Between cooperation and competition : the benefits of collective
strategies within business ecosystems. The example of the
software industry
!"#$
%
%
%
"
!
#
%&
$
!
!
&'&&()!!*&"+ ,
!(+(-)!.*&,,
!($
&/&(&0,#!0)!1
1&),2&#"+ &3,&#
', ,(/ #,(&##&)!#4#&.#5 &&6+.*1&!0 &#!0'+"&,(- #"4
/#"+)
($
!)
,!
) +
- *.
$ +
$)
$
.
! +
2
&
+
!-
+
!$
+
$ 3
+
0
&.
!%
$ 0 $
+
3.
$
!! / -
.
+
&
- $
!)
!
! +&
.
$
+
!
!
+425 ($
!)
&
&
'
. $
.
+
!
$
$
)
,
$
&. +
! !
$
+$
&
.
($ )&.
$
+ +. )
!
$
$ 1 +
+
+
& !+
($
*+
)
!
. *&
& .
)
.
$
+
+ $
&
& !
!
$
&
!)
&
-
$ +!!
$
!
.- -
+&
+&
!
$
&'&&( )!!*&"+ ,!( +(- )!.*&,,!( $
&/&(&0,#!0)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#', ,
(
/ #,(&##&)!#4#&.#5 &&6+.*1&!0 &#!0'+"&,(- #"4
($
!6
&7 82
.
+
!
8
+
$
& -$
$
)
$ !
+
$
*
+
+$
!
3
($
!
- $
- $
- *
+ )& 2
$
3& !
+
&
$
+ + 82
&. 9:=;.
!
+/
!
&
- *$
- $
8>
!* &
!
) $
!
+
9: ;
< &+
+ &
+
- $
.
+
) $+
- *
)
!!
&
)
&
)
&
$ $ )
!@
+
+
+
$
;
+
&
. 9:?; ( + &1
+) -
.
&+
-$
>&
$ &+
+
$
)
.
$
8 9: ;. $ -
&
.
.
&," &!"4
-,##!),+ &# &2+",! #)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#0"!. &+) ! &"+(- -!&#(! # 00,),&( 14 +7&
,( ! +))! (
& 31!/+1-4(+.,)# !0+11 & "&1+ ,!(# ,*# + )!.*+(4 +# ,( &".# !0
"&#! ")&#+(- )!.*&&(),&#
-
2
&
+
$
& $ "&01&),!( ,( &".# !0 / #,(&## &)!#4#&. 8
+
)
8!
!
+!
+
+!
!$
+ )&
!
;. .
$
99 A 99?; .+7&# ,
*!##,/1& ! /"&+ & 1,0& +(- .!2&.&( ,( ! (-&"#+(-,(3 !0)!11&),2& #"+ &3,&# ($
$
&
)
8
+
!. %
$
3
!
3 +425;.
+
($
!!
- *. 6
+!!
&
.
+
! +7.
&
$
$
+
++
,$
7. $
!
. $
&. $ +
. $ 6
) &
& !$ *&
&
!
)) .
!
$
+ $ . $
+
.
+
<
7 +&
+
8
7
$ +!!
!
. 'BB=;
$
. 6
$
!
+%
.
+!!
&
&
. 99 A
)
$
+
!)
8
$ +
!! ($
!-
+ . $
.
+ +!
+&
$
$ $
!)
&) )
>
!
!6* &
+
$
- $
.
+
;. +
+
. $
! !
$
&. $
& +
+
)
+
$
! $ 6
&
!$
7 $
!
$
&. +
$
+
)
!
!)
5
! !
&. - -
&
&
$
!
!
($ -
+
4
+&. - -
<
!)
)
!$
+
!!
&
$ $& $
$
!
+ ,#+)!11&),2&#"+ &348
2
+
2
&8 9:=;.
! $
)
-
$ 9:B
$
.
($
+4
!
$ $
+
&$
+
.2
& +
)
+ +
8 9: ;
$
!
.
&. )
) &
$
+ +$ $
&
++
6 &9!,( .!/,1,:+ ,!( !0"&#! ")&#+(- 0!". 1+ ,!(#!0+),!(#', ,( )!11&),2,,&#!0
!"3+(,:+ ,!(#7 ($
9C';
+$
$
+!! !
$
!
!6
$
&. )
7 8 $ +.
+!
!
55 !11&),2&#"+ &3,&#+(- &,"!*&"+ ,(31!3,)
2 $ !
+
$!
+
&
! $
!
!
&. 2
+
+
$
!
.)
($
$
$&
+
$
+
&
+
$ +
$
+!
!
!
) &- $
$
$
6 !11&),2& )!(9 3+ & )!11&),2&7,+!!
- $
8 9: ;
&)
6 !11&),2&)!(0&-&"+ &7,
($
)
&,
6 !11&),2&+331!.&"+ &7,
$
& +
$&
=
&
!
&!
)
$ $
$
!
+
$&
-
($
+
$ .!
&
!
3
- $
)
$.
+
&
$
-
)
- *
6 !11&),2&!"3+(,))!11&),2&7,+!!
) -$ $
$
+
)
)
$ +
$ &
-$ $ $ &
+ + $
!+ $
$
$
$
+!!
&
$ )
& +
)
+
&.
+
!
) -$ $ $
! $
$
E $
+
3
$
.2
3
+
$ +!!
& )
8 9: ;+
!
!
; +&
+
+$ !
+
!
-
8
8+
+
;,
+/1& $ 4*!1!34!0)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#; #1&4+(- <!./" ( =>?@
!
+
+
4& )
(&
F
!
+
($
!
8
;. -$
!(9 3+ &
331!.&"+ &
"3+(,)
$
+
$ & )
8
!(0&-&"+ &
!
;
) $
+
$
. $
+
) +
+
+
) -
$
.
)
($
$
!
*
8-$ $
$
- $
) + &. !
&;
+
.
3
$
)
+
+2
($
)
$
$
8 99B;
3$
$
-
$
& 8 9:';+!!
+ $ $ 0
$
!3
!
D
8-$ $
&. )
.
+& )
!!
F
$
) &
$
) &
!
. $ )
&;
$ $
& )
!$ 0
! )
!& )
+ )& $
3 + ++
$
) -
! !! ;. -$
8$ +!!
)
!
$ !$
$
+
+/1& $ !""&#*!(-&()&/&'&&( &0!".#!0,( &"-&*&(-&()&
F
!
$
+
$
/
!
+
2
& +
)
4
5
8 9: ;
0
4)
G
) &
)
+ $
!
+
3
!
- $ !
- * !* &
&
-$
) !! + >
+ )
&
$
&;
&
/
>
$
-
+ .
. F 0
)
+
- $
$
. $ $ $
+
-
4)
) -
!
! +
$ 8 !+
4) + &
2 3+
++
&
$
$
4
&
4& )
5 $ + 8 9:9;
(&
&
4& )
(
!
! !!
+
+
+!
$
.
$
. -$ $
+
$
- $
+)& $
!
$ $
3
! ) &
H
!)
3
.
$
!
-$ $
$
&
-
+
)& +
!
$
!)
$
E $
&
$
+
.- $$
!
+
!$
$
$
-&
+
+
( +
$
+
!&
+
$
!$
$
+
$
!!
* !
- & !
&
$
) -
-
A
+
!&
!
$ !$ + !
?
3.
,
7,
! )
.- $
-
*
.
$
+
$
) +
!$ &
+
-
.
!6
.
+
$
$
$
* $
+
- *.
+
.
$
$ -
& @ *& !
$
&
$
$
$ +&
)
H
($
&
!!
8 99?;. !!
+
$ $&
+
- *
!$
-
,
$
A
- $
$
!$
!
$
&$ $&+
)
$+
+
+$
!!
+
.
$ !
)& 2
&
+
8
!
+
8
&+
;- $
+
)
+
8 9: ;. -$
!
$
8 9::;
!!
86
;)&
+
!$
$
!
>
+
) -
!
) +
! $ 0!".+1,#+ ,!( !0 &"&1+ ,!(# ,*
!
3
,
!+
$
$
+
)
& + )&
&.
&7;
! 6
7
! $ 6
7 H
$ !$
)
+ +
&. $
) +!!
55 "!*!#+10!"+( +(+14#,#0"+.&'!"7 0!")!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#
($ $
+ )
!!
2
& +
)
$
+
1 &
)
.
+
)+( /&)!(0 #&- - $ $
$
$
!!
8
) $
$ &
&
+
+
)& +
!&
.
+
$ 6& )
&
& +
!
+
$
)
+
+
$
)
!
$
&
+
3 ,
-$
$ & !! .
$ ;. $
&8
+
&8
$ ;
$ ;
& 4*& !0+##!),+ ,!(, $
)
7
)
$ )
) 8$ 0
3 + ++
+
- *
$
& 0!". !0,( &"-&*&(-&()&,-$
)
&
7
!
$
7. -$ $
$ !+
)
!
$
$
$ ; ($ 6!
!
&
!
!/2,! # #&*+"+ ,!( ) 8 ) + &; +
$
!!
!$ 6 &
+./,3 ! #-,
.&(#,!( $
)
&8 9: ;,
($ 0!".+1,#+ ,!( -,.&(#,!(
+
$ $ $
&.
+
$
+
.
-
C
&
.
*
!
)
<!".+1,#+ ,!( !0 &"&1+ ,!(# ,*, $
& +
! ) 6
$
$
7.
!
!
+$
. - $
+
$
) 6
7
($ '!"1- !0 )!11&),2& #"+ &3,&#. $
&1 +
H
! +
)
!+
$
++ $ & $
& $
&. $ +
)
&
!$
$ +. !
$
.
$
.
!$
$
&- $2
& +
) +
<,3 "& $
! +- $
)
1
-
+)
$
3 .
. $
-$ $
+
$ $
)
$
&
$ +
3
)
. -$ $
8 9: ;
&'!"1- !0)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#
Type
of association
Indirect
Direct
Horizontal Vertical
Form
of interdependence
Transversal
relationship
Formal
Informal
Formalisation
of the relationship
($
)
+
)
+
8( )
($
8 9:?; ($ & )
! 3) &.
+ )&
&7 +
+
$
*
)
;
!6
+$
!
+
.
*
)& >
+ ) +& !
)
- $
:
.
+
$
.
+/
+
+
&
+ $
!
)
$
-
.
+! $
$
$ $
$-
+
!$ +
!!
$
&
+
!
+
+
.>
$*
+
7 8$
+
!
&$
8'BBB;
!
-
+
-
! +
&-$
+& $
( +
'
. $
82
$ - *. -$ $
&$ )
!$ $
&. 9:=;
!
!
!
; ($
$ ++
& -$ $ .
!
+
+ +6 $
!$
.
+ +
$
.
8 99B;
+ +
+
$
3
F
. $&
+$
& !
++
.2
&
& +
$ !
+
$
)
8 9: ;
$
$
!
+ &
8> $* . 99=;
+/1&?$ 11 #"+ ,!( !0 &'!"1- !0)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#
!
+
(&
+
0
$
/
0
$
+
/
/
0
0
$
$
F
+
G
$
G
$
G
$
G
$
3
$
IF
F
4)
(
$
(
$
.
!
F
F
!
+
!
- *.
!
- * +.
.
*
.
!$ )
$
&
.K
)
$ )
$
&
+
J
+
+
!
.
4 + +
& !
)
% ))&!
F
!
+
$
.
$
F
(
&+
+
&
!
!
+
$
.
5 !
F
(
$
!
$
/
E$
!
+
&
& ,(,,+11!3,) !0 #1&4 +(- <!./" (A#
)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&##&&.#,(# 00,),&( 0!" (-&"#+(-,(3 ) ""&( . + ,!(#,( #"+ &34
E
- $
'
$
!
8 9::;
&
&/
. $
)
)
$ +
+
&8
!
&
& +
+
&
&;
+
9
-
!@
& !
&
+)
&
)
,E $
$ +
LE $
& / $ &- $ - $
!+ $
!
$+
!
- *
+
$
!
&
$
) + $
)
!!
& !
!
!
+ +
-$ $
*
)
2 $
$
$
)
LE $& +
L ($
-
&L E $
L E $ +&
$
)
$
$
&+
*
@
+! +. $ &
&$
- *&
$
+
,
& #&*+"+ ,!( /&'&&( )!11&),2& #"+ &3,&# &6+.,(&- ,(-,2,- +1
1
4 *!#&# +
8 9::;
*"!/1&.
&
&
$
.
+
+
*
$
$ !$ !
!&
+$
&.
+
3
$ !
;
&
!+
*
&
+
)
+
$
>
+/
8 9:?;
8
)
$ +& !
$
1
$ +!!
+!!
$ !
)
!2
!
)
)
+
+
6
+
$
!
&.
!
$
!
7
A
&3"! * -4(+.,)#!0+11)!11&),2&#"+ &3,&# +#/&&( ,(# 00,),&( 14&(2,#+3&-
$ - +.
- $
$ 6
!
+
+
!
7 >
$
($
*
+)
$
!!
&) $- $
+/
8 9:?;
$ ) -
&
$
+
+
+$
+
$
&
!
+ $
!
) +&
+
$
$
($
++
$
!
$
&
+
+
($
!/ #,(&##&)!#4#&.#)+( .+7&, *!##,/1& !*"!2,-&&1&.&( #!0+( +(#'&"
5 #,(&##&)!#4#&.#+# &-4(+.,)#0!")!11&),2&#"+ &3,&#
+
)
1
&
!$
6 $
& !
$
$
$ +
$
)
.
)
M > & 8'BBB; + !
!
+
+!!
- *.
$
8
!
99?;. (
!
!
- +.
$ 8 99 .
+ +. * - $ -.
.
+
B
+
+
+ +7
+
;-
+
$
+
#"+ &3,))!.. (,4!0-&#,(4,
-
!+ $
+8
+
!
8 999;
3
&
$ )
$
&
425
$
&
+
!
3
* 8
-
)
+ E !!8 999;. 4
- $ @
$
&
$+
&
* .
.
$
&,
+$
+
+
$ )
;
)
5
$
($
*/
+
+%
!
$
+ +
!
5
; ($
)
!!
%
+ ( M 8'BB=;
($
*
+ +. !
$ )
!
!-
+
+
!)
&
55 &31!/+1(+ "&!0"&1+ ,!(# ,*#', ,( +/ #,(&##&)!#4#&.
8 99 ;$ $ $ + $
+
$
)
!3 +)
+
!-$ $
!
+>
)
$
2
&
! +
+
$
+/1& $
) +
$
!
$
!
+&
!
+
$ +
.
&
&
+
/
!$
!&
$
$$
>
!
!
+
+
+
&
!
.
$ .
.
) $$
)
2
$
0
.)
!
)
)) .
!$
. +&
) - $$
+ IF
&
. )&
$
+$
$
.
($
$
+
)
&
+
+)&
$
!)
$
$
$
$ )
+
&
', ! *+",,!(,(3
&/ #,(&##&)!#4#&. &(31!/&# #1&4+(- <!./" (A# 4*!1!34; =>?@
!
+
+
4& )
(&
!
F
+
!(0&-&"+ &-
!(9 3+ &-
331!.&"+ &-
"3+(,)
SAP succeeded quickly in developing cooperation logic at several levels.
4
+ &+
425
!
!
+%
3.
+
!
-
+
+ &+
!
For agglomerated strategies: because of the importance of its software packages (R/2 and R/3),
from the end of the 1980s SAP’s solutions were offered to most of the largest consultancy firms,
such as the Big Five and large software engineering companies like Cap Gemini. These
companies, however, are SAP’s rivals both in terms of the services offered to companies and
because they offer competitive software packages to SAP (Oracle, People Soft, JD Edwards,
Baan).
For confederated strategies: SAP made an alliance with IBM (its rival in the field of computer
engineering) by jointly developing a new, integrated e-business solution.
For conjugated strategies: the launch of an e-procurement solution in 1998 was made possible
thanks to SAP’s partnership with Avisium and Hewlett Packard (vertical relationship).
For organic strategies: since its creation, SAP has asked its clients to write testimonials for
general public magasines and has organised discussion groups on installing an ERP.
Although a certain chronology can be identified in the relationships developed, SAP has
nevertheless developed its business ecosystem in a global manner by developing a range of
collective strategies.
($
!
+)&2
$+
$
+
+
$
!
)<
8
.
) ) * +)
+
$ $
!)
!
$ 6
$
7
! - + )&G
,# *+"# 4&
&
)
&
!!
9CC; ($
!!
-
$
& +- $
+
&
>
,
-$ $
& $
$
.!
!
)
)
+
!
$ 0
!
)
+,
($
.
&
!$
$ . ) $ &+
-
.$-
+
+
$
)
-$ $ +
+
+
& +
.
!
)
++&
$ &
!&,(! &2&"4 ,(3)+( /&"&- )&- ! &# . !0
*
)
$ 6
7
!$ )
+$
$
. $
$
+)&2
& +
)
.
-$
+! +. -!
(! # 00,),&( 14,11 #"+ & &,( &"-&*&(-&()& + 0!".# &#&&- 0"!. ' ,) )!.*+(,&#
+
-&2&1!*
)
$ )
) )
) -
+
&
8
*
+
.
$ +!!
$
)
+
+
+ +. $
,-&!1!34 ($
)
&
&; ($ +
! $ )
&
+
&
.$ 0
.)
$
$
6+!! 7
($
3
-
'
!-$ $
$
+
!
$
+ ! + )&
)
!
!
0)
8 9:9, 'B; 6
+
$ &
+
+.
$
!
$ ! + !
.
+&
.
$
)
.
$
-
+) +
+
- $
.
)
-
)
&
&
!
+
&
.
$
)
& $
) $
+
&
!
-$
&$
$
8 99?,'?;
=
.
($
!
& !+
!
$
)
$
$
$ +
+
!-$ .
($
$ +
$
! $
$ +!
)
)
$ )
!)
+)
$
$
$
$
$ 7
-
*
&
$ +!
$
!
! +- $
&
!!
$
$
+-
)
+.
&
.
$ +
+&
) -
$
. !
!
+
($
+
+
+ $ .
+
+
- $ )
$
&
The CCIA (Computer and Communication Industry Association) grouped together companies
such as Sun, Oracle, Red Hat, Aol, Yahoo or Nokia. The aim was to promote open systems.
Similarly, the Free Software Foundation played a role in developping the “open source”
5
movement . Theorists for this movement such as Richard Stallman or Eric Raymond also
favoured the diffusion of a “free” conception of computing. The success of various free software
packages such as Apache, Perl or Sendmail favoured the development of Netscape in this form
and provided permanent bases for the evolution in the Linux operating system, just as decisions
made by different governments favoured the use of open software. It is thus a way of perceiving
the software world that has been modified. The business ecosystem does not correspond only
to activities, but also to shareable norms and ideologies.
)
)
& +
+ !+!!
!
=
D
-
+
!& $
! )
+ )
&
!
!
$
&
+!!
!!
$ .)
*
% + $
) !
)
!$
&$
$
+ $
2
+
G /
8'BB ;. $
$
+&
+.
+!&
+$
+ )
)
!
+
$ &
) $
$
$
&$
+ +
- $
+
&.
&
$&
+
($
+
!
. $
$
! $ $ < !& $
+ 1!
!
& ! !+.
!
!$
!
$
!)
)
$ .
&.
B&",)+1
"&1+ ,!(# ,*
4) + &
Originally, Microsoft
was IBM’s supplier
for operating
systems for PCs.
The co-development
of its software and
Intel’s microchips
was also significant.
+/1& $ ,.*1&"&1+ ,!(# ,*#
"+(#2&"#+1
!",:!( +1
"&1+ ,!(# ,*
"&1+ ,!(# ,*
% *- $ +
4
Microsoft has always
had “problems” with
its direct competitors,
which has led to
these
competitors’
progressive
disappearance
thanks to predatory
strategies.
Nevertheless,
in
1997,
Microsoft
bought into Apple’s
capital.
-$ - $
$
+ !$
& !+!!
- $
+ )
$
!
$
The
BSA
is
an
international association
that groups together the
main
software
and
Internet companies. Its
mission is to campaign in
favour of the intellectual
proprietary
laws
applicable to software. It
would
appear
that
Microsoft managed to get
6
into its good books .
Microsoft developed its
own business ecosystem
by developping many
relationships
with
companies
from
completely
different
sectors: NBC (1995),
Sony
(1995),
Read
Elsevier (1997), Arthur
Andersen (2000) or even
e-bay (2001).
.
)
-.
+
C ,00 #&D"&1+ ,!(# ,*
4 + +. +
&.
3!
$
!$
!
!)
+-$ $. +
+
+
$
&
$ &
. -$ $
& )
($
)
+. -
+
+/1& $ !.*1&6"&1+ ,!(# ,*#
&+##!),+ ,!( !0#,.*1&"&1+ ,!(# ,*#
!!
+
Microsoft’s influence in the computer industry
(and beyond) is not based on the simple fact
that it has managed to make useful
relationships with a variety of key players in
the industry. Taken separately, these
relationships represent only one advantage
for the companies that make them.
?
2
+
! $
!-
&/ #,
(&##&)!#4#&.
2 +&
)
Because Microsoft’s relationships have succeeded in
combining between themselves by developping
synergy, the importance of the different key players
has done nothing but increase and, beyond the
importance of the business ecosystem, Microsoft has
found itself amplified. For example, Intel took
advantage of Microsoft’s “efforts” with the American
State Department of Education as it provided the
company with new markets. Similarly, Microsoft took
F
+H
8 99:,9 ;. 6 $ >42
< $ 4 !5) $ 2
7
- $$ )
$
=
) +
! $
++
. $ >42
$
!
*
!
$
advantage of technological cooperation agreements
signed between Intel and certain universities as it
allowed it to develop new software capable of
operating on more powerful machines.
H
$
)
!
. $
+$
) +
+ !
($
$
-
78
)
+
0
$
+
+
)
$
<
-
+
)
. 9CC;
$
$
+
!6
$ - +. $ +
$
.
*
- $ $
$
+ &
$
$
&
!
) $. )
$ &()! "+3& & -&2&1!*.&( !0+ )!..!( "&#! ")&8!
3
.
+ +;,( &0,&1- !0)!.*&&(),&#
- $
)
! - +$ &
!
)
&
! $
)
+ - +
+(
)
&
* !
2
+ +.
. $
& +
!
!+ $ !
!
+ >& $
+
+&
!
$
)
1 - * 8 9: ;;.
! $
+
-
$
!& $
!)
$
+ )&
+
&
!
$
$
)
+
* -$-
$
&#&+") 0!"&)!#4#&.,))!.*&&(),&#
.
($
+ $
& ! $ +!!
+
-
!$
$
M 8'BB=; $
2
!
+!
+
&
+
+
)
$ -&
&
- +
*
+
* +8$
55 !' +/ #,(&##&)!#4#&. '!"7#$
)
+
+
!!
&
!
! +
$
)
. -$ $
$ .
!
+
&
&- *
&
&$
-
!)
3
)
+
+
!
$
$
($ -
- $
)&( "+1)!.*&&(),&#
SAP solutions require specific competencies to be able to provide user companies with
services. Different companies will thus get an advantage from developping know-how in the
installation and use of these solutions.
D
$
$
!
#"+ &3,))!.. (,4 !0-&#,(4 ) +
!
Intel’s microchips are increasingly powerful so as to allow Microsoft’s increasingly elaborate
software to function. The consumer will thus be forced to change computer and thus buy new
Intel microchips… In other words, the more software Microsoft sells, the more Intel microchips
are sold, and inversely. It can thus be thought that Microsoft and Intel co-evolve on the basis of
a strategic community of destiny.
-
& $ "!1&!01&+-&"
Microsoft and Intel form what has been known as the “Wintel” couple (contraction of Windows
and Intel) as a testimonial to their domination of the computer market. Today, Microsoft seems
to be the main leader in its business ecosystem.
($
+
)
&-
$
+
# +"&- 2,#,!( ! $
$
)
!$
&
Initially, Linus Torvalds (the “father” of Linux) could be seen as the leader of an incipient
ecosystem. Because he chose a mode of development for his operating system based on the
GPL licence from FSF (Free Software Fundation), that is, based on the principles of free
software, he was able to take with him along the path the efforts of several independent
computing engineers spread all over the world and without any direct financial incentive.
++
$ )
!
.)
)
. $ 1&+-&"A#*!'&"-
$
!$
+
)
+.
)
3
.$
)
$ -
*
)
) +
*
+ $
$
$
!$
-
Intel did not succeed in making its offer sufficiently specific (competition from AMD in particular,
unlike Microsoft which developed by suffocating its direct competition).
($
!
$ )
+
&2!1 ,2&+(- ,#/& +2,! ",#*",.!"-,+1
$
!
&
Microsoft’s aggressive behaviour led to a growing interest on the part of other companies to
promote an alternative (in this case, Linux).
($ * &
.
&
.
$
*
)
.
+
&
;
?
&&"!3&(&! # 8
.
The Linux business ecosystem is based on a very open organisation, encouraging occasional
cooperation. Individuals (as independent developers, but nevertheless predominant), SMEs
from the field of edition, computing multinationals, professional unions, communities of
practices, governments, associations, pressure groups and so on, all found themselves part of
the Linux business ecosystem.
($ * &
$
&
$ )
!
& ($
&
!
$
-,00&"&( ,(- #",&# +
+
! +
Within its business ecosystem, Linux focused on software distributors, editors, developers of
peripheral drivers, associated services, leaders from the film industry, franchisers, computer
constructors, consultancies… It was thus not their profession that was important, rather their
contribution to the development of Linux.
&"&,#(! (&)&##+",14&6)1 #,2&.&./&"# ,* !
)
&
IBM belongs to Microsoft’s business ecosystem, but increasingly tends to promote that of Linux.
Microsoft is the leader of its own business ecosystem but also supports Apple’s.
>
&
8
&)!#4#&.
+
+
)&
)
$
!
$ ,( "+
)!.*&,,2& -4(+.,)#
+ 1
;
Microsoft’s business ecosystem was originally that of the PC. IBM was the leader until Microsoft
took over after an aggressive relationship.
($
$
)
&
3
$ ,( &"&)!#4#&.
8
) -
;
The rivalry between the Microsoft and Linux business ecosystems is obvious as it is a
conception of the world of computers (owned software versus free software) that is at stake.
2)
&
+
.
+$
+
$ 1!3,)!0)!!*&,,!(
SAP developed partnership relationships with several of its competitors, be they software
editors such as Oracle, or consultancy firms such as the Big Five, or even companies which,
like SAP itself, specialise in computer engineering, such as IBM.
2
$
+- $ $
+!!
+ )& $
$
.
+ & !$
2 $
.
+ +
$&
.
$
)
+
+ . -$ -
)
!$
C
@
!
!$
$
$
$
.
+
!
$
!$
+!!
)
+
($
+ 1
!$
$
$
8
3
+
.5
$ - +.
! &
+
($ . )& !
+
.!
$ 0
+- $ $
>
& !+
&. ) -
$
)
+
&.
)
. 'BB=;
&/ #,(&##&)!#4#&. )! 1- /&#&&( +#+ #& !0"&1+ ,!(# ,*#8
+
A+
+
A!
+
.
;/&'&&( &&"!3&(&! #7&4
*1+4&"#3 ,-&- /4 &*"!.! ,!( !0+)!..!( "&#! ")&;#+(-+"& 7(!' !' +(- #!!(@
+(- +( ,-&!1!34
+ 1
&+-# !
& -&2&1!*.&( !0 # +"&- )!.*&&(),&# ;&)!#4#&.,)
)!.*&&(),&#@5
>&
$ $
!!
& !
$
8E
$
!
$-
!
+
4
$ -
!$
&
.
$
$
$
* .)
& !
$
+
-
-
. 99C; ($
3 )&
+
&! +
+
!
& 8(
! . 9:=;. -
$
$
)
!)
&
,+/ #,(&##&)!#4#&.
',11/&.!"&&00&),2& +( +(! &",0, # !'#+# *&",!")+*+),40!"-&2&1!**,(3 #,(3
+(- *"! &),(3 + #& !0 )!.*&&(),&# +(- )!..!( # +"&+/1& "&#! ")&# ', ,(
&)!#4#&.,))!.*&&(),&# + ',11+11!' , !*"&#&"2&+1+#,(3+-2+( +3&
($
! &)!#4#&.,) )!.*&&(),&# $
2
-4(+.,)#
& +
+!!
+
)
+ *&
!)
1
&
$
!$
+
)&
4
)<
) &
$
5
7 ($
) $
($
$
.
- $ $
&!
!
& + *
+. )
!
+! +
$ !
*- $
*&
6
&1
& !
+
.)
$
$
) &
- $ $
!6
:
&
&
+
&
+ +
-$
$&
!
+
(&'
!
+
+
)
+& )
*
!
!
+ + +
&
8'BB=; $
) $
)
+
8 9: ; ($
&
&
!$
)
+
.- $ )
+
*
- *
-$
&
7 8
. 999;
+
6
- * 7 8/ . 99'; >
+!
!
$ !
$
&
!
. $ +
!
&. -$
$
$
)$ + )
&
!()1 #,!($
.- -
+ *
$
$ 82 M
. 'BBB; -$ $
++&
6
&
7$ )
!)
$
&
3 !$
$
+
+ ! 1
++ +
+
& !$
!
.
.
($
$
!
! & !
$
)!#4#&.,) )!.*&&(),&# +"& &"& #&&( +# & )!11&),2&
)!./,(+ ,!( !0 -,00&"&( # +"&+/1& "&#! ")&# +(- )!.*&&(),&# 0"!. -,00&"&( 7&4
*1+4&"#
+/1&E$ -&( ,0,)+ ,!(!0)!11&),2&)!.*&&(),&#', ,( #!0'+"&/ #,
(&##&)!#4#&.#
F&
2
C
F!
&
!
+
)
$
!
&
F
5
!
!
!-
)
6
&
$ $
&
. $
!!
>
&
2
) +
+
F!
!
IF
+
.
.
#+(-+"- +(- ,()"&+#&
+
,( ,# #+3&2+1 &/4
!
.&+(#!0 &,(* !0
+ +7
. 1,*1&7&4*1+4&"#
&
$
+ ! + )&
+
$ ) $!
)
3 ++
)
&
&
+
++&
.
$
!$
$ )
+)&2 M
9
!+!!
)& + $
$
>G
!$
!
$
)
3!
!* &
+ !
<
K &
+
"!.! ,!( !0 &
$
$
+ ))&
C
$
+ G - 8 >G; $
&
($ +
!0# +"&+/1&"&#! ")&#
&!
+
&. $ )
&.
5
!-
*
2 $
!11&),2&)!./,(+ ,!(#
+
+(- )!.*&&(),&#
3
!-
-
!
&
!
&
&
8'BBB;
$
&)
-
+&
$
+
+
!
+
$
+ + $
$
$ $
)
)
$
+
$
)$
($
!
-$& >G
)
@
$ +
) -
+ $
+
$$ -
!$
&
+
$ $&
$ ++
($
!
!!
)
($ +&
$&
+
!
$
<
. $
+
+$
)&
<
)
!
&
&
+
! $
! $ +&
+
&
($
+ $
$
) +
>G $
&
+$ ) &
+
- $
+$
!
+
!
$ -
!
&
($ - *
$
3
+
$
$
!
+
$
!
)
!-
&
++
&
+
. $
&
!-
+
!)
+
+
;
-$
$ ! +
&
+
6
$ @
8
&. -$ $
&
.
($
'B
+
!$
&
!
$
.
.
)
-$
$
!
!$ )
- )
6) 0 7 ($
&
+
!$
+
&
+)& 3
!
8 99 A 99?;+
- $
!$
&$
!
! -8
($
$+ 7
+$ )
+ +
& + ). $
$ - &$
.
& !7. 6
+
3
+ +
-
&
E $
&
!
3 ! !
!$
- *;
*&
-$
& $7
&
+&
+
$
8 99B;
$
<
!)
!)
!
$&
- *
&
+ + + $ !!
!-
!
&
$ +
6
) )
5.
+)&F
!$ $ - + $
!
&
+ ($
&)
+
&. $ $
$ ! + !
+& !
+
+ +
&>
$ $&
+ +
$
+
!
+ &1
+ .
+,
+& !$ )
+
! +
!
&0&"&()&#$
2 M
J %.
2
2
.
$ +
$
.
+>
+
& E
&E
.
!
9. N .
+
)
E 5.
D'? D D
&,
>
+
7.
0
+ 5 8'BBB;. 2
+
+
>
.F
4
!
' . N'.
'D D=
@ .
. 4
3
$
+
7. 4
. G 9. CD :D
>
K
+/
J
-.
8 9:?; 6
0
!
.
7. 4
&. ?.
F
F
8 9CC;. %12
2 + & !
.>
$
)
J
@
+2
-7. J
)
4& M
&. .
>
+2
,$
!
O
.
% &. :C
!
+
+
7.
'?D ':D
+
.
"
"
8 9:';. 6($
.
&E
% 4
. > 8 9::;. 64
7.
&E
5
D. N'.
+
!
J
!
!
-.
+1
+
F 8 99:;. % / +
5.
7. 2 + & !
''
J 8 99B;. 6($
F
&,
&
.
+)
+H
!
= B ='D
0
+
L7. 2 + & !
+
C. N'.
$ +J 8 9C';. 6
0
+
+4 -
J
$
&,
=B: ='C
> $* 2 2 8 99=;. 6
4
0
DC? D:C
E 8'BBB;. 6($
4 + .
&
& !
+
K 8 9::;. 6
J
-.
2
H
&7. 2 + & !
J8 9: ;. 6
$*
0
5 8'BBB;. %
.
7. 2 + & !
>
+
8 9:=;. 6( - +
-.
2
.
.
C 9
&,
'. N=.
D? ?:
8 9: ;. 6> & +
&7. J
!>
=C D=
+F
5 8 99D;. %
4
+P
2
':
'
%
+
+P
.
+(
&M
M
+P!!
8'BB=;. 6
, P3
B. N =:. <
+ %
"!
)
/
8 99';. 6($
J
.
/
%
$
0)
&J
+
) !!. > . >
+
&,
9C ='B
+ - 7.
+
$
.
'B.
.
'9. N = .
+
-
-
$ !
>
B9
'
+
=D DC
+ !
0
$+ ,
+ )
!
>
T
+ 4
7. 2+
+
4
U
&.
8'BB=;. 6
F J. 5
7. 4
$ 2
!
99
& ,( - +
.
D= D?
+ ()
2+
&
+4 +
,$
8 24 ;,
H -K + !
!
F&
L.
.
?V C. 'BB=
+
1
.
B. N =:. <
8 999;. 6
.
&
- *,
8'BB=;. 6%
O
+>
7. F ) + &
&!
4
)
+4
+
+
*$
7. /
" % + $
. 2 8 99?;. 6
$
$
& !
. '9C
!4257. ($
(
+
+
$ 8 9::;. 6($
&
'B.
CD :?
./
8 9CC;. S %
4
.
+
=B
0)
99 .
&
5
- *
- $&
?C .
O
8 99?;. ($ F
>
&. 4
!
,
8 99 ;. 65 +
J
E
.
. HQ
-.
5
)
J
7.
5
+
7. 4
7. 4
/ 8 9:9;.
J
H
)
8'BB ;. 6
S
($
!
+E !!. J2 8 999;. 64
&
&
!
J
+ 5 $ + K 8 9:9;. 6
2
!$
,$
7. 4
-. J R ) 9:9.
*/
O
''C '=:
&
+>
%
+
D" ==
. F 0Q
/
@
!7.
+
!
.
+&
3
'BB=.
8 999;. 6H - *
!
+
+
"!
3 2+
@
'BB=.
9 =D
"2
$
7.
N'
+ 4$
2 8 99C;. 6F&
J
.
''
: ,C.
)
DB9 D
+
L7.
( M> &
8'BBB;. S
H
.
G
/
!-
E
+P
)&
(4
C
,
-.
! > 8 9:=;. 62
D. N'.
4
WP
2 ) +
. ':'
8'BB ;. 6
7.
T.
>
+
='. N=.
:' :C
- ! $ ! 7. 4
:B
'
!
J
.