!policy!making!and!
household!perceptions!of!good!governance!
6. InformationQsharing!networks:!social!network!analysis!of!reefQrelated!information!
sharing!
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4!
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7. Economics!of!reef!fish:!value!of!reef!fishing!and!tourism!and!responses!to!future!
changes!
8. Summary!
This!report!aims!to!present!some!of!the!initial!results!found!as!part!of!this!research.!Findings!
from!similar!work!completed!by!the!FORCE!project!in!Belize,!Honduras,!and!St!Kitts!and!Nevis!
are! presented! in! separate! reports! which! can! be! accessed! on! the! CERMES! website!
(http://cermes.cavehill.uwi.edu).! Descriptive! case! studies! on! reef! dependency! and! change! for!
each!country!are!also!available!as!individual!reports!which!can!be!accessed!on!the!IMM!website!
(http://www.imm.uk.com).!
2
OVERVIEW!OF!WORK!
Multiple! field! surveys! were! used! to! address! a! range! of! governance! and! livelihoods! questions!
from!a!multiQlevel!perspective!in!Barbados!(Table!1)!and!replicated!in!three!other!countries!in!
the! Wider! Caribbean! Region.! These! surveys! were! designed! to! assess! peoples’! attitudes,!
behaviour,! dependency! on! coral! reef! resources,! livelihood! diversity! and! perceptions! of! coral!
reef! health! and! management! at! an! individual,! community,! and! country! level.! In! order! to!
represent!various!levels!of!social!and!economic!conditions,!and!marine!resource!dependency,!
this! research! was! conducted! in! four! countries:! Barbados,! Belize,! Honduras,! and! St! Kitts! and!
Nevis.! Three! communities! in! each! country! were! selected! to! replicate! the! research! at! a!
community! level.! Communities! were! selected! to! express! variation! of! the! two! most!
predominant! reefQdependent! livelihoods,! reef! fishing! and! tourism.! The! communities! were!
chosen! within! these! criteria! with! input! from! key! informants,! site! visits,! and! logistical!
considerations.!
Fieldwork!in!Barbados!was!completed!between!February!and!April!2011.!The!following!section!
gives!an!overview!of!the!research!methods!and!a!summary!of!the!work!completed!in!Barbados!
(Table!1).!
!
Table! 1! Summary! of! fieldwork! completed.! Interviews! marked! with! asterisks! (*)! are! detailed! further! in! “Reef!
Dependency!and!Change:!Barbados!Case!Study”!(Booker!et!al.!2013)!!
!
!
!
Interviews!completed!
Household!
Supplementary!fisher!
Governance!
Social!network!
Dive!operator!
Recreational!divers!
!
Count!of!interviews!and!meetings!completed!in!!
each!community!or!at!the!national!level!
National!/!!
not!community!
Pile!Bay! Six!Men’s! Holetown!
!specific! Total!
!
!
!
!
!
44!
73!
74!
! 191!
15!
28!
16!
!
59!
1!
!
4!
9!
14!
8!
13!
13!
18!
52!
!
!
!
7!
7!
!
!
!
! 160!
5!
!
!
Count!of!interviews!and!meetings!completed!in!!
each!community!or!at!the!national!level!
National!/!!
not!community!
!
Pile!Bay! Six!Men’s! Holetown!
!specific! Total!
Livelihood!inQdepth*!
!
12!
11!
!
23!
Livelihood!key!informant*!
!
1!
!
4!
5!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Meetings!completed!
!
!
!
!
!
Initial!community!meetings!
1!
1!
1!
!
3!
Initial!national!consultation!
!
!
!
1!
1!
Scenario!and!feedback!!
1!
1!
1!
1!
4!
!
2.1
Household!interviews!
FaceQtoQface! semiQstructured! interviews! were! conducted! with! representatives! of! individual!
households! at! the! community! level.! Interviews! were! designed! to! investigate! topics! such! as!
usage!of!the!sea!and!reef!areas,!reef!health,!views!on!reef!management,!livelihoods,!and!social!
capital!in!the!community.!Fishing!households!were!asked!additional!questions!to!quantify!the!
economics!of!fishing!and!patterns!of!usage.!!
The! target! sample! in! each! community! included! up! to! 50! direct! reefQresource! users,! and! a!
minimum! of! 25! randomly! selected! community! members,! who! were! considered! to! be! indirect!
resource! users.! Based! on! their! level! of! dependency! on! reefs! in! the! Caribbean,! two! groups! of!
direct! users! were! specifically! targeted:! reef! fishers! and! reefQrelated! tourism! operators.! Direct!
resource!users!were!targeted!primarily!through!opportunistic!and!snowball!sampling!but!were!
selected!to!reflect!the!total!numbers!and!balance!(fishing!vs.!tourism)!of!resource!users!within!
each!community.!In!communities!with!smaller!populations!or!fewer!resource!users,!the!sample!
of! direct! resource! users! was! smaller.! Remaining! respondents! were! targeted! by! randomly!
selecting! households! within! defined! community! boundaries,! using! 100m! x! 100m! numbered!
grids!and!a!random!number!generator.!
The! majority! of! interviews! lasted! between! 30Q90! minutes.! Detailed! notes! were! taken! in! all!
interviews!and,!unless!participants!were!unwilling,!all!interviews!were!recorded.!
2.2
Governance!interviews!
FaceQtoQface! semiQstructured! interviews! were! conducted! with! individuals! from! a! variety! of!
organisations! involved! in! reef! use! and! management! at! community! and! national! levels.! The!
purpose!of!these!interviews!was!to!assess!perceptions!of!governance!structures!and!processes,!
and! develop! a! rich! and! detailed! understanding! of! the! governance! context,! current! reef!
management,! stakeholder! involvement,! and! drivers! of! reef! health.! Respondents! included!
representatives! of:! government! departments! or! ministries! with! a! responsibility! for! reef!
management! or! resource! use! (e.g.! tourism,! fisheries! and! environment! departments);! nonQ
governmental! organisations! involved! in! reef! management;! research! and! stakeholder! support;!
!
6!
!
industry!organisations!with!interests!in!reef!or!marine!resources;!and!educational!organisations!
such!as!universities!that!undertake!research!on!coral!reefs.!!
The! majority! of! interviews! lasted! between! 45Q90! minutes.! All! interviews! were! recorded! and!
transcribed! verbatim,! unless! participants! were! unwilling,! in! which! case! detailed! notes! were!
taken.!!
2.3
Social!network!analysis!
Social! network! analysis! (SNA)! is! the! study! of! actors! (individuals! or! organisations)! and! the!
relationships! that! connect! these! actors.! SNA! provides! a! way! to! quantitatively! analyse! the!
interactions!that!are!happening!in!the!governance!of!coral!reefs!and!visualise!the!patterns!of!
these! interactions.! A! list! of! actors! involved! in! reef! use,! management,! and! research! was!
composed! for! each! country.! Interviews! targeted! representatives! from! each! organisation! or!
group! identified,! with! the! aim! to! conduct! interviews! with! all! identified! actors.! In! the! case! of!
resource! users,! interviews! were! conducted! with! individual! resource! users! identified! by! the!
community!as!being!wellQconnected!or!influential.!!
FaceQtoQface!semiQstructured!network!interviews!included!questions!on!multiple!relationships,!
including!communication!and!reef!related!information!sharing.!Interviews!were!conducted!as!a!
section! of! the! governance! interviews,! or! as! a! separate! interview! where! appropriate.! All!
interviews! were! recorded! and! transcribed! verbatim,! unless! participants! were! unwilling,! in!
which!case!detailed!notes!were!taken.!!
2.4
Economics!of!reef!fish!
2.4.1 Supplementary!fisher!interviews!
Due!to!the!small!numbers!of!fishers!captured!through!the!household!interview!sample!in!some!
communities,! additional! reef! fishers! were! specifically! targeted! for! interviews! to! gain! a! more!
complete!understanding!of!the!economics!of!reef!fishing.!These!interviews!were!modified!from!
the!household!interviews!and!included!only!demographic!and!fishingQrelated!questions.!
2.4.2 Dive!operator!interviews!
FaceQtoQface! semiQstructured! interviews! were! used! to! collect! economic! information! from!
owners! or! managers! of! all! SCUBA! businesses! that! operated! near! reefs! associated! with! the!
studied! communities! and! included! questions! related! to! reef! use,! business! costs! and! income,!
and!patterns!of!change.!
2.4.3 Recreational!diver!surveys!
SelfQadministered!surveys!were!conducted!with!SCUBA!tourists!that!had!conducted!recent!dives!
within!the!studied!areas.!These!surveys!included!questions!designed!to!build!an!understanding!
of! how! dive! tourists! may! respond! to! declines! or! improvements! in! reef! fish! health.! Surveys!
!
7!
!
included!demographic!information,!level!of!satisfaction!with!current!conditions!and!willingness!
to!pay!to!avoid!fishing!or!fishing!gear!encounters.!
2.5
Community!meetings!
Community!meetings!were!held!in!each!of!the!three!study!sites.!The!meetings!were!open!to!all!
members!of!the!community,!and!reef!users!were!encouraged!to!attend.!Attendees!were!invited!
to! participate! in! two! activities:! 1)! a! historical! scan! to! explore! key! changes! in! the! community!
with! respect! to! use! of! the! sea! and! the! reefs,! fishing,! tourism,! and! the! community! in! general;!
and!2)!discuss!the!groups!and!organisations!involved!in!coral!reef!use!and!management.!
2.6
National!consultation!
A! national! consultation! meeting! was! held! with! representatives! of! government! agencies,! nonQ
government!organisations,!and!the!private!sector!who!were!involved!in!work!related!to!coral!
reef! resources,! the! environment,! community! development,! and! tourism.! Participants! were!
asked!to!take!part!in!two!activities:!1)!a!historical!scan!to!explore!key!changes!in!Barbados!with!
respect!to!the!environment,!society,!economy,!and!the!policies!and!management!systems;!and!
2)! a! policy! cycle! review! to! facilitate! a! discussion! on! the! formal! and! informal! groups! and!
organisations!involved!in!reef!governance!and!management.!
2.7
Scenario!and!feedback!meetings!
Community! and! national! level! meetings! were! held! at! the! completion! of! fieldwork.! These!
meetings! had! three! purposes,! to:! 1)! share! initial! findings! with! community! members! and!
national! level! representatives,! 2)! allow! participants! to! validate! these! findings! and! collect!
feedback,! and! 3)! conduct! an! exercise! to! explore! some! aspects! of! future! reef! management.!
Community! meetings! were! held! between! December! 2012! and! February! 2013.! The! national!
level!meeting!was!held!in!January!2014.!!
3
COUNTRY!AND!SITE!PROFILES!
3.1
Country!profile!
3.1.1 Geography!
Barbados!is!the!most!easterly!island!in!the!Caribbean,!located!at!13oN,!59.1oW,!has!a!total!land!
area!of!430!km2!and!95!km!of!coastline!(Figure!3).!Temperatures!on!the!island!range!from!20!to!
30oC!and!the!island!receives!an!average!of!1,254!to!1,650!mm!of!rainfall!each!year,!mostly!in!
the! JuneQNovember! wet! season.! Given! the! island’s! exposed! location! in! the! western! Atlantic,!
Barbados’!east!coast!is!subjected!to!high!energy!waves!that!traverse!the!Atlantic!Ocean,!making!
conditions! unfavourable! for! coastal! activities.! By! contrast,! the! sheltered! west! and! southQwest!
coasts!are!characterised!by!protected!sandy!beaches.!The!island!is!composed!of!limestone!and!
coral!reef!terraces!(Burke!and!Maidens!2004).!The!limestone!bedrock!covers!86%!of!the!island!
and! forms! the! karst! landscape! with! numerous! gullies! and! caves,! providing! a! major! source! of!
building!materials!on!the!island.!
!
8!
!
3.1.2 Social,!economic,!and!political!setting!
Barbados! has! a! population! of! nearly! 277,000! (Research! and! Planning! Unit! 2012).! With! an!
average! of! over! 231! people! per! square! kilometre,! it! is! one! of! the! most! densely! populated!
countries! in! the! world! (Government! of! Barbados! 2010).! Population! growth! was! at! a! rate! of!
0.2%!in!2011!(Research!and!Planning!Unit!2012).!The!country!is!categorised!by!the!World!Bank!
as! a! high! income! economy! and! is! ranked! as! having! ‘very! high! human! development’! on! the!
UNDP’s! Human! Development! Index! (UNDP! 2011),! however! there! has! been! a! recent! rise! in!
unemployment! (estimated! at! 6%! in! 2011),! possibly! due! to! global! economic! conditions!
(Research! and! Planning! Unit! 2012).! Most! of! the! Millennium! Development! Goal! targets! have!
been!achieved,!with!100%!access!to!clean!drinking!water!and!improved!sanitation,!free!health!
care!at!the!point!of!access!and!free!education!through!tertiary!level,!and!literacy!is!among!the!
highest!in!the!region!(ECLAC!2001;!Innis!2007).!The!official!language!in!Barbados!is!English.!
!
Figure!3!Barbados!study!sites.!Symbols!represent!reefRuse!characteristics!of!each!community:!triangle!=!mixed!
fishing!and!tourism,!square!=!predominantly!tourism,!circle!=!predominantly!fishing.!
Tourism! has! been! the! primary! source! of! foreign! income! since! the! 1970s,! taking! over! from!
sugarcane!(ECLAC!2001).!Although!the!economic!activities!on!the!island!have!been!diversified!
from!the!historic!dependence!on!sugarcane!cultivation,!there!are!still!relatively!few!dominant!
industries.!Wholesale!and!retail!trade,!construction,!and!accommodation!and!food!services!are!
the! top! three! industries! by! employment! (Research! and! Planning! Unit! 2012).! Construction!
Manufacturing!follows!tourism!as!the!second!largest!source!of!GDP!for!traded!goods;!however,!
development! of! the! manufacturing! sector! is! constrained! by! limited! resources! and! high!
competition!and!the!industry!has!been!contracting!in!recent!years!(EC!2001;!ECLAC!2001).!
!
9!
!
Barbados!gained!independence!from!Britain!in!1966!and!functions!as!a!constitutional!monarchy!
and! a! parliamentary! democracy.! The! government! is! modelled! on! the! British! Westminster!
system! with! the! Prime! Minister! as! the! head! of! the! government;! the! Queen! of! England! is!
recognised!as!the!head!of!state,!represented!by!a!GovernorQGeneral.!Barbados!has!a!bicameral!
legislature! and! a! social! democratic! party! system.! The! Government! of! Barbados! is! structured!
into!15!ministries,!the!Prime!Minister’s!Office,!and!the!Office!of!the!Attorney!General.!!
3.1.3 Coral!reef!ecosystems!
Barbados!is!an!accretionary!wedge!primarily!composed!of!coral!limestone!and!is!relatively!flat!
compared!to!nearby!islands.!The!island!is!surrounded!by!a!narrow!shelf!area!(320!km2)!with!90!
km2! of! nearshore! coral! reefs.! The! reef! topography! changes! by! coast;! the! west! coast! area! has!
nearshore! fringing! reefs! and! the! south! coast! has! patch! reefs! (Government! of! Barbados! 2002;!
Burke!and!Maidens!2004).!The!more!protected!west!and!southQwest!coasts!have!sandy!beaches!
and!sheltered!reefs,!providing!conditions!more!suitable!for!recreational!and!nearshore!fishing!
activities.!!
!
!
Table! 1! Barbados! country! overview! (country! statistics! source:! CIA! World! Factbook,! www.cia.gov;! *Burke! &!
Maidens!2004)!!
Country!statistics!
!
2
Land!area!(km )!
430!
Continental!or!island!
Island!
2
Shelf!area!to!30m!within!Maritime!Claim!(km )*!
80!
Caribbean!coastline!length!(km)*!
95!
2
Land!area!draining!to!Caribbean!(km )*!
430!
Population!(2008)!
255,203!
Population!change!1990Q2000!(%!change)*!
4.0!
2
Population!density!2000!(people/km )*!
622!
GDP!per!capita!(US$)!(2008)!
14,422!
GDP!%!contribution!tourism!
11.8!
2
Reef!area!(km )*!
90!
%!of!reefs!facing!high!or!very!high!threats*!
100!
%!at!med/high!risk!from!coastal!development*!
100!
%!at!med/high!risk!from!landQbased!sediment!and!pollution*!
60!
%!at!med/high!risk!from!marineQbased!pollution*!
15!
%!at!med/high!risk!from!fishing!pressure*!
100!
Number!of!MPAs!
1!
The! 2011! Reefs! at! Risk! report! lists! Barbados! among! the! 27! countries! rated! with! the! ‘highest!
exposure! to! reef! threats’! and! ‘highest! reefQdependence’! (Burke! et! al.! 2011).! All! of! the! reefs!
around! Barbados! are! considered! to! be! threatened! by! human! activities,! including! overfishing!
and! coastal! development! (Burke! and! Maidens! 2004).! Rapid! increases! in! coastal! development!
relating! to! tourism! and! increasing! population! density! have! contributed! to! marine!
environmental! degradation,! for! example! through! sedimentation! and! a! lack! of! wastewater!
treatment!(Cumberbatch!2001;!Burke!and!Maidens!2004).!All!targeted!reef!species!(particularly!
parrotfish)! are! considered! to! be! overfished! (Burke! and! Maidens! 2004).! The! nearshore! reefs!
!
10!
!
(particularly! the! west! coast)! are! more! depleted! than! the! offshore! bank! reefs! that! run! almost!
continuously!along!the!southern!and!western!coasts.!
Degradation! of! reef! health! has! also! been! contributed! to! by! coral! bleaching,! such! as! the! 2005!
regional! bleaching! event,! and! reduced! populations! of! herbivorous! fish! due! to! overfishing! and!
disease! (Diadema! antillarum).! The! recent! arrival! of! the! invasive! lionfish! (Pterois! volitans! and!
Pterois!milares;!first!captured!November!2011)!is!causing!further!concern!about!the!health!of!
the!reefs!and!reef!fish!populations!(Research!and!Planning!Unit!2012).!
3.1.4 Coral!reef!use!
Fishing!
The! fishing! industry! in! Barbados! employs! approximately! 6,000! individuals,! including! fishing,!
processing,! retailing,! wholesaling,! boat! building,! export! and! distributional! activities.! In! 2010,!
there! were! 1,062! registered! fishing! vessels,! 587! of! which! were! ‘Moses’,! the! type! of! boats!
primarily!used!in!reef!and!nearshore!fisheries!(Research!and!Planning!Unit!2012).!!
The! industry! directly! contributes! US$14.6! million! annually,! or! 0.3%! of! the! national! GDP!
(Barbados! Fisheries! Division! 2004,! 2002! values).! The! relatively! small! size! of! the! shelf! area!
means! that! there! is! not! a! large! demersal! fishery! and! fishing! effort! is! concentrated! due! to!
limited! space.! Reef! fish! form! a! relatively! small! component! of! landings! compared! to! flyingfish!
and! pelagic! species! (McConney! et! al.! 2003;! Research! and! Planning! Unit! 2012).! Reef! fishing!
activities!peak!during!the!summer!months!(offQseason!for!pelagics)!and!fish!are!targeted!using!
traps,! spears,! handQlines! and! nets.! Iceboats,! launches! and! long! liners! are! chiefly! used! in! the!
offshore! pelagic! fishery! (although! launches! are! sometimes! used! for! demersal! fishing)! and!
Moses!vessels!are!employed!for!nearshore!fishing.!
All!fisheries!are!open!access!and!the!fishing!industry!is!considered!to!be!a!social!safetyQnet!for!
the! unemployed,! with! a! mobile! and! opportunistic! labour! force! involved! in! the! fishery!
(McConney! et! al.! 2003).! Fishers! move! between! sectors! of! the! fishery! according! to! seasonal!
opportunities,!but!most!rely!solely!on!fishing!for!income,!while!a!minority!are!engaged!in!lowQ
skilled!jobs!at!certain!times!of!year!(McConney!et!al.!2003).!
Tourism!
The!economy!of!Barbados!relies!heavily!on!tourism,!and!is!ranked!10th!worldwide!in!terms!of!
the! relative! contribution! of! travel! and! tourism! to! the! national! economy! (WTTC! 2012).! The!
Barbados!economy!relies!heavily!on!tourism!as!it!is!the!number!one!source!of!foreign!exchange!
and! contributed! US$0.5! billion! in! direct! revenue! (12.9%! of! GDP)! in! 2011.! In! 2011,! tourism!
contributed! US$0.5! billion! in! direct! revenue! (12.9%! of! GDP)! and! 18,200! jobs,! while! indirectly!
contributing!to!59,700!jobs!(WTTC!2012).!Tourism!has!led!to!rapid!development,!particularly!on!
the! south! and! west! coasts,! causing! modified! shorelines,! increased! sources! of! landQbased!
pollution,!and!an!increase!in!user!conflicts!(Axys!2000).!!
!
11!
!
Many!tourism!activities!are!focused!in!and!around!the!reef!and!nearshore!areas;!these!activities!
include!scuba!diving,!snorkelling,!glassQbottom!boat!tours,!swimming!with!sea!turtles,!jet!skis,!
and! boatQled! activities! such! as! waterQskiing! and! parasailing.! The! high! season! for! tourism! runs!
approximately!between!November!and!May,!corresponding!with!the!winter!months!in!northern!
latitudes.!
3.1.5 Coral!reef!governance!
The!Ministry!of!the!Environment,!Water!Resource!Management!and!Drainage!is!home!to!many!
of!the!units!and!departments!directly!related!to!coral!reef!resources!(including!the!Coastal!Zone!
Management! Unit! (CZMU),! National! Conservation! Commission,! and! Environmental! Protection!
Department).! The! Town! and! Country! Planning! Unit! (under! the! Prime! Minister’s! Office)! also!
works!in!conjunction!with!CZMU!in!matters!of!coastal!development.!
Fisheries!are!governed!through!the!Ministry!of!Agriculture,!Food,!Fisheries,!Industry!and!Small!
Business!Development,!while!enforcement!of!fisheries!regulations!is!shared!across!the!Fisheries!
Division,! the! Barbados! Police! Force! (under! the! Ministry! of! Home! Affairs)! and! the! Barbados!
Defence!Force/Barbados!Coast!Guard!(under!the!Prime!Minister’s!Office).!DecisionQmaking!with!
regards! to! coastal! management! is! split! between! the! aforementioned! Ministries! and!
Departments,!and!to!a!lesser!extent!with!other!governmental!bodies.!
There!are!four!primary!legislative!acts!that!are!related!to!fisheries,!reef!and!coastal!resources:!
the!Fisheries!Act!(1993,!amended!2000),!the!Coastal!Zone!Management!Act!(1998),!the!Marine!
Pollution! and! Control! Act! (1998),! and! the! Town! and! Country! Planning! Act! (1985).! There! are!
associated! sets! of! detailed! regulations! under! these! acts.! A! number! of! additional! acts! and!
regulations!have!a!small!or!indirect!relation!to!these!resources.!!
3.2
Site!profiles!
Three! sites! on! the! west! coast! of! Barbados! were! selected! for! the! governance! and! livelihoods!
research!as!part!of!the!FORCE!project:!(northQsouth)!Six!Men’s,!Holetown,!and!Pile!Bay!(Figure!
3).! Reef! use! characteristics! for! these! sites! are! mixed! fishing! and! tourism,! predominantly!
tourism,!and!predominantly!fishing,!respectively.!
3.2.1 Six!Men’s!
Six! Men’s! is! located! in! the! parish! of! Saint! Peter.! There! is! little! in! the! way! of! physical!
infrastructure!at!the!site,!although!two!marina!developments!border!the!village!including!Port!
St!Charles!and!Port!Ferdinand!(the!latter!being!under!construction).!The!nearest!major!tourism!
resort! at! the! time! of! research! was! the! allQinclusive! Almond! Beach! Village! to! the! south! of! the!
community,! but! this! has! since! closed;! a! smaller! resort,! Little! Good! Harbour,! is! located! to! the!
north!of!the!village.!
!
!
12!
!
!!!
!
Photos:!Six!Men’s!
Pelagics! are! the! major! fish! group! that! is! landed! at! this! tertiary! landing! site.! Tertiary! sites! are!
identified!as!having!little!or!no!infrastructure!(Barbados!Fisheries!Division!2004),!however!local!
fish!vendors!have!recently!constructed!stalls!where!local!people!and!the!occasional!tourist!can!
purchase! fish.! Very! little! watersport! activity! takes! place! except! turtleQfeeding,! recreational!
spearfishing!and!diving!on!the!bank!reefs.!!
3.2.2 Holetown!
Holetown! is! characterised! as! a! community! principally! dependent! on! tourism.! The! heavilyQ
developed!coastline!is!marked!by!highQend!resorts!and!luxury!real!estate.!Further!inland!there!
are! numerous! condominium! complexes,! apartments! and! guest! houses! as! well! as! shopping!
facilities!and!restaurants.!The!principle!westQcoast!road!(Highway!1)!bisects!the!community!and!
road!communications!are!wellQdeveloped.!!
!
!!!!!!
!
Photos:!Holetown!
Holetown!is!located!in!the!centre!of!Saint!James!and!its!coastline!is!almost!entirely!contained!
within!the!Folkestone!Park!and!Marine!Reserve.!The!marine!reserve!at!Folkestone!is!the!only!
legislated!marine!protected!area!on!the!island,!comprising!a!zoned!reserve!of!2.2!km2!located!in!
!
13!
!
one!of!the!most!heavily!used!marine!areas!(Burke!and!Maidens!2004).!The!near!shore!area!is!a!
very!popular!area!for!watersports!(e.g.!jet!skis,!waterskiing,!glassQbottom!boat!tours)!and!these!
activities!are!concentrated!within!the!marine!reserve.!There!is!one!(tertiary)!landing!site!where!
fish!from!the!park!surroundings!are!sold.!
3.2.3 Pile!Bay!
Pile!Bay!is!located!in!the!parish!of!Saint!Michael.!The!small!area!is!bounded!by!the!developing!
Four! Seasons! resort! to! the! north! and! the! Barbados! Light! and! Power! generation! plant! to! the!
south.!There!are!a!few!guest!homes!and!apartments!located!in!the!northern!section!of!Pile!Bay.!
Pile! Bay! is! considered! to! be! a! major! reef! fish! landing! site! on! the! island! and! is! classified! as! a!
secondary! landing! site! (i.e.! shed! and! slab! for! cleaning! present;! Barbados! Fisheries! Division!
2004).!Pile!Bay!is!one!of!the!few!locations!where!detailed!data!are!collected!on!reef!fish!by!the!
Barbados!Fisheries!Division.!The!discharge!of!warm!water!from!the!cooling!towers!of!the!power!
plant! provides! a! popular! “spa”! for! many! locals! who! believe! that! the! warm! water! provides!
therapeutic! benefits.! Pile! Bay! also! has! a! turtle! feeding! site! as! well! as! popular! offshore! reefs!
frequented!by!divers!and!the!Atlantis!Submarine.!
!
!!
!
Photos:!Pile!Bay!
3.3
Demographics!
The! following! tables! give! an! overview! of! the! demographics! of! the! household! interviews!
conducted! in! each! community! (Table! 2),! types! of! reef! fishing! conducted! in! each! community!
(Table! 3),! and! the! types! of! reef! related! tourism! conducted! by! individuals! in! each! community!
(Table!4).!
Material!style!of!life!(MSL),!based!on!a!household’s!possessions!(e.g.!television,!computer)!and!
structure!(e.g.!building!material,!plumbing)!has!been!used!as!an!indicator!of!relative!wealth!or!
social! status! (Cinner! et! al.! 2009b).! A! composite! MSL! indicator! was! derived! from! principal!
component!analysis!of!14!household!assets!and!attributes.!Mean!MSL!for!households!in!each!
community!was!calculated!and!ranked!within!each!study!country!(Table!2).!
!
14!
!
Table!2!Demographics!of!household!interviewees!
Pile!Bay!
(n=44)!
HOUSEHOLD!CHARACTERISTICS!
Household!size!
Mean!(St.!Deviation)!
Number!of!dependents!in!household!
Mean!(St.!Deviation)!
!
3!(1.7)!
Six!Men’s!
(n=73)!
!
3.6!(1.9)!
Holetown!
(n=74)!
!
2.6!(1.4)!
!
1.1!(0.8)!
!
1.4!(1.3)!
!
0.9!(1.1)!
Occupations!held!by!household!members!(%!of!households)!
ReefQrelated!fishing!
FishingQrelated!
NonQreef!fishing!
ReefQrelated!tourism!
MaritimeQrelated!
Other!tourism!
Public!sector!employment!
Service!industries!
Other!salaried!employment!
Construction!and!skilled!labour!
Farming!
Informal!sector!
Other!
23!
5!
16!
7!
0!
16!
11!
34!
52!
16!
0!
0!
16!
21!
15!
8!
19!
4!
1!
22!
53!
36!
29!
8!
7!
11!
!
15!
0!
1!
30!
0!
9!
12!
35!
42!
20!
0!
3!
16!
Ranked!mean!material!style!of!life!(MSL)!(1G3;!highestGlowest)!
CHARACTERISTICS!OF!INTERVIEWEES!
Type!of!resource!use!(%!of!respondents)!
Fishing!
Tourism!
Both!
Neither!
1!
!
!
11!
2!
1!
30!
2!
!
!
14!
6!
5!
48!
3!
!
!
7!
22!
1!
44!
!
64!
36!
!
54!(20)!
!
55!
45!
!
49!(18)!
!
69!
31!
!
50!(17)!
!
0!
16!
34!
5!
43!
2!
!
0!
36!
32!
8!
25!
0!
!
3!
9!
42!
7!
36!
3!
!
5!
0!
!
1!
0!
!
0!
0!
Gender!(%!of!respondents)!
Male!
Female!
Age!
Mean!(St.!Deviation)!
Education!(%!of!respondents)!
None!
Primary!
Secondary!
Professional/Vocational!
College/university/postgraduate!
No!response!
Involved!in!a!reef!related!group!(%!of!respondents)!
Fishing!cooperative!or!association!
Tourism!association!
!
!
!
!
15!
!
Table!3!Percentage!of!commercial!fishers!interviewed!from!each!community!who!participate!in!a!given!fishing!
method!!
!
%!of!fishers!using!each!gear!type!
Pile!Bay!
Six!Men’s! Holetown!
FISHING!ACTIVITY/GEAR!
(n=22)!
(n=28)!
(n=17)!
Diving!(free)!
18!
21!
12!
Diving!(SCUBA)!
18!
0!
0!
Line!
27!
29!
41!
Trolling!
5!
0!
6!
Net/seine!
5!
14!
6!
Traps!
55!
71!
47!
Average!number!of!gears!used!per!fisher!
1.27!
1.41!
1.12!
!
!
!
!
Boat!owners!
67!
48!
65!
Crew!members!
33!
41!
29!
Shore!fishers!
0!
11!
6!
!
Table!4!Percentage!of!interviewees!involved!in!reefRrelated!tourism!activities!
%!of!household!interviewees!participating!!
!
in!each!type!of!reefQrelated!tourism!
Pile!Bay!
Six!Men’s! Holetown!
REEFRRELATED!TOURISM!ACTIVITIES!
(n=44)!
(n=73)!
(n=74)!
Diving!
0!
4!
11!
Snorkelling!
5!
5!
15!
Glass!bottom!boat!
0!
3!
4!
Catamaran!
0!
1!
1!
Boat!tours!
5!
4!
11!
Watersports!
2!
8!
16!
Fishing!trips!
0!
5!
8!
!
4
HISTORICAL!TIMELINES!
A! timeline! exercise! was! completed! in! each! of! the! initial! community! meetings! and! at! the! first!
national!consultation!meeting.!The!purpose!of!the!timeline!was!to!learn!more!about!the!history!
of! the! community,! or! country,! and! the! changes! or! events! that! have! been! important! in!
influencing!people’s!relationships!with!coral!reefs.!The!exercise!was!used!as!a!starting!point!for!
further!discussion!on!the!changes!that!had!the!most!important!effect!on!how!people!use!the!
reefs.!Participants!were!asked!to!identify!two!events!or!changes!that!they!felt!had!the!greatest!
impact! on! the! relationship! between! people! and! reefs.! The! timelines! produced! from! this!
exercise!and!the!key!events!identified!by!those!at!each!meeting!are!presented!in!Figures!4!to!7,!
and!discussed!here.!
Changes! or! key! events! on! the! timeline! were! identified! in! relation! to! themes! selected! by! the!
research!team:!
!
16!
!
NationalRlevel!consultation!themes:!socioQeconomic,!environment,!tourism,!fisheries,!
and!regional!or!international!
CommunityRlevel!meeting!themes:!fisheries,!tourism,!and!the!community!
4.1
National!key!events!
The!increase!in!coastal!development!and!the!corresponding!tourism!boom!in!the!1960s!were!
highlighted! as! having! the! most! significant! impacts! on! the! relationship! between! people! in!
Barbados! and! the! coral! reefs.! As! a! result,! a! greater! awareness! of! the! impacts! led! to! the!
establishment!of!the!Ministry!of!the!Environment.!Key!changes!identified!by!participants!clearly!
highlighted! that! local! impacts! (e.g.! increased! population! and! houses,! Sandy! Lane! hotel!
construction)!and!mitigation!measures!(Coastal!Zone!Management!Plan,!Fisheries!Management!
Plan,! Marine! Management! Authority,! and! the! South! Coast! Sewerage! Project)! had! the! most!
significant!perceived!effects!on!people!and!the!reefs.!It!was!noted!that!global!impacts!such!as!
coral! bleaching! events! and! measures! such! as! the! Cartagena! Convention,! Convention! on!
Biological!Diversity!and!the!International!Year!of!the!Reef!influenced!how!people!use!the!reef!in!
Barbados.!
4.2
Pile!Bay!key!events!
Some! of! the! most! highly! prioritised! changes! by! the! community! in! Pile! Bay! related! to! the!
impacts!of!the!Barbados!Light!and!Power!(BL&P)!plant!in!the!community.!People!felt!that!the!
construction! and! operation! of! the! BL&P! plant! had! led! to! pollution! in! the! nearby! marine!
environment,!and!that!the!outflow!of!warm!water!had!affected!the!sea,!causing!damage!to!the!
reefs.! However,! people! also! noted! that! it! had! provided! a! positive! benefit! to! the! community!
through! employment.! Fish! kills! (localised! dieQoff! of! fish! populations)! in! the! 1990s! and! 2000s!
were!highly!prioritised,!and!people!felt!that!there!would!be!a!continued!decline!of!fish!in!the!
future.! Social! and! cultural! changes! were! also! mentioned,! including! the! loss! of! recreational!
spaces!such!as!the!football!field.!
4.3
Six!Men’s!key!events!
Coastal! development! and! changes! to! the! near! shore! marine! environment,! such! as! the!
construction! of! Port! Saint! Charles! (1990s)! and! Port! Ferdinand! (2010s)! were! seen! as! the! most!
important!changes!in!the!community.!Beach!erosion!and!encroachment!of!the!sea!towards!the!
community! was! also! an! issue! people! prioritised,! describing! the! narrowing! of! the! beach! over!
time! as! a! result! of! construction! and! development! that! altered! the! coastline! and! influenced!
patterns!of!deposition!of!sand!and!beach!erosion.!These!changes!were!considered!to!have!had!
important! social! impacts! on! the! community,! resulting! in! forced! relocation! of! households!
formerly!living!on!the!beachfront!and!a!loss!of!recreational!and!social!space.!
!
!
17!
!
4.4
Holetown!key!events!
Participants! prioritised! several! changes! relating! to! coastal! development! and! the! nearshore!
marine! environment,! such! as! the! increase! in! the! construction! of! hotels! and! beach! groynes! in!
the!1970s.!Beach!erosion!and!the!loss!of!turtle!nesting!sites!from!fencedQoff!beaches!were!also!
identified!as!important!issues.!The!conversion!of!the!nearby!cane!fields!into!the!Sandy!Lane!golf!
course! was! also! considered! a! key! issue! for! Holetown,! as! people! felt! that! this! has! led! to!
increased!runQoff!and!flooding!in!the!community.!Changes!in!people’s!use!of!the!sea!were!also!
prioritised,!there!was!a!conflict!of!interest!between!fishing!and!tourism!in!the!bay!adjacent!to!
Sandy!Lane,!as!fishers!said!the!hotel!was!unhappy!with!them!collecting!bait!in!that!area.!The!
decline! in! seamoss! and! sea! eggs! since! the! 1950s! was! noted! as! important! as! it! meant! people!
were!no!longer!able!to!collect,!sell,!and!eat!these!products.!However,!the!permission!to!catch!
bait!in!the!Folkestone!Marine!Reserve!was!prioritised!by!four!people!as!having!a!notable!and!
positive!impact!on!the!fishers!in!the!Holetown!area.!The!closure!of!the!Holetown!fish!market!in!
the!1970s!was!also!considered!an!important!change!for!the!community.!Participants!felt!that!
there!needs!to!be!more!government!control!on!the!number!of!allQinclusive!hotels!being!built!in!
the!area,!and!that!this!will!be!important!for!the!future!of!the!community.!
!
18!
!
!
First&landing&of&British&1600s
Disappearance&of&mangroves&1600s
Land&clearing&1700s
Offshore'fleet'development'(less'
pressure'inshore)'1800s
Major&hurricane&1850s
Bellairs&Research&Trust&began&1953
Hurricane&Janet&1955
Transatlantic&air&travel&1958
Pre=1960s
1980s
Marine&reserve&regulation&1981
Marine&reserve&established&&1981
Establishment&of&Folkestone&Marine&reserve&1981
Fishers&excluded&from&Folkestone&1981
Marine&construction&(channel&
cutting)&
Barbados&Hilton&(impacts&coast,&
turtles)&1966
Independence&1966
Low'price'air'travel''
Tourism'infrastructure'
development'
Blew&a&hole&in&fringing&reef&for&a&
Harp&gun&
Inappropriate&practices&(dynamite&
reefs,&taking&coral,&etc.)
Coastal'infrastructure'boom
Largely&unregulated&fishing
Largely&unregulated&coastal&
development
Emigration&leading&to&expanded&
international&ties
Alternation&of&drainage&(rivers&&&
Graham&Hall)
Increased&use&of&agroXchemicals&
Construction&of&harbour&(port)&
Coastal'tourism'development'
(water'quality)'
1970s
Population'and''houses'increase'
1970
Sea&turtle&project&1987
South&Coast&Sewerage&Project&1987
Increase&in&tourism&arrivals
1960s
Opening&of&deepwater&harbour&
1961
Free&secondary&education&1961
Coral&jewelry&and&curio&trade&(70s&&&80s)
2000s'continued
Ministry'of'Environment'
Increase&in&commodity&prices&2007
Earth&tremor&2007
established
Diadema&die&off
Construction&boom&2008
Global&climate&change
Increase&in&food&prices&2008
International'Year'of'the'Reef'2008
Barbados&coral&reef&monitoring&
programme
Mass&coral&bleaching&event&2008
Beaches&less&stable
Construction&fell,&unemployment&
rise&2009
Control&of&sewage&from&hotels/other
Local&awareness&programme&of&reef&care
Interpretive&snorkel&trail&at&Folkestone
This%Beach%Is%Mine&X&song&by&Gabby&
Amerindian&exploitation&near&
shore
Acropora&die&off&
Conversion&of&sugar&cane&to&other&
types&of&agriculture
Shift&from&agriculture&to&tourism&
Marine&construction&(groynes)
Port&extensions&X&flour&mill
Coral&jewelry&and&curio&trade&(70s&
&&80s)
Oil&embargo:&exploration&&&drilling
CITES
Aluminum&bauxite&mining
MARPOL&Convention
1990s
Economic&depression&1991
8%&pay&cut&1991
Fisheries&Act&1993
VAT&introduction&1994
Increase&in&African&dust
Folkestone&section&boundaries&set
2010s
Port&St.&Charles
Mass'coral'bleaching'event'2010
South'Coast'Sewerage'Project'
Beach&creation&increase&2010
South'Coast'Sewerage'Project
MediumXterm&Development&
Strategy&2010X2014
OSPESCA
Convention'on'Biological'Diversity'
Hurricane&Tomas&2010
SIDS&X&BPOA
Caribbean&Conservation&
Association&deceased?&2011
CFRAMP
CERMES
Four&Seasons&development&2011
Cartagena'Convention''UNEP/RCU'
VAT&increase&again&2011
Law&of&the&Sea&Convention
Agricultural&change:&cane&to&veg,&
hand&harvest&to&mechanical
Future
Decreasing&use&of&dynamite&(south& West&Coast&Sewerage&Project&2020
and&west&coasts)
Increased&coral&bleaching&mortality&
2020
High&fructose&corn&syrup&X&less&
demand&for&sugar
Increased&storm&drainage&2020
Influx&of&regional&waters&
Increased&sewage&treatment&from&
transporting&disease
households&2020
Jet&skis&and&water&sport&craft&conflict SocioXeconomic&considered&equally&
2030
WSSD
Millennium&Ecosystem&Assessment
InterXdisciplinary&research&the&
norm!&2030
SPAW&protocol
CRFM
NOTE:'Left'side'of'line'='Given'by'date
Caribbean&Sea&Commission
CLME&Project
CCCCC
CondoXmania
Increased&use&of&reef&as&turtle&habitat
First'Fisheries'Management'
Plan''1997
Coastal'Zone'Management'
Plan'1998
Coastal&Zone&Management&Act&1998
Sea&egg&&&turtle&ban&1998
Legal&consumption&of&turtles&ends&
1998
Fisheries&(Management)&
Regulations&1998
Marine&Pollution&Control&Act&&1998
Mass&coral&bleaching&event&1998
2000s
International&year&of&the&reef&2000&
and&2008
Physical&Development&Plan&2003
Hurricane&Ivan&in&Grenada&2004
Mass&coral&bleaching&event&2005
CITES&Act&2006
Natural&Heritage&Department&2006
Cricket&World&Cup&(development)&
2006X07
Marine'Management'Authority'
Plan&for&extended&board&walks&CZMU
Harbour&expansion&
Increase&in&oil&prices
Sandy'Lane'construction'
(smothered'reefs)'
Barbados&Marine&Trust&established
South&coast&sewerage&project&
implemented
Port&extensions&(dredging,&coast&
guard)
Sea&surface&temperature&(SST)&
increase&coral&bleaching&mortality
Increased&public&awareness&of&coral&
issues
Increase&in&niche&tourism&markets&
(dive&tourism)
Gulf&of&Mexico&oil&spill&(&&Great&
Barrier&reef)&
Increase&in&amount&of&'ecoXfriendly'&
tourists
Boardwalk,&Beachlands&development&
Marine&invasive&management&
(GLISPA)
LBS&protocol
Alien&species&(Lionfish)&2011
Correct&waste&management&the&
norm&(hotels)&2012+
Increase&in&carbon&offset&
opportunities&2015+
Solar&power&competitive&2025
Altman's&Palm&Island&2030
Kick'em&Jenny&erupts&2030
Right'side'of'line'='Given'by'decade
SocioXeconomic
Environment
Tourism
Fisheries
Regional/International
Figure!4!Timeline!(Pre/1960s/Future)!produced!by!participants!at!the!national!consultation,!15!March!2011;!events!identified!by!participants!as!having!an!
effect! on! the! relationship! between! people! and! reefs! indicated! in! bold! and! larger! text! size,! larger! text! size! indicates! the! event! was! identified! by! more!
participants.!!
!
19!
!
1980s
Hurricane*Janet*+*Damaged*a*lot*of*the*reef.*Caused*
rough*seas*which*reclaimed*land,*1955
Decrease*in*fish*catch*(More*fishers?*Fish*not*
breeding*fast*enough?),*1950s+1970s
Employment*+*rum*refinery,*1940s
More*people*fished,*had*kitchen*gardens*etc.,*pre+
1960s
Fishers*hauled*pots*every*day.*More*fish*back*then,*
1950s*+*1960s
Pre$1960s
1960s
Paradise*Hotel*+*business*was*booming,*1960s*+*
1970s
Housing*development;*water*and*electricity*in*more*
houses,*1960s*+*present*
Incursion*of*the*sea*continues,*until*1970s
Tourism*developed*
Members*of*community*employed*by*Shell*Depot
Pond*boat*racing*
BL&P*built
Construction*of*Spring*Garden*Highway,*1981
Paradise*Hotel*(Cinnamon)*closed*for*repair,*1980s*+*
1990s
Less*watersports*in*Pile*Bay*due*to*decrease*in*
tourism,*1980*+*1990s
Youngsters*not*interested*in*fishing,*1980s*+*present
No*more*moss,*1980s*+*present
Sea*plates,*moss,*sea*eggs*disappear
Paradise*Hotel*closed*down,*tourism*in*area*
diminishes
Beaches*were*becoming*smaller
Sewage*plant
Lost-football-field-to-expansion-of-Shell-Depot
Community*is*smaller
Employment*+*Texaco
1990s
Paradise*Hotel*(Cinnamon)*closes.*Kills*tourism,*
employment*of*community*members
1970s
"Fish-kill"
No*more*black*grunts,*yellow*nannies,*rock*hinds,*
velvets,*1970s*+*1980s
The-coral-reefs-started-dying-after-the-powerplant-was-built,-1970s-$-1980sDeep*water*harbour*constructed,*1970s*+*1980s
Better*tourism*season,*1970s*+*1980s
Tourism*developed,*1970s*+*1980s
Noise*from*BL&P*made*guest*houses*fail,*1970s*+*
present*
People*in*the*community*begin*to*talk*louder*+*
hearing*affected*due*to*noise*from*BL&P,*1970s*+*
present
Lack*of*government*regulation*of*BL&P*operation,*
1970s*+*present
"Pile-Bay-is-the-sweetest-beach.-Everyone-is-afamily!",-1970s-$-present
NOTE:-Left-side-of-line-$-Given-by-date
Flour*mill*constructed.*The*sea*encroaches*further*
inland*in*rough*weather*
Development*of*the*shallow*draft*harbour*raises*
the*water*level*
No*seaweed*
More*trees,*beach*life*pre+BL&P
Hot-pot-used-as-a-recreational-and-therapeuticspot"Fish*kill"
Lots*of*construction*of*beach*houses*for*tourism*
Rock*hinds*and*other*groupers*disappear*in*fish*kill
Transition*from*wooden*to*fibreglass*boats,*1980s*+*
1990s
Atlantis*Submarines*forces*a*change*in*fishing*
practices
!!!"We!could!no!longer!fish!on!the!outer!reefs."
Expansion*of*power*station
2000s
Changed*engine*in*BL&P;*smoke*and*pollution*
decreased,*2002
People*moving*into*the*community
BL&P*begins*operation*
New*engine*installed*in*BL&P*facility*which*doesn't*
release*water*into*the*sea,*2007
Employment-for-community-members-$BL&P
Seine*Boat*from*St.*James*took*all*the*fish*from*the*
reef,*2009
Smoke-and-pollution-from-BL&P-affectscommunity-
Construction*of*Four*Seasons*begins
BL&P*started*constructing*coastal*defences*
(boulders,*etc.)*
BL&P*spoke*about*relocating*Pile*Bay*residents
!!!"They!were!trying!to!own!everything!on!this!coast!!
But!that's!people's!livelihoods!right!there!"
Corals*turning*white
Hot-pot-water-killing-the-reef
"Fish-kill"
Not*many*fish
2010s
More*spearfishing,*2010
Right-side-of-line-$-Given-by-decade
Community
Tourism
Fisheries
Future
Overfishing;*people*are*fishing*everyday
Seaweed*coming*back
Fishing*as*an*occupation*is*dying
Fewer-fish
Would*like*to*see*more*watersports
!
Figure!5!Timeline!(Pre/1960s/Future)!produced!by!participants!at!the!Pile!Bay!community!meeting!18!May!2011;!events!identified!by!participants!as!having!
an!effect!on!the!relationship!between!people!and!reefs!indicated!in!bold!and!larger!text!size,!larger!text!size!indicates!the!event!was!identified!by!more!
participants.!
!
20!
!
!
1980s&
Fewer(sailboats(used,(rise(of(boats(
with(engines,(1940sQ1950s
Loss&of&beach&activities&for&
community,&1940s;1950s
Brain(drain'(Q(People(left(to(get(
better(jobs(abroad(1940s
World(wars(Q(Emigration(to(fight(
1950s
Pollution(from(the(cement(plant,(
1982(Q(present
Construction&of&US&Naval&base&1950s
Pre;1960s
Construction(of(the(first(fisher's(
shed,(1987
1960s
Barbados(Independence,(1966
1970s&
Movement&of&residences&from&
coast&to&inland&locations&due&to&
coastal&erosion,&1975
Loss(of(views(of(the(sea(from(
residences,(1970s(Q(1980s
Oil(crisis(affects(hotel(operations,(
1970s(Q(1980s
Construction(of(major(hotels(and(
guest(houses(on(the(coast,(1970s(Q(
present
Decay(of(fishing(reefs
Shoal(fish(population(decline
Sprat(and(fray(population(decline
Beach(loss(began(Q(land(extended(
100(ft(out(to(sea(from(present(
shoreline
Emigration(from(community(to(
take(fruit(harvesting(jobs(
elsewhere(on(the(island
Free(secondary(education(
Turtle(harvest(still(permitted
Pollution
Certain(fish(species(begin(to(
disappear,(e.g.(rock(hind
Major(villa(development(in(
Queen's(Street(
Younger(tourist(clientele
Almond(Beach(Hotel
More(houses,(less(land(for(
agriculture
Fishing(became(a(business(rather(
than(a(lifestyle
Many(fishers(from(other(
communities(operated(out(of(Six(
Mens
1990s&continued
Second(moratorium(on(sea(egg(
harvest,(1998
2000s
1990s
Construction&of&Port&St.&
Charles&;&widespread&
damage&to&reefs,&corals&
vanish,&1994
People(at(Heywoods(were(moved(inland
Lots(of(sea(eggs
Ban(of(fishing(around(the(marina,(
1995
Tourism(at(its(highest,(workers(
benefit
No(moss(for(eating(or(for(fish(pots( Construction&of&vendor&stalls,&2009
Reef(fish(population(decline
Turtle(tourism(in(Six(Men's(begins,(
2010
Smaller(fish
Fewer(snappers(in(pots
Sculpin((scorpionfish)(population(
decline
No(more(sea(eggs
Ban(on(sea(egg(harvest(
No(shooters((black(sea(urchins)(
Increase(in(the(number(of(jet(skis
Money(from(tourism(not(coming(
into(Barbados(or(benefitting(locals(
due(to(changes(in(tourism(
packages(and(increases(in(time(
Future
share(tourism
VAT(introduced
Construction&
of&Port&
Ferdinand,&
2010
NOTE:&Left&side&of&line&;&Given&by&date
Recruitment(of(teachers(and(nurses(
by(foreign(countries
Diversion(of(natural(waterways(by(
construction(of(marinas((Port(St.(
Charles,(Port(Ferdinand)
Construction(of(Port(St.(Charles
Less(space(for(hauling(up(of(boats
Loss(of(picnic,(recreation(spots(to(
marina(construction(
Pumping(sand(along(the(coast(by(
Port(St.(Charles
More(people
Trend(towards(exclusive(tourism(Q(
not(all(the(money(comes(to(
Barbados
Turtle(tourism
Further&Beach&Erosion&
Right&side&of&line&;&Given&by&decade
Community
Tourism
Fisheries
Figure!6!Timeline!(Pre/1960s/Future)!produced!by!participants!at!the!Six!Men’s!community!meeting!3!April!2011;!events!identified!by!participants!as!having!
an!effect!on!the!relationship!between!people!and!reefs!indicated!in!bold!and!larger!text!size,!larger!text!size!indicates!the!event!was!identified!by!more!
participants.!
!
!
21!
!
1980s&
Pre*1960s
Dynamite)fishing,)1940s370s
Lots&of&moss&and&sea&eggs,&1950s*60s
Canals)built)(pre)1960s)
Marine)Park,)1981
Deep)water)harbour)dredged,)195731961
1960s
Road)built)according)to)the)construction)plans)
for)Sandy)Lane)Hotel,)1959)3)early)1960s
Sandy)Lane)construction)completed,)1961
Less&moss,&less&sea&eggs
Tourism)started
Cobblers)disappeared
Cane&fields&converted&to&Sandy&Lane&golf&
course
Cricket)pitch)by)Discovery)Bay)swamp,)1968
More)fish,)1960s370s
1990s
Hurricane,)1991
Fisheries)booming)
Tourism)booming
Sea)used)to)come)into)the)road
Reefs)started)getting)bad
Upsurge&in&building&of&hotels
Silver)Beach)dancehall)
Majority)of)Holetown)residents)were)locals)
Expats)build)seaside)properties
Oil)crisis,)1974
2000s
Chefette)beach)access)closed
Turtles&lost&nesting&beaches&to&fencing,&
boulders&on&coast
Holetown)Festival)started,)1977
Holetown&Fish&Market&taken&down,&1978
Sandy&Lane&rebuilt
Shift)in)tourist)demographics)(more)German)
and)Canadian)tourists)
Run3off)from)farm)land)affects)the)reefs
Permission&to&catch&bait&within&
marine&park
1970s&
Boardwalk)built,)2009
Hotel)owners)claim)the)beaches
Conflict)between)expats)and)fishermen)over)
use)of)the)coast
Locals)could)play)cricket)on)the)beach.)Sea)
encroached)on)the)land,)made)beach)too)thin)
for)cricket
Sea&encroached&on&land
&&&
NOTE:&Left&side&of&line&*&Given&by&date
Regulations&on&jet&skis
Almond)Beach)Hotel)built)over)river,)causes)
flooding
Use)of)pesticides)and)other)chemicals)killing)
the)reef
More&groynes&constructed
Ice)boats)
Present
Economic)crash)3)worst)ever
Employment)for)locals)from)hotels)
Hotel)employees)don't)speak)against)hotels)
for)the)community's)interests
Hotel)occupancy)low
Problems)with)unregulated)vending,)jet)skis)
and)drug)trade)on)tourist)beaches
Unable&to&catch&bait&from&preferred&bay&
in&front&of&Sandy&Lane
Hotels)flush)pool)water)into)the)sea,)killing)the)
reefs
Every&year&fishers&give&info&to&university,&no&
one&uses&it!&No&changes&being&made!
Right&side&of&line&*&Given&by&decade
Community
Tourism
Fisheries
Future
Government&needs&to&limit&the&number&of&
all&inclusive&hotels
!
Figure! 7! Timeline! (Pre/1960s/Future)! produced! by! participants! at! the! Holetown! community! meeting! 25! May! 2011;! events! identified! by! participants! as!
having!an!effect!on!the!relationship!between!people!and!reefs!indicated!in!bold!and!larger!text!size,!larger!text!size!indicates!the!event!was!identified!by!
more!participants.!!
!
22!
!
!
5
REEF%HEALTH%
5.1
Perceived%drivers%of%reef%health%
Changes!to!the!health!of!reefs!can!be!caused!by!drivers!acting!directly!on!the!reef!(proximate!
drivers;! e.g.! coral! bleaching,! sedimentation,! algal! blooms)! or! drivers! which! may! be! physically!
removed!from!the!reef!(ultimate!drivers;!e.g.!coastal!development,!poverty,!poor!governance).!
Management!of!coral!reefs!typically!focuses!on!the!proximate!drivers,!those!that!act!directly!on!
the!reef.!However,!understanding!ultimate!drivers!is!key!to!improving!management.!
Perceptions! of! reef! health! and! causes! of! changes! in! reef! health! were! assessed! within! the!
governance!interviews!and!the!household!interviews.!Community!level!views!on!reef!health!can!
be!found!in!Section!5.2.!
To!assess!perceptions!about!drivers!of!reef!health,!two!questions!were!asked!in!the!governance!
interviews:!
1. What!do!you!think!are!the!most!important!impacts!to!reefs!in!your!area/country?!
2. What!are!the!causes!of!these!impacts?!
!
These!questions!elicited!combinations!of!factors!that!lead!to!proximate!stressors!on!the!reefs,!
for!example:!
!
Proximate%driver%!%reef%health!! !
Ultimate%driver%!%proximate%driver!!
e.g.!sediment!affects!the!reefs!
e.g.!poor!agricultural!practices!lead!to!
sedimentation!
e.g.!lack!of!awareness!leads!to!poor!
agricultural!practices!
Ultimate%driver%!%ultimate%driver!!
The!results!indicated!a!wide!range!of!proximate!and!ultimate!drivers!of!reef!health!identified!by!
interviewees.! Across! the! four! studied! countries,! a! total! of! 116! discrete! drivers! of! reef! health!
were!identified,!including!37!proximate!and!79!ultimate!(see!Tables!5!and!6!for!examples).!The!
116!drivers!of!reef!health!were!categorised!into!31!themes,!and!the!percentage!of!respondents!
mentioning!each!theme!was!calculated!(Tables!5!and!6).!
All!identified!links!between!drivers!and!between!drivers!and!coral!reefs!were!coded!to!reflect!
the!causal!chains!(including!those!mentioned!in!other!portions!of!interviews;!Figure!8).!Among!
the! 116! drivers,! a! total! of! 685! perceived! causal! links! were! identified! (each! link! being! one!
relationship!between!two!drivers).!!
!
!
23!
!
!“Sure!the!thing!is!that!you!might!make!a!report!but!you!may!not!get!anything!done!about!it!
because!again!it!comes!back!to!the!legislative!framework.!If!you!don't!have!the!framework!
then!what!can!I!enforce?!So!clearly!you!need!laws”!
!
Figure%8%Example%of%an%interviewee%response%and%how%it%was%coded%to%the%drivers%
!
!
The! most! commonly! mentioned! themes! in! Barbados! were! those! that! categorised! ultimate!
drivers,! with! over! 90%! of! respondents! mentioning! governance! process! (100%),! enforcement!
(93%),!governance!architecture!(93%),!and!prioritisation!(93%)!(see!Tables!5!and!6!for!details).!
Governance! and! management! issues! were! commonly! mentioned,! though! these! issues! were!
prompted!in!other!parts!of!the!interview!and!may!reflect!this!focus.!The!main!proximate!drivers!
identified! in! Barbados! were! pollution! (100%! of! respondents),! coral! bleaching! and! water!
temperature!(79%),!and!physical!damage!(71%).!
Three!drivers!were!identified!within!the!four!countries!studied!that!were!not!mentioned!by!any!
interviewees!in!Barbados:!coastal!habitat!destruction!(proximate),!indirect!fishing!impacts!such!
as!issues!related!to!fishing!effort!(ultimate),!and!funding!issues!(ultimate).!
!
!
!
24!
!
!
Table% 5% Proximate% driver% themes% with% a% description% of% the% drivers% within% each% theme% and% the% percentage% of%
respondents%that%mentioned%each%theme.%
PROXIMATE%DRIVERS!
Respondents!(n=14)!
Theme!
Description!of!drivers!included!in!theme!
mentioning!each!theme!(%)!
Acidification!
References!to!ocean!acidification!!
7!
Algae!
References!to!algae!growing!on,!or!covering!coral!reefs!
29!
Bleaching!&!water!
temperature!
Coral!bleaching,!including!descriptions!of!corals!turning!white,!and!references!
relating!to!increasing!water!temperature!
79!
Coastal!habitat!
destruction!
Drivers!relating!to!loss!of!mangrove,!wetland!and!seagrass!habitats,!and!
sandmining!
Coral!disease!
References!to!coral!disease,!including!specific!mention!of!a!disease!(e.g.!white!
band!disease)!!
21!
Fishing!impacts!
(direct)!
General!and!specific!issues!relating!to!unsustainable!fishing,!including!fishing!in!
protected!areas!or!out!of!season,!fishing!undersized,!mentions!of!bycatch,!
discarded!gear!and!fewer!herbivores!
43!
Invasive!species!
Specific!issues!relating!to!lionfish,!and!general!issues!relating!to!invasive!species!on!
reefs!
21!
Other!ecological!
changes!
A!broad!range!of!other!ecological!drivers!mentioned!infrequently,!including!fish!
migration,!red!tides,!fish!kills!and!Diadema!die_off!
14!
Physical!damage!
General!and!specific!issues!relating!to!physical!damage,!including!boat!and!anchor!
impacts,!extraction!of!corals,!and!diver!and!snorkeller!impact!
71!
Pollution!
General!and!specific!mention!of!pollution!issues,!including!chemical!and!organic!
waste,!rubbish!and!sewage,!oil!and!gasoline!and!sun!cream!
Sedimentation!&!
dredging!
References!to!sedimentation,!dredging!and!erosion!affecting!corals!
64!
Storms!&!natural!
disasters!
Drivers!relating!to!rough!seas!and!hurricanes,!earthquakes,!sea!level!rise!and!high!
tides,!as!well!as!general!mention!of!natural!disasters!
43!
0!
100!
!
!
!
!
%
25!
!
Table% 6% Ultimate% driver% themes% with% a% description% of% the% drivers% within% each% theme% and% the% percentage% of%
respondents%that%mentioned%each%theme.%
ULTIMATE%DRIVERS%
!
Respondents!(n=14)!
Theme%
Description!of!drivers!included!in!theme!
Agricultural!changes!
Range!of!drivers!relating!to!agricultural!impacts,!including!shrimp!farms,!changes!in!
agricultural!practices,!overgrazing!and!vegetation!removal!
50!
Climate!changes!
References!to!climate!change!and!global!warming,!carbon!emissions,!changes!in!
seasonality,!flooding,!and!El!Niño!and!La!Niña!events!
71!
Coastal!development!
&!changes!
General!issues!relating!to!poor!coastal!development,!as!well!as!drivers!relating!to!
quarrying,!removal!of!coastal!vegetation!and!poor!drainage!
79!
Enforcement!
Issues!of!lack!of!effective!enforcement,!non_compliance!with!rules!and!regulations,!
and!inadequate!penalties!for!infractions!
93!
Fishing!impacts!
(indirect)!
Indirect!impacts!relating!to!unsustainable!fishing,!including!increased!fishing!
pressure,!technological!changes!and!displacement!of!fishing!effort!
0!
Funding!issues!
Issues!such!as!dependence!on!donor!funding!for!reef!management,!and!changes!to!
funding!climate!influencing!management!
0!
Governance!
architecture!
Drivers!relating!to!structures!or!arrangements!in!place!for!reef!governance,!for!
example!institutional!arrangements,!legislation!and!policy!
Governance!process!
Drivers!relating!to!processes!and!principles!guiding!interactions!and!decision_
making,!for!example!leadership!and!engagement!!
Marine!transport!&!
industry!
Issues!relating!to!shipping!and!increases!in!boat!traffic,!and!factories!and!industrial!
sites!
29!
Management!
Drivers!relating!to!the!implementation!of!reef!management!measures,!for!example!
a!lack!of!marine!protected!areas,!seasonal!closures,!and!alternatives!for!resource_
users;!and!issues!relating!to!inadequate!sewage!treatment,!watershed!
management!and!rubbish!disposal!
79!
Management!
planning!
Drivers!relating!to!a!lack!of!specific!management!plans,!and!a!reliance!on!ad!hoc!
management!for!reefs!
21!
Markets!
Issues!relating!to!market!demand!for!coral!reef!resources!
7!
Non_local!impacts!
Reference!to!general!impacts!from!non_local!sources,!and!specific!issues!such!as!
pollution!!
7!
Prioritisation!
Drivers!highlighting!a!lack!of!prioritisation!or!differences!in!priorities!for!reef!
management,!and!differences!in!value!systems!affecting!decision_making!
93!
Resources!&!capacity!
Drivers!relating!to!either!a!lack!of,!or!an!ineffective!use!of,!resources!and!capacity!
for!management!of!reefs!
79!
Social!drivers!
Social!drivers!influencing!reef!management,!including!political!differences,!changes!
in!lifestyle!affecting!people’s!behaviour!and!the!dynamics!of!small!societies!
Socioeconomic!issues!
General!and!specific!mention!of!socioeconomic!issues,!relating!to!livelihood!
dependency!and!access!to!resources,!poverty,!education,!unemployment,!
population!increase!and!health!
57!
Tourism!
Drivers!relating!to!tourism,!including!snorkelling!and!diving!impacts,!issues!of!
irresponsible!tour!guiding,!cruise!ships,!and!the!curio!and!aquarium!trade!
57!
Tradition!&!culture!
Issues!relating!to!cultural!factors,!local!customs!and!traditions!impacting!reef!
health!and!management!
43!
!
26!
mentioning!each!theme!(%)!
93!
100!
7!
!
5.2
Household%perceptions%of%reefs%
Perceptions! of! coral! reefs! were! assessed! at! the! community! level! through! a! number! of! reef!
related!questions!in!the!household!interview.!!
5.2.1 Importance!of!coral!reefs!
The!majority!of!respondents!in!Barbados!believed!that!coral!reefs!are!important!(98%,!89%,!and!
97%! in! Pile! Bay,! Six! Men’s,! and! Holetown,! respectively).! The! remaining! interviewees! were!
unsure! whether! reefs! were! important! or! not.! Interviewees! were! asked! to! explain! why! reefs!
were! important,! and! responses! were! categorised! into! five! categories:! fishery! (e.g.! a! place! to!
fish,!a!source!of!food),!habitat!(e.g.!a!habitat!for!fish!or!other!species),!coastal!protection!(e.g.!
protection! from! waves! or! hurricanes),! tourism! (e.g.! recreational! activities! such! as! snorkelling!
and!diving),!and!cultural!(e.g.!to!do!with!traditions,!spiritual!uses)!(following!Hicks!et!al.!2013).!
When!asked!why!reefs!were!important,!the!majority!of!responses!related!to!providing!a!habitat!
for!marine!life,!followed!by!coastal!protection!and!fishery!and!tourism!services!(Figure!9).!
Households! consumed! seafood! an! average! of! approximately! two! times! per! week! (Table! 7).!
Consumption! was! higher! in! Six! Men’s! than! the! other! studied! communities.! The! majority! of!
interviewees!in!Pile!Bay!and!Six!Men’s!responded!that!they!ate!food!from!the!reefs!less!often!
than!they!did!10!years!before!(61%!and!62%!of!respondents,!respectively),!while!in!Holetown!
only! 47%! of! interviewees! believed! that! they! ate! food! from! the! reefs! less! frequently! than! in!
previous!years.!The!majority!of!respondents!believed!that!their!household!consumption!of!food!
from!the!reefs!would!be!either!the!same!or!less!often!in!the!future.%
70!
Pile!Bay!
%%of%respondents%
60!
Six!Men's!
50!
Holetown!
40!
30!
20!
10!
0!
Fishery!
Habitat!
Coastal!
Tourism!
Protecfon!
Ecosystem%services%
Cultural!
Figure% 9% Categorised% responses% from% household% interviewees% to% the% question% "Why% are% reefs% important?"%
(Number%of%responses:%Pile%Bay%n=44;%Six%Men’s,%n=73;%Holetown,%n=74)%
!
!
!
%
27!
!
Table%7%Household%interviewees’%responses%to%questions%about%frequency%of%seafood%consumption.%
Food%from%the%sea%
Pile!Bay!
Six!Men’s!
Responses!
(n=44)!
(n=73)!
How!often!do!you!eat!food!from!the!sea?!(times!per!week)!
Mean!(St.!Deviation)!
2.01!(2.47)! 2.86!(2.39)!
Holetown!
(n=74)!
2.05!(2.17)!
Do!you!eat!food!from!the!reef!more!or!less!often!than!10!years!ago?!(%)!
Same!
Less!
More!
Unsure!
Not!answered!
!
16!
61!
14!
0!
9!
!
11!
62!
18!
1!
8!
!
26!
47!
19!
1!
7!
Do!you!think!it!will!be!more!or!less!often!in!the!next!10!years?!(%)!
Same!
Less!
More!
Unsure!
Not!answered!
!
32!
34!
14!
5!
16!
!
27!
27!
12!
18!
15!
!
41!
23!
19!
4!
14!
5.2.2 Health!of!coral!reefs!
Interviewees! were! asked! to! describe! a! healthy! coral! reef;! responses! were! coded! into! themes!
representing!different!attributes!of!the!coral!reef!environment!(Figure!10).!The!abundance!of!
marine! life! (e.g.! fish,! lobster)! was! the! most! commonly! mentioned! attribute! across! the! three!
communities.!!
Two!scaled!questions!were!asked!to!assess!perceptions!of!reef!health!(Figure!11):!
1. “How!healthy!do!you!think!the!reefs!are!here?”!(response!options:!very!healthy,!
healthy,!unhealthy,!or!very!unhealthy)!
2. “In!terms!of!the!number!of!fish!on!the!reef,!do!you!think!there!are!very!many,!many,!
few,!or!very!few?”!
Less!than!44%!of!respondents!in!each!of!the!studied!communities!perceived!the!reef!as!healthy!
or!very!healthy.!Perceptions!of!reef!health!were!the!highest!in!Six!Men’s!and!the!lowest!in!Pile!
Bay! (44%! and! 25%! of! respondents! viewed! the! reef! as! healthy! or! very! healthy,! respectively).!
Perceptions! of! the! number! of! fish! on! the! reef! were! lower! than! reef! health! in! Six! Men’s! and!
Holetown,!though!slightly!higher!than!reef!health!in!Pile!Bay.!
!
!
28!
!
60!
Pile!Bay!
%%of%respondents%
50!
Six!Men's!
40!
Holetown!
30!
20!
10!
0!
Aeributes%of%a%healthy%reef%
!
Figure%10%Household%perceptions%of%attributes%of%a%healthy%reef.%Responses%were%to%the%question,%“If%you%think%of%
a%healthy%reef,%what%would%it%look%like?”%Responses%were%coded%into%one%or%more%themes%and%the%percentage%of%
respondents% mentioning% attributes% in% a% given% theme% presented% from% each% community.% (Number% of% responses:%
Pile%Bay%n=44;%Six%Men’s,%n=73;%Holetown,%n=74)%
%
%
Holetown! Six!Men's!
Pile!Bay!
!
Reef!health!
Number!of!fish!
Reef!health!
Number!of!fish!
Reef!health!
Number!of!fish!
0%!
Very!healthy/very!many!
20%!
Healthy/Many!
40%!
In_between!
60%!
Unhealthy/Few!
80%!
100%!
Very!unhealthy/Very!few!
!
Figure%11%Household%interviewees’%responses%to%the%questions%“How%healthy%is%the%reef?”%and%“How%many%fish%
are%on%the%reef?”%(unsure%and%unanswered%responses%removed)%
!
!
29!
!
5.2.3 Reef!change!
In! response! to! questions! about! changes! observed! in! coral! reefs! over! the! past! ten! years,! the!
majority!of!respondents!described!negative!changes!they!had!seen!in!reef!fish,!while!only!about!
one!third!of!respondents!from!each!community!had!experienced!negative!changes!in!the!coral!
(Table! 7).! A! very! small! number! of! respondents! (less! than! 5%)! perceived! positive! changes! in!
either!coral!or!reef!fish!over!the!previous!10!years.!The!majority!of!respondents!(over!59%!in!
each! community)! believed! that! there! would! be! changes! in! the! future! that! would! affect! the!
health!of!the!reefs.!A!larger!majority!of!respondents!(64%)!in!Holetown!and!Pile!Bay!believed!
that!climate!change!would!affect!the!reefs!in!the!future,!while!52%!of!respondents!in!Six!Men’s!
believed!that!climate!change!would!affect!the!reefs.!!
Table%8%Perceptions%of%reef%change%
!
Questions%about%changes%in%the%reefs%
Responses!
Perceived!changes!in!the!reefs!over!the!past!10!years!
+!Positive!changes!in!coral!
_!Negative!changes!in!coral!
%!of!household!interviewees!
Pile!Bay!Six!Men’s!Holetown!
(n=44)! (n=73)! (n=74)!
+!Positive!changes!in!reef!fish!
_!Negative!changes!in!reef!fish!
2!
30!
3!
32!
1!
38!
2!
52!
3!
55!
5!
46!
Do!you!think!there!will!be!any!changes!in!the!future!that!could!affect!the!reefs!
here?!
Yes%
No%
Unsure%
Not!answered%
!
!
!
59!
7!
16!
18!
60!
3!
25!
12!
59!
1!
22!
18!
Do!you!think!climate!change!will!affect!the!reefs!here?!
Yes!
No!
Unsure!
Not!answered!
!
64!
2!
20!
14!
!
52!
10!
14!
25!
!
64!
11!
22!
4!
!
6
6.1
GOVERNANCE%OF%REEFS%
Policy%analysis%
A! policy! cycle! review! exercise! was! conducted! with! participants! during! the! first! national!
consultation! meeting.! This! activity! was! designed! to! explore! the! groups! and! organisations!
involved!in!reef!management!and!governance!in!Barbados.!Participants!identified!government,!
non_government! and! private! sector! stakeholder! groups! involved! in! formal! and! informal!
governance!structures!that!exist!to!support!livelihoods!and!govern!natural!resource!use.!Each!
of!these!groups!was!then!mapped!onto!the!stage!in!the!policy!cycle!where!they!were!involved!
!
30!
!
(Figure! 12).! Table! 9! gives! a! summary! of! the! number! of! different! organisations! that! were!
identified!in!the!policy!cycle.!
This! exercise! highlighted! that! stakeholder! involvement! was! present! in! the! ‘data! and!
information!stage’!of!the!policy!cycle,!however!the!information!was!not!being!used!by!decision!
makers.!Participants!noted!that!the!decision_making!authority!is!highly!centralised!and!mainly!
resides!in!the!Prime!Minister’s!office.!It!was!also!noted!that!tourism!and!coastal!development!
are! well! represented! as! decision! makers,! and! that! the! Fisheries! Division! has! less! influence.! It!
was! questioned! as! to! whether! airlines,! cruise! ships! and! international! funders! should! be!
included! as! stakeholders! whose! decisions! and! actions! influence! reefs,! but! it! was! agreed! that!
their!involvement!is!indirect!and!therefore!on!the!periphery!of!the!policy!cycle.!In!conclusion,!
the!group!felt!that!the!results!of!the!exercise!provide!an!inventory!but!not!a!complete!picture.!!
!
Fisheries:(FAC,(CERMES,(BARNUFO,(Fisheries(Division,(CRFM(
Tourism:(BHTA,(TDC,(TCPO,(CZMU(
Environmental:(CZMU(
Coastal(Development:(CZMU,(EPD,(NHD,(Biodiversity(Working(
Group,(Barbados(Sea(Turtle(Project,(FAC(
Community(Development:(Bellairs(Research(Ins?tute,(Ministry(of(
Community(Development,(Ministry(of(Social(Transforma?on
Fisheries:(Reef(fishers,(
BARNUFO,(Markets(Division,(
Fisheries(Division,(GIS,(CERMES(
Tourism:(Fisheries(Division,(
Bureau(of(Sta?s?cs,(BHTA(
members,(CTO,(BTA,(Immigra?on(
Environmental:(CZMU,(Barbados(
Sea(Turtle(Project,(Ministry(of(
Environment,(NHD,(MET(Office,(
CERMES(
Coastal(Development:(CERMES,(
EPD,(BHTA,(EIA(companies,(BTA,(
Lands(and(Surveys(Dept.,(u?lity(
providers((public(&(private),(
TCPO,(Drainage(Unit,(Barbados(
Port(Inc.,(Fisheries(Division,(CTO,(
CZMU(
Community(Development:(Bellairs(
Research(Ins?tute
Fisheries:(Cabinet,(Fisheries(Division,(Judiciary(
Tourism:(CZMU;(Ministries(of(Interna?onal(Transport,(Finance,(
Environment(and(Tourism;(TCPO(
Environmental:(Prime(Minister’s(Office,(Ministry(of(Environment,(
EPD(
Coastal(Development:(CZMU,(TCPO,(Ministry(of(Planning,(EPD(
Community(Development:(None(listed
ANALYSIS(
AND(ADVICE
DECISION(
MAKING
DATA(&(
INFORMATION
IMPLEMENTATION
REVIEW(&(
EVALUATION
!
Fisheries:(FAC,(Fisheries(Division,(CERMES(
Tourism:(CZMU,(BTA,(BHTA(via(TDC,(TCPO(
Environmental:(None(listed(
Coastal(Development:(TCPO,(CZMU,(consultants(
Community(Development:(Prime(Minister’s(
Office,(CZMU,(funders((i.e.(CDB(and(IADB)
Fisheries:(Coast(Guard,(
Folkestone(Marine(Rangers,(Marine(
Police,(CERMES(
(educational),Fisheries(Division,(
Judiciary,(RBPF((police),(fisher/citizen(
informants((
Tourism:(BTII,(BTA(Marketing,(BHTA(
members,(NGOs,(Ministry(of(Finance,(
TDC(via(private(sector,(Community(
Development(
Environmental:(NCC,(Barbados(Sea(
Turtle(Project,(Barbados(Marine(
Trust,(NHD,(CZMU,(EPD(
Coastal(Development:(Developers,(
TCPO,(Int.(Transport,(Barbados(Port(
Authority,(Drainage(Unit,(PADO,(GIS(
Community(Development:(Parish(
Independence(Committee,(Ministry(
of(Education,(Barbados(Marine(Trust,(
Barbados(Police,(schools(
!
Figure%12%Organisations%and%groups%involved%in%each%stage%of%the%policy%cycle,%as%identified%by%participants%at%the%
national%consultation,%15%March%2011%
!
!
!
!
%
31!
!
Table%9%Summary%of%number%of%organisations%identified%as%involved%in%the%policy%cycle%
%
Organisations%involved%with%reefs
National!govt.!ministries/departments/institutes!!
Local!govt.!departments/divisions/institutes!
National!organisations!
Local!organisations!
Regional!organisations!
Non_governmental!organisations!
Educational/university!institutions!
Private!interest/industry!groups!!
6.2
Count!
32!
0!
10!
0!
4!
4!
2!
6!
Household%perceptions%of%reef%governance%
As! part! of! the! household! survey,! respondents’! perceptions! of! coral! reef! governance! were!
measured! using! questions! designed! to! reflect! established! principles! of! good! governance! for!
natural!resources!(Graham!et!al.!2003;!Lockwood!et!al.!2010).!Respondents!were!given!a!series!
of! statements! and! asked! whether! they! agreed! or! disagreed.! Responses! illustrate! the!
communities’!perceptions!about!local!coral!reef!governance!(Figure!13).!!
Interviewees!were!subsequently!asked!who!they!thought!was!responsible!for!coral!reefs.!The!
most!common!responses!were!government!agencies!and!the!community!(Table!10).!However,!
when!asked!who!they!received!information!from!about!reefs!only!7_14%!of!respondents!in!each!
of! the! communities! reported! receiving! information! from! government! (either! directly! from! a!
government! agency,! meetings! held! by! government! officials,! or! through! government! sources!
such!as!posters!or!government!websites).!
Table%10%Household%interviewees’%sources%of%reefhrelated%information%%
!
!
Who!do!you!think!is!responsible!for!the!reefs?!
Government!departments!
Marine!park!managers!
NGO!
Scientists/researchers!
Resource!users!
Everybody/community!
God/nature!
Nobody!
Unsure!
!
Who!do!you!receive!information!from!about!coral!reefs?!
Government!sources!
Organisations!
Resource!users!or!resource!user!associations!
Self!
None!
!
32!
%!of!household!interviewees!!
Pile!Bay!
Six!Men’s!
Holetown!
(n=44)!
(n=73)!
(n=74)!
!
!
!
36!
34!
41!
7!
8!
9!
0!
0!
1!
2!
11!
18!
18!
10!
15!
20!
38!
34!
2!
0!
3!
0!
3!
1!
23!
12!
14!
!
!
!
!
!
!
7!
14!
14!
9!
5!
7!
9!
8!
3!
25!
10!
19!
20!
12!
23!
!
Pile$Bay$
Six$Men’s$
Holetown$
I%understand%who%is%in%charge%of%the%reefs%
I%understand%who%is%in%charge%of%the%reefs%
I%understand%who%is%in%charge%of%the%reefs%
When%people%in%charge%make%decisions,%informa4on%is%
provided%to%the%community%
When%people%in%charge%make%decisions,%informa4on%is%
provided%to%the%community%
When%people%in%charge%make%decisions,%informa4on%is%
provided%to%the%community%
The%people%that%look%a:er%coral%reefs%in%this%area%do%a%
good%job%
The%people%that%look%a:er%coral%reefs%in%this%area%do%a%
good%job%
The%people%that%look%a:er%coral%reefs%in%this%area%do%a%
good%job%
There%are%ways%you%can%challenge%rules%made%about%
reefs%
There%are%ways%you%can%challenge%rules%made%about%
reefs%
There%are%ways%you%can%challenge%rules%made%about%
reefs%
I%have%an%opportunity%to%par4cipate%in%decisions%made%
about%reefs%
I%have%an%opportunity%to%par4cipate%in%decisions%made%
about%reefs%
I%have%an%opportunity%to%par4cipate%in%decisions%made%
about%reefs%
Rules%that%affect%how%people%use%the%reef%are%enforced%
fairly%
Rules%that%affect%how%people%use%the%reef%are%enforced%
fairly%
Rules%that%affect%how%people%use%the%reef%are%enforced%
fairly%
Different%groups%(e.g.%fishers,%tourism%operators,%
government)%that%have%an%interest%in%coral%reefs%work%
well%together%
Different%groups%(e.g.%fishers,%tourism%operators,%
government)%that%have%an%interest%in%coral%reefs%work%
well%together%
Different%groups%(e.g.%fishers,%tourism%operators,%
government)%that%have%an%interest%in%coral%reefs%work%
well%together%
The%people%in%charge%of%reefs%have%enough%resources,%
training%and%knowledge%
The%people%in%charge%of%reefs%have%enough%resources,%
training%and%knowledge%
The%people%in%charge%of%reefs%have%enough%resources,%
training%and%knowledge%
The%people%in%charge%of%reefs%have%plans%in%place%to%
respond%to%emergencies%or%future%changes%
The%people%in%charge%of%reefs%have%plans%in%place%to%
respond%to%emergencies%or%future%changes%
The%people%in%charge%of%reefs%have%plans%in%place%to%
respond%to%emergencies%or%future%changes%
0%%
0%%
0%%
50%%
100%%
50%%
100%%
Agree$
KEY$
Some,mes$
50%%
100%%
Disagree$
Figure'13'Household'interviewees’'perceptions'of'good'governance'(unsure'and'missing'responses'removed)'
!
33!
!
7
SOCIAL(NETWORK(ANALYSIS(
A!wide!range!of!actors,!both!public!and!private,!are!involved!in!the!use!and!governance!of!coral!
reefs.!These!actors!range!from!those!who!depend!on!the!reefs!for!their!livelihoods,!to!the!local!
organisations!who!manage!the!reefs,!to!government!agencies!involved!in!policy!and!legislation!
development.! The! relationships! between! the! actors! involved! in! governance! can! contribute! to!
the!failure!or!success!of!governance!and!management!outcomes.!Social!network!analysis!(SNA)!
provides!a!quantitative!way!to!study!these!relationships.!
In! SNA,! data! are! collected! on! relationships! between! individuals! and/or! organisations.! Some!
examples! of! these! relationships! include:! family! ties,! exchange! of! resources! such! as! money! or!
information,!assistance!given!or!received,!membership!of!similar!groups!and!shared!attitudes!or!
beliefs.!Actors!(individuals!or!organisations)!are!called!nodes!and!relationships!are!called!ties.!!
Social! network! analysis! was! conducted! on! reefGrelated! informationGsharing! relationships! in!
Barbados!to!better!understand!the!relationships!involved!in!coral!reef!governance.!
Two!questions!were!used!to!describe!the!informationGsharing!relationships:!
1. In!the!past!year,!who!have!you![your!organisation]!received!information!from!about!reef!
or!marine!resources!and!their!use?!!
2. In!the!past!year,!who!has!received!information!from!you![your!organisation]!about!reef!
or!marine!resources!and!their!use?!
Figure! 14! presents! the! informationGsharing! networks! for! Barbados.! Nodes! (circles)! represent!
individual!actors,!either!a!government!agency,!organisation!or!institution,!association,!or!group!
of!resource!users.!Resource!user!nodes!represent!individuals!conducting!different!types!of!reef!
resource! use! such! as! reef! fishers,! SCUBA! shops,! glass! bottom! boats.! InformationGsharing!
relationships!are!represented!by!ties!(lines)!between!the!nodes.!The!network!diagram!shows!no!
distinct!subgroups.!
Further! information! on! the! structure! of! the! network! is! presented! in! Table! 11.! Density! of! a!
network! is! a! common! measure! used! in! SNA;! it! represents! the! number! of! total! ties! in! the!
network!divided!by!the!total!number!of!possible!ties,!such!that!a!network!with!all!possible!ties!
realised! would! have! a! density! of! 1.! Density! is! associated! with! overall! information! flow! and!
higher! densities! can! promote! knowledge! development,! exchange! of! ideas! and! resources,! and!
build! trust.! However,! very! high! densities! can! have! potential! negative! benefits! such! as! a!
reduction! of! new! information! and! innovation! and! reduced! capacity! to! adapt! to! changes.!
Density! in! this! network! was! relatively! low! at! 0.16.! Fewer! than! 44%! of! the! information!
relationships! in! this! network! were! perceived! to! be! twoGway! (information! both! given! and!
received).!
!
!
!
34!
!
Figure(14(Reef9related(information9sharing(networks(in(Barbados.(Each(node(represents(a(different(actor.(Node(
colour( represents( actor( type:( black( =( government,( grey( =( NGO( and( educational( institutions,( white( =( resource(
user(groups.(Node(size(represents(degree(centrality;(larger(nodes(are(more(central.(Lines((ties)(between(nodes(
represent(information(sharing(between(the(actors(in(at(least(one(direction.(
!
The!reefGrelated!informationGsharing!network!for!Barbados!was!not!highly!centralised!(where!a!
single!actor!holds!most!of!the!ties)!and!several!actors!held!central!positions.!The!most!central!
nodes! (those! with! the! most! ties)! were! primarily! government! departments,! along! with! reef!
managers! and! the! university.! The! most! highly! connected! nodes! were! receiving! information!
from!40G57%!of!nodes!in!the!network!and!sharing!information!with!30G47%!of!nodes.!
Brokers! connecting! resource! users! to! decisionGmaking! bodies! are! thought! to! be! critical! in!
adaptive!management.!Their!position!allows!them!to!hold!information!from!a!range!of!sources,!
respond!early!to!threats!and!changes,!and!see!new!opportunities!(Berkes!2009).!In!Barbados,!
the!same!actors!that!were!in!the!most!central!positions!are!also!those!that!hold!key!positions!
brokering!reefGrelated!information!to!or!from!resource!users.!A!single!government!agency,!the!
department!responsible!for!fisheries,!held!this!position!in!all!three!communities.!The!local!MPA!
manager!in!Holetown!was!in!a!key!position!to!broker!information!to!and!from!resource!users!in!
that!community.!The!University!was!in!a!position!to!broker!information!from!resource!users!to!
other!actors!in!the!network.!Tourism!resource!users!held!important!positions!to!broker!either!
to!or!from!resource!users!in!Pile!Bay!and!Holetown.!
!
!
35!
!
Table(11(Network(analysis(on(information9sharing(networks(
Network(measurements!
Value!
Network!size!–!number!of!nodes!
30!
Data!completeness!(%!of!nodes!with!interview!data)!
87!
Network!density!(number!ties/number!total!possible!ties)!
0.16!
Average!degree!(average!number!of!relationship!ties!per!node)!
4.7!
Reciprocity!(%!of!relationships!that!were!perceived!to!have!twoGway!information!sharing)!
43.9!
Network!centralisation:!information!sources*!
0.45!
Network!centralisation:!information!recipients*!!
0.38!
Average!distance!(average!number!of!ties!between!any!two!nodes!in!the!network)!
2.09!
*A!network!centralisation!of!1!would!indicate!that!a!single!node!is!connected!to!all!other!nodes!in!the!network,!but!
none!of!the!other!nodes!are!connected!to!each!other!(e.g.!star!shape).!
!
8
8.1
ECONOMIC(VALUATION(OF(REEF(FISH(
Overview(
The!three!study!communities!appear!to!receive!considerable!income!and!employment!benefits!
from! reef! associated! fishing! and! dive! tourism.! Using! an! average! of! the! three! sites,! Table! 12!
shows!the!estimated!average!annual!net!income!and!employment!figures!from!all!commercial!
fishing!and!dive!tourism!activities!per!site!at!the!time!of!the!study.!
Table( 12( Average( annual( net( revenue( and( employment( for( reef( fishing( and( diving( in( the( three( communities.(
Revenue(values(are(in(US(Purchasing(Power(Parity((PPP)(dollars.(
Average(across(communities(
Parameter(
Fishing+
Diving+
Average!annual!net!revenue!(US$PPP)!
97,407!
569,565!
Average!number!fishing!boats!(approx.)!/dive!operations!
15.3!
2.3!
Average!number!fishers/employees!
30!
9!
!
8.2
Commercial(fishing(
A!total!of!79!reef!fishers!were!interviewed!across!the!three!studied!communities,!representing!
over! 75%! of! all! reef! fishers! identified.! Most! of! these! fishers! fished! commercially! and! fishing!
areas! were! spread! around! the! communities! (Figure! 15).! Catch! rates! (kg/trip)! for! commercial!
fishers!were!much!higher!on!average!in!Pile!Bay!and!Six!Men’s!than!in!Holetown.!Demersal!reef!
fish!were!targeted!by!practically!all!fishers!using!a!variety!of!gear!types!(e.g.!traps,!nets,!spear,!
line).!Fishers!who!targeted!reef!pelagics!(e.g.!jacks)!enjoyed!the!highest!catch!rates!(Figure!16)!
but!carried!out!the!fewest!trips!per!year!(net!fishers:!average!of!34.5!trips!per!year).!In!all!the!
study!sites,!these!species!were!primarily!sold!at!low!prices!to!community!members!and!likely!
represent!an!important!food!source!for!people!in!these!coastal!communities.!!
More!detailed!information!on!reef!fisheries!in!Barbados!can!be!found!in!Maraj!et!al.!(2011);!Gill!
(2014);!Simpson!et!al.!(in!press).!
!
36!
!
Figure'15'Approximate'fishing'areas'utilised'by'commercial'reef'fishers'in'Six'Men’s'(a),'Holetown'(b)'and'Pile'
Bay'(c),'Barbados'as'indicated'by'interviewed'fishers'at'the'study'sites.'
!
Average'catch'per'trip'
(kg)'
120!
Pile!Bay!
100!
Six!Men's!
80!
60!
40!
20!
0!
Demersal!reef!
Reef!pelagics!
Conch!
Species'group'
Lobster!
Other!
!
Figure' 16' Trimmed' mean' (extreme' upper' and' lower' 10%' of' data' removed)' and' standard' error' of' catch' rates'
(kg/trip)'as'given'by'interviewed'reef'fishers,'shown'by'main'species'groups'and'averaged'across'all'commercial'
fishers'interviewed'in'each'site'in'Barbados.'Note:'as'there'were'a'few'cases'where'fishers'reported'aggregated'
trip'yields'for'multiple'species'groups,'a'small'proportion'of'the'landings'values'are'not'mutually'exclusive.'The'
category'“Other”'refers'to'mollusc'species'(namely'octopus).'
!
'
!
37!
!
8.2.1 Profitability!
Figure!17!shows!the!estimated!annual!profit!per!fisher!for!the!study!sites!in!Barbados.!Using!the!
individual!net!income!values!(Figure!17)!and!estimates!of!the!number!of!boats!and!shore!fishers!
at! each! site,! the! estimated! aggregate! annual! net! revenues! from! reefPassociated! fishing! are!
shown!in!Figure!18.!
Holetown!(T)!
Six!Men's!(M)!
Pile!Bay!(F)!
0!
1,000!
2,000!
3,000!
4,000!
Average'annual'fisher'profit'(US$'PPP)''
Figure'17'Mean'annual'profit'per'commercial'fisher'and'standard'error.'Site'categories:'F:'fishing'site;'M:'mixed'
tourism/fishing'site;'T:'tourism'site.'Values'are'in'US'Purchasing'Power'Parity'(PPP)'dollars.'
!
Holetown!(T)!
Six!Men's!(M)!
Pile!Bay!(F)!
0!
20!
40!
60!
80!
100!
120!
140!
160!
Average'annual'income'by'site'(US$'PPP'thousands)''
Figure'18'Estimated'average'annual'net'revenues'(fishery'income'per'site;'US$'PPP'thousands)'generated'from'
commercial'reef'fishing'by'all'fishers'in'each'of'the'three'study'sites.'Site'categories:'F:' fishing'site;'M:'mixed'
tourism/fishing'site;'T:'tourism'site.'Values'are'in'US'Purchasing'Power'Parity'(PPP)'dollars.'
Statistical! analyses! identified! the! factors! underlying! differences! in! fishing! revenues! between!
and! within! the! sites! in! the! three! countries! where! economic! research! was! conducted:! St! Kitts!
and!Nevis,!the!Bay!Islands!(Honduras)!and!Barbados.!Factors!that!were!associated!with!higher!
income! from! reef! fisheries! included:! fisher! role! (boat! owners! and! shore! fishers! earn! higher!
revenues! than! crew! members);! greater! fishing! experience;! and! low! occupational! diversity.!
!
38!
!
Further,! those! who! fish! with! a! large! crew,! target! lobster,! use! SCUBA,! use! multiple! gear! types!
and! spend! more! on! fuel! (proxy! for! distance! to! fishing! sites)! earned! more! income! from! reef!
fishing.!The!models!indicated!that!sitePlevel!factors!were!associated!with!higher!earnings!from!
reef! fishing.! For! example,! sites! where! fishers! have! access! to! an! export! market! earned! more!
income!from!reef!fishing!than!their!counterparts!in!other!sites,!especially!those!in!sites!adjacent!
to!a!marine!protected!area!(MPA).!
In!Barbados,!Pile!Bay!boat!owners!appear!to!be!generating!the!most!income!annually!from!reef!
fishing! (compared! to! other! fishing! roles)! due! to! the! profitability! of! the! net! and! SCUBA! diving!
fisheries.!Higher!profits!by!boat!owners!in!Barbados!indicate!that!the!existing!share!system!(i.e.!
the!system!used!to!split!profits!between!the!boat,!owner,!and!crew)!serves!to!ensure!that!an!
investment! in! boat! ownership! is! justified.! Shore! fishers! experience! very! high! profit! margins!
(86%)!as!the!low!cost!of!fishing!minimally!affects!their!gross!revenues.!Reef!fishing!income!was!
lowest! in! Holetown! and! this! is! likely! due! to! the! presence! of! the! MPA! restricting! reef! fishing!
activity!and!fishers!being!involved!in!offshore!pelagic!fishing.!!
8.3
Dive'tourism'
Business! owners! and! managers! from! seven! of! the! eight! established! dive! shops! in! Barbados!
were!interviewed!during!the!study!period.!Using!only!the!expenses!given!by!the!dive!operators,!
the!estimated!annual!net!revenue!was!in!total,!US$966,243!for!the!three!sites.!Based!on!two!
estimates!of!profit!using!different!methodologies,!the!total!value!of!SCUBA!diving!at!these!sites!
could! lie! between! US$966,243! and! US$1,169,285! per! year.! Spatial! data! on! the! frequency! of!
visits!to!reefs!surrounding!the!communities!show!the!approximate!spatial!variation!in!economic!
rents!based!on!area!usage!(Figure!19).!
8.4
Responses'to'future'change'
8.4.1 Fishers’!responses!to!hypothetical!changes!in!reef!fish!populations!
In!response!to!hypothetical!changes!in!the!size!and!quantity!of!fish!in!their!catch!(Figure!20),!
many!fishers!stated!that!they!would!not!change!their!fishing!effort.!With!25%!declines!in!fish!
sizes! and! abundance,! more! fishers! suggested! that! they! would! fish! less! rather! than! fish! more.!
With!drastic!declines!in!catch,!a!number!of!fishers!from!all!three!communities!stated!that!they!
would! stop! fishing! altogether.! Based! on! the! stated! number! of! fishers! exiting! the! fishery! and!
losses!from!lower!catch!rates,!with!drastic!declines!in!the!numbers!of!fish!in!catch,!all!else!being!
equal,! total! expected! annual! losses! for! all! Barbados! study! sites! totalled! to! just! under! US$0.2!
million!(PPP!dollars).!!
Although!there!were!varying!anticipated!responses!to!improvements!in!catch,!the!majority!of!
fishers! indicated! that! they! would! either! fish! the! same! or! increase! effort.! These! findings! have!
potential! implications! for! coral! reef! fisheries! management.! For! example,! if! a! successful! MPA!
were!to!increase!fish!biomass!outside!of!its!borders,!or!if!stocks!were!to!improve!after!a!closed!
season,!these!effects!may!quickly!be!offset!by!increased!fishing!pressure.!
!
39!
!
Figure(19(Map(showing(the(location(of(dive(shops(using(the(reefs(surrounding(the(three(studied(communities,(
the(location(of(dive(sites,(and(the(estimated(annual(economic(rents(accruing(to(all(interviewed(dive(operators(in(
Barbados,(based(on(the(number(of(annual(trips(to(the(outlined(reef(areas(surrounding(the(study(sites.(
(
!
!
40!
!
25%$More$
25%$Larger$
100%#
100%#
80%#
80%#
60%#
60%#
40%#
40%#
20%#
20%#
0%#
0%#
Pile#Bay#(n=13)# Six#Men's#(n=19)# Holetown#(n=8)#
Pile#Bay#(n=14)# Six#Men's#(n=19)# Holetown#(n=8)#
25%$Fewer$
25%$Smaller$
100%#
100%#
80%#
80%#
60%#
60%#
40%#
40%#
20%#
20%#
0%#
0%#
Pile#Bay#(n=14)# Six#Men's#(n=19)#Holetown#(n=10)#
Pile#Bay#(n=14)# Six#Men's#(n=18)# Holetown#(n=8)#
50%$Fewer$
50%$Smaller$
100%#
100%#
80%#
80%#
60%#
60%#
40%#
40%#
20%#
20%#
0%#
0%#
Pile#Bay#(n=14)# Six#Men's#(n=19)# Holetown#(n=7)#
KEY$
Move#loca5on#
Fish#More#
Pile#Bay#(n=13)# Six#Men's#(n=18)# Holetown#(n=9)#
No#change#
Fish#less#
Stop#fishing#
Figure(20(Hypothetical(responses(of(reef(fishers(interviewed(in(Barbados(to(scenarios(relating(to(changes(in(the(
100%#
abundance(and(size(of(fish(in(their(catch(five(years(in(the(future.(
80%#
60%#
40%#
41!
Six#
0%#
Hole
20%#
Pile#
!
!
8.4.2 Tourist!divers’!responses!to!hypothetical!changes!in!reef!fish!populations!
Data!were!collected!with!tourist!SCUBA!divers!at!the!study!sites!on!their!willingness!to!pay!for!
dive! trip! attributes! relevant! to! reef! fish! and! encountering! fishing! activity.! The! results! suggest!
that!considerable!economic!gains!are!possible!with!improvements!in!the!abundance!of!fish,!the!
number! of! large! fish! and! for! no! encounters! with! fishing/fishing! gear.! In! Barbados,! divers!
indicated! that! they! would! pay! above! current! dive! prices! for! improvements! in! the! size! and!
quantity!of!fish!(estimated!aggregate!values!for!all!study!sites:!US$1.1G2.1!million)!as!well!as!pay!
to! avoid! encountering! fishing/fishing! gear! (estimated! aggregate! values:! US$1.5G1.8! million).!
Divers!were!willing!to!pay!US$1.2G2.1!million!(total!for!all!three!study!sites)!less!for!dives!if!fish!
populations! were! to! decline! to! very! low! numbers! (e.g.! 66%! decline! in! fish! abundance)! from!
current!conditions.!!
9
SUMMARY(
The! purpose! of! this! document! was! to! share! findings! of! governance! and! livelihoods! research!
conducted! as! part! of! the! FORCE! project.! The! FORCE! project! aims! to! contribute! to! the!
understanding! of! coral! reefs! and! the! communities! that! depend! on! them.! In! addition,! the!
project! sought! to! broaden! the! understanding! of! coral! reef! governance! and! the! governance!
constraints! on! effective! management! of! the! reefs.! It! is! a! primary! objective! of! the! project! to!
disseminate!the!findings!of!the!research!to!those!in!the!region.!As!such,!this!report!provides!a!
detailed!summary!of!governance!and!livelihoods!findings!at!a!community!and!national!level.!A!
FORCE!handbook,!available!on!the!FORCE!website,!provides!a!collection!of!brief!summaries!of!
all! FORCE! project! research! together! with! possible! implications! and! recommendations! for!
management!of!Caribbean!coral!reefs.!
Further! information! and! reports! can! be! found! at! http://cermes.cavehill.uwi.edu,!
http://www.imm.uk.com!and!http://www.forceGproject.eu/.!
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