LIEDER
GUIDE
To Microscope Slide Set
No. 2400
Histology of Mammalia
Elementary Set
25 Prepared Microscope Slides
JOHANNES LIEDER – LUDWIGSBURG /GERMANY
1
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2
Guide
To Set No. 2400
Histology of Mammalia, Elementary Set
25 Prepared Microscope Slides
2401c Squamous epithelium, isolated cells from human mouth, w.m.
Epithelia line the surface and the cavities of the body. The surface of the mucous membrane, lining the mouth cavity, consists of
a stratified squamous epithelium, whose uppermost layer is easily taken off with a spatula to be studied under the microscope.
Squamous epithelia consist of flat, scale-like or plate-like cells. We see that the cells from the oral mucous membrane are very
flat, as in the transparency at the upper left and the lower right side respectively one cell is partly turned over. The spherical
nucleus (1), located in the centre of the cell, and the protoplasm (2) are both readily visible. The surface of the squamous
epithelial cells is covered with numerous bacteria (3) from the mouth cavity. - (The numbers mentioned in the text refer to the
diagram).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma112c, Ma1113d, Ma1124d, Ma1125d, Ma1127d, Ma113d, Ma114c, Ma117e, Ma116d,
Ma115d
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 15.21, 15.22, 15.221, 15.23, 15.24, 15.25, 15.26, 15.261, set no. 3152: epithelial tissues
(9 color slides)
2402e Areolar connective tissue of a mammal, whole mount
Cells belonging to the same kind constitute a tissue. Different tissues constitute an organ. Several cooperating organs constitute
a system of organs, and all of these systems make up an organism.
Connective tissues are characterized by relatively few and in some types movable cells (1) and a large amount of intercellular
substance (2) containing various types and arrangements of fibers. We distinguish embryonic from adult connective tissues. The
latter ones are subdivided into connective tissues proper (with soft intercellular substance), cartilage (with firm yet flexible and
even elastic intercellular substance) and bone (rigid due to the deposition of calcium salts in the matrix).
Loose connective tissue without fibers generally connects organs movable against each other (e.g. muscles). It also composes the subcutis.
Areolar connective tissue (our example) contains wavy bundles of collagenous fibers (3). They can be straightened but are
non-extensible. Upon boiling they yield gelatin. Elastic fibers (4) branch and anostomose freely. They are highly elastic, allowing
40-140% extension, and are not affected by boiling. Areolar connective tissue constitutes the dermis (leather!) and the capsule of
organs.
In dense connective tissue, constituting tendons and ligaments, the collagenous fibers are closely packed.
Adipose tissue is a modified type of fibrillar connective tissue.
(The numbers and letters mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
3
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma122d, Ma123d, Ma1231d, Ma1234f, Ma124d, Ma1242e, Ma125d, Ma126d, Ma127d, Ma128c,
Ma129e, Ma130c, Ma131d, Ma132d, Ma135d
Supplementary microscope slides: Series no. 3153: Connective tissues (20 color slides), Series no. 760: The motion apparatus of
man I, connective tissues (19 color slides), 89.15, 89.16, 89.17
2403e Adipose tissue of mammal, stained for fat
Adipose tissue is a special type of connective tissue. It is characterized by large ovoid or spherical cells. Their flattened nuclei (1)
are pressed against the cell walls and surrounded by the thin cytoplasmatic layer (2). It covers the wall and encloses the single
fat droplet (3) which derives numerous small droplets (4). (Due to this structure fat cells are called „signet ring cells „).
Reticular fibers (5) surround the cells, and interlobular connective tissue (6) separates the groups or lobes (7) of adipose
tissue.
1 g fat produces 38 k Joules when burnt whereas 1 g carbohydrates produces not quite half of this energy (see 637). Consequently - and also because it is insoluble in water and thus osmotically inactive - fat is the ideal substance to store energy.
Deposited in subcutaneous layers and between the viscera - fat represents important food reserves - it is readily available if
needed. Adipose tissues are well supplied with blood vessels (8). Beside its nutritive value fat forms shock-absorbing pads in
the hip, knee, shoulder, the gluteal region and the soles of the feet. The eye is also imbedded in adipose tissue. Only in the case
of utmost privation this padding fat is used to produce energy. Finally, fat - a non-conductor - protects the body from loss of heat.
Adipose tissue stores energy, pads the body and protects it from loss of heat.
(The numbers and letters mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma128c, Ma129e, Am210d
Supplementary microscope slides: 17.78, 17.76, 17.81
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2404c Hyaline cartilage of mammal, t.s.
Cartilage, bone and the tissue of the notochord are supporting tissues. They originate from connective tissues, are a special type
of these and are characterized by the firm intercellular substance.
The notochord is the axial, rod-like supporting structure of the chordates. It is present in the adult lower chordates. In man its
rudiment, the nucleus pulposus of the invertebrate discs, causes violent pains if herniated into the spinal canal: damaged or
slipped disc.
Hyaline cartilage is the primitive type from which the others are derived. In vertebrate embryological development most bones
(the cartilage bones) are preceded by a temporary cartilaginous model which is replaced by bone. This leaves the articular
surfaces and the sternal regions of the adult cartilaginous. The fresh hyaline cartilage appears as a bluish-white, translucent
(name „hyalos“) mass. Single (1) or groups of cartilage cells (2) formed by cell divisions are located in smooth-walled lacunae
(3) lined by the intensively blue colored capsules (4) within a darker blue territorial matrix (5). One cell or one group of cells
within a territory constitutes a cartilaginous unit. The intercellular substance (6) contains numerous collagenous fibers, visible
in polarized light. They are arranged parallel to the surface of the marginal region but soon swing back toward the centre rendering the cartilage elastic as well as pressure- and tensile-proof. The cartilage is covered by the perichondrium, the cells of which
change to become cartilage cells, surrounding themselves with intercellular substance. Being devoid of blood- and lymphatic
vessels cartilage grows from its surface while being nourished by the perichondrium and the synovial fluid of the joint. Consequently cartilage is slowly - if at all - regenerated. - The replacement of hyaline cartilage by bone is described by color slide 76.80.
Elastic cartilage appears more yellow and opaque than the hyaline one. The collagenous fibers of the latter one are replaced by
a network of elastic fibers. In man the larynx and the external ear contain elastic cartilage (color slide 15.41).
In fibrous cartilage collagenous fibers are arranged helically between the very small territories. Intervertebral discs and menisci
are made up of this type of cartilage (color slide 15.411).
(The numbers and letters mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
Supplementary microscope slides: Pi117e, Ma1305d, Ma131d, Ma132d, Ho130f
Supplementary microscope slides: 15.39, 15.41, 15.411, 15.43, 76.14, 76.15, 89.16, 89.17, series no. 3153: Connective and
supporting tissues (20 color slides), series no. 760 (19 color slides)
2405e
Bone of human t.s., fine structure of compact bone
The compact part of a long bone is formed by a system of concentric Haversian lamellae (1). They develop from a network of
longitudinally arranged vessels, which by branching and anastomosing, form a „longitudinally extended three-dimensional reticulum“. Numerous branchings can be found in the slide.
The development of bone begins with the osteoblasts (2), or bone-forming cells, leaving a vessel and arranging around it in a
ring simultaneously contacting one another and the cells of neighboring rings with delicate protoplasmatic processes. Depositing
bone material, they literally wall themselves in and form a bone tube around the vessel. As every cell can deposit only a certain
amount of bone material, a „second wave“ of osteoblasts soon follows the first one. These cells contact each other and the ones
of the first wave with their processes and, depositing bone material, form another tube within the existing one. Waves of osteoblasts follow one an other until just a small canal is left, the Haversian canal (3), which contains an artery (4), a vein (5) and a
lymphatic vessel (6). They supply the bone.
Collagenous fibers are arranged helically within the Haversian lamellae (1), the spaces between the concentric rings of osteoblasts. In neighboring lamellae the fibers are arranged vertically in respect to each other. Canal, lamellae and osteoblasts form
the Haversian system (1-6). The spaces between neighboring Haversian systems are filled with interstitial lamellae (7).
The inorganic substances (calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, magnesium phosphate etc.) render the bone pressure-proof.
The organic substance (collagen) renders it tension-proof and elastic to a certain degree. When the bone is seriously injured (e.g.
fractured) the „walled in“ osteoblasts are reactivated. - (The numbers mentioned in the text refer to the diagram).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma136d, Ma1365d, Ma137e, Ma138e, Ma139e, Ma141e
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 15.421, 15.422, 15.423, 5.424, 15.43, 14.431, 76.08, 76.09, 76.13 set no. 760: Connective and supporting tissues (19 color slides)
5
2406d Striated muscle of mammal, l.s. of skeletal muscles
The voluntary skeletal muscle consists of cross striated fibers. These are 1-300 mm long and 10-200 µm thick structures with
many flattened elongated nuclei (1) located directly under the cellular membrane, the sarcolemma. A fiber contains closely
packed and longitudinally arranged myofibrillae (2), the contractile elements. As more refractive segments of the myofibril
alternate regularly with less refractive ones and both are in the same places in all of the myofibrils, a muscle fiber appears cross
striated. The dark band is called the Q (from German „Querscheibe“) or the A (anisotropic) disc or band (3). The light band is
called I (isotropic) band (4). Each of the I bands is bisected by a narrow Z (German „Zwischenscheibe“) line (5) whereas a
corresponding pale H (German „hell“) line (7) bisects the dark anisotropic band (6).
All this is caused by two types of filaments (bundles of elongate protein molecules) which are fitted into one another. Myosine
filaments (9) are thick and double refractive, while actine filaments (10) are thin and single refractive. The overlapping of both
filaments forms the dark region of the A bands (6). The actine filaments meet to form the Z line of the I band (5). The distance
between two Z lines is called a sarcomere (8). Bundles of filaments constitute a myofibril (2). Myofibrils are visible as delicate
lines under the high-power magnification of a light microscope (comp. color slide D509). The slide no. 89.19 shows the electron
microscopic picture of these structures.
The muscle contraction results from myosin and actine filaments telescoping (11), thus shortening the sarcomere without
changing their proper lengths. Numerous mitochondria between the myofibrils supply the required energy (see slide no. 89.20).
- (The numbers mentioned in the text refer to the diagram).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma152d, Ma153d, Ma1535f, Ma1537f, Ma154d - Ma165f
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 89.19, 89.20, 15.511, 15.512, 15.52, 15.53, 15.54, 15.541, set no. 3155: muscular
tissues (7 color slides), 78.02, 78.03, 78.04, 78.08, 78.09, 78.10, set no. 780: the muscular system (20 color slides)
2407d Smooth muscles of mammal, l.s.
Smooth muscles are found in all invertebrates except in arthropods. In vertebrates they are usually associated with the viscera
(e.g. the stomach, intestine, uterus, urinary bladder, blood vessels and glands), but they also function as hair erecting muscles
and as iris- and ciliary muscle within the eye. They act involuntarily and are supplied by the autonomic nervous system with
noradrenalin functioning as neurotransmitter in the sympathetic and acetylcholine in the parasympathetic part. Their effect differs
with different organs (see 509 and series 842: The autonomic nervous system).
The smooth muscle consists of fusiform or spindle-shaped cells (1). These are 50-200 µm long and 5-10 µm in their greatest
diameter. Their oval nucleus (2) is found in the centre. The contractile elements, myofibrils (3), react anisotropic in the polarized
light. The muscle cell is covered with delicate reticular fibrils (4). Several cells form a bundle. Bundles are separated from each
other by connective tissue septae (6) containing collagenous and elastic fibers. Neighboring smooth muscle cells are interlocked by numerous minute extensions and invaginations (5). - The smooth muscles of the uterus are able to grow considerably in length during pregnancy.
Smooth muscles are able to remain contracted for a long time without consuming energy. Their tension can change while the
length remains unchanged: e.g., if the muscles of the urinary bladder are suddenly extended, their tension increases. If the
degree of dilatation remains constant, the tension gradually declines to reach original value. Consequently no significant increase of pressure is noticed if the bladder is gradually filled. - Unlike in the skeletal muscles there is no definite state of rest in
smooth muscles. Smooth muscles, furthermore, react with increased spontaneity on rapid extension. That is why all peristaltic
movements of the intestinal tube begin in one place from where they continue all along its length. Smooth muscles, finally,
contract slower but with more long lasting contractions than the skeletal muscles.
(The numbers and letters mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma345c, Ma363d, Ma421c, Ma422c, Ma437d, Ma439d, Ho 334f, Ho337f, Am226c
Supplementary microscope slides: 28.24, 28.25, 28.26, 28.27, 28.30, 28.34, 28.38, 89.18, 16.31, 16.58, 16.84, 16.86, and series
no. 3155: Muscle tissue (7 color slides)
6
2408c Human blood smear
The 3-5 liter of blood in the healthy human adult are constituted of:
Plasma (56 %)
- serum
- fibrinogen
Cellular contents (44 %)
- developing in the red bone marrow:
- erythrocytes, red blood corpuscles
- thrombocytes, blood platelets
- leucocytes, white blood corpuscles
- granulocytes, plasma containing granules
- eosinophile granulocytes, red granules
- neutrophile granulocytes, indifferently colored granules
- basophile granulocytes, blue granules
- monocytes
- developing in lymphatic organs
- lymphocytes
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Erythrocytes (1): no nucleus, circular outline, flat, with central depression, aggregate in rolls; they transport oxygen, combined
with hemoglobin, live about 4 months, every second 2 400 000 cells are decomposed in the liver, and the iron of the hemoglobin
is recycled.
Thrombocytes (2): minute cell fragments, usually aggregated, disintegrate if in contact with air or rough surfaces in blood
vessels and start blood coagulation.
Leucocytes: usually there is one leucocyte to 800 erythrocytes. They exhibit amoeboid movements, they penetrate capillaries,
phagocyte germs and are distinguishable by origin, shape of the nucleus, plasmic structure and stainability.
Eosinophile granulocytes (3): phagocyte antigen-antibody-complexes.
Neutrophile granulocytes (4): mass of leucocytes, nucleus multilobed, they phagocyte germs and cell fragments and then
disintegrate suppurating and liberating cell-dissolving enzymes causing a furuncle to „mature“.
Basophile granulocytes (5): rarest leucocytes. Their nucleus is less lobular, and they secrete heparin into the blood, and are
antagonists of the thrombocytes.
Monocytes (6): are the largest leucocytes. Their nucleus is vascular, slightly indented. They phagocyte germs, transmit antigen
information to other cells, live only a few days.
Lymphocytes (7): are similar in size to erythrocytes, with a relatively large nucleus which nearly takes up all the cell, are not very
movable, do not phagocyte, and participate in immunological processes.
(The numbers mentioned in the text refer to the diagram).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma195c, Ma196c, Ma1963c, Ma1964c, Ma197c, Ma1793c, Ba115e, Ba112d
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 15.842, 15.843, 15.85, 15.852, 15.89, 74.77, 74.78, 74.79, 74.80, 74.81, 74.82, 74.83,
74.84, 74.85, 74.86. set no. 747: Blood and lymphatic organs (35 color slides)
2409d Artery, cat or rabbit, t.s. stained for elastic fibers
Arteries are efferent vessels. They conduct blood from the heart to any part of the body. Veins are afferent, serving to return the
blood to the heart. Arteries have to adapt to the changing blood pressure caused by the pulse beat. In veins the blood is propelled
from one valve to the other by the activity of the surrounding muscles and the action of the neighboring artery. Both vessels have
the same structure but differ in the size of their three layers: the intima (4), media (5) and the adventitia (6).
The medium-sized artery of the muscular type distributes the blood to different organs.
- The intima (4) main function: exchange of substances, liquids and gasses through the wall of the vessel.
- The endothelial layer (1) is continuous with the capillary endothelium.
- The intermediate layer (2) with collagenous and elastic fibers is very thin in smaller muscular arteries (color slide).
- The internal elastic membrane (3) is a layer of elastic fibers. In cross section it has - as all the intima - the appearance
of a corrugated wavy band due to the post-mortem contraction, which throws the elastic membrane into longitudinal
folds, as now their is no blood pressure any more.
- The media (5) has a hemodynamic function, when by the pulse beat. Layer of smooth circular and helically oriented muscles
with few connective tissue (collagenous and elastic fibers). The thickness of the muscle coat is proportional to the size of the
vessel. 25 - 40 layers of circular muscle fibers.
- The adventitia (6) links the vessel to the surrounding connective tissue. It is composed of connective tissue containing
collagenous and usually longitudinally extended elastic fibers. Occasionally as thick as the media.
8
2410d Vein, cat or rabbit, t.s. stained for elastic fibers
The medium-sized vein. Diameter usually bigger than in corresponding arteries, though its wall is much thinner due to the
thinner muscular layer. Thus fibrillar connective tissue constitutes the bulk of the wall which is flabbier than the arterial wall and
tends to collapse when not filled with blood (comp. picture and color slide).
- The intima (4) very thin.
- The media (5) thin, compared with the media of equal-sized arteries. Thickest in the veins of the legs, very thin in the veins
of the head and abdomen. Smooth muscles, in the marginal zone also bundles of longitudinal muscles with collagenous and
elastic fibers between the cells.
- The adventitia (6) forms the bulk of the wall, contains collagenous and elastic fibers but also bundles of smooth longitudinal
muscles.
The connective tissue (7) fills the spaces between arteries and veins.
See Series no. 751: The circulatory system II, heart and vessels (32 color slides).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma171d, Ma172d, Ma1725f, Ma173d, Ma174d, Ma176d, Ma178e, Ma179f, Ma180d, Ma181f,
Ma182e, Ma190c, Ma197c, Ma343f, Ma332f, Ma643f
Supplementary microscope slides: 15.82, 15.83, 16.40, 15.26, 15.87, 15.86, 17.814, 89.14. Series no. 751: The circulatory
system II, heart and vessels (32 color slides).
2411c Lung from cat, Felis domestica, t.s.
The development of the human lungs starts in the 3 mm embryo with a ventral outgrowth of the esophagus. In the 4 mm stage the
bud bifurcates to form two lungs. - The lungs of Proteus are sack-shaped. The frog enlarges their surfaces by honeycomb-like
projecting ridges. Reptiles further raise and subdivide the ridges, which finally leaves a central longitudinal canal in each lung. In
mammals the trachea bifurcates. The two bronchi branch until delicate bronchioles terminate in alveoles. Here the interchange of
gasses between the air and the blood takes place. The wall of a pulmonary alveolus is covered with a rich plexus of capillaries.
The lungs of humans and of the cat have the same microstructure. The human lungs contain about 300 millions of alveoli each
having a diameter of 1/4 mm resulting in a total surface of 100 m2 (compare with walls, floor and ceiling of the class room!). The
greater the surface, the more oxygen can be absorbed, the more energy can be liberated by oxidation.
The microscopic picture of pulmonary tissue is much similar to that of adipose tissue (see 620). But lung tissue is readily
distinguished by its characteristic alveolar sacs (1), arteries (2), and the strongly pleated terminal bronchus (3). The alveoli
(4) are lined with squamous epithelium (5). Monocytes (white blood corpuscles) move on its surface and phagocyte inhaled
dust particles. The endothelium (6) of the capillaries together with the alveolar epithelium (5) and the common basal membrane (8) constitute the blood-air-barrier. Connective tissue (9) fills the spaces between the alveoli.(The numbers and letters
mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
Supplementary microscope slides: Am212c, Am213c, Av112c, Ma211e, Ma214d, Ma215d, Ma217d, Ma218e, Ma219d, Ma222d
Supplementary microscope slides: 15.69, 15.691, 23.32, 15.701, 15.702, 15.703, 15.71, 15.711, 15.715, 89.14, 88.05. Series no.
3156: Respiratory organs (17 color slides). Series no. 743: The respiratory system of man (38 color slides)
2412c Pancreas of pig, sec. showing islands of Langerhans
The pancreas extends transversally behind the stomach from the spleen to the loop of the duodenum (1). Its broad portion is
called the head, its body tapers gradually into the tail. The pancreas is both an excretory gland (of external secretion) secreting
pancreatic juice into the small intestine, and an endocrine gland (of internal secretion) secreting hormones into the blood
stream. (The lumen of the small intestine is outside the body. If you put a piece of bread into your mouth, it is still outside your
9
body, and during its passage through the digestive tract it remains outside the body. Only by passing through an epithelium, the
mucous membrane of the digestive tract, food substances get into the body and into the blood stream).
The excretory part of the pancreas consists of ducts and acini (2) of the serous type. Their pyramidal cells (3) are characterized
by their big, spheric basal nucleus with the distinct nucleolus. Numerous zymogen granules are found in the inner zone, whereas
elongated mitochondria are clustered in the basal region. The acini open into the interlobular duct (4) lined with a simple
epithelium centro acinar cells (5) of which extend into the acinar lumen. The various ducts fuse to form the pancreatic duct (6).
This extends the length of the gland and opens into the duodenum opposite the opening of the bile duct (7). The pancreatic juice
consists of trypsin which breaks down proteins into amino acids, amylase which converts starch into maltose, and lipase which
splits fats into glycerol and fatty acids. The pancreas is stimulated by nervous impulses or by the hormone secretin formed
whenever acid (HCl) contents of the stomach come in contact with the duodenal mucosa.
The endocrine part of the pancreas is formed by the islands (islets) of Langerhans (8), cell groups interspersed irregularly
between the acini and along the ducts. They are more numerous in the tail region. The islands are composed of A cells (9) and
B cells (10) which are about three times as numerous as the A cells. The islands are richly supplied with capillaries (11). The A
cells produce the hormone glucagon which elevates the blood sugar. More important are the B cells. They produce insulin which
lowers the blood sugar, e.g. allows the cells of the body to utilize the available glucose or to store it as glycogen. Malfunction of
the A cells, lack of insulin, causes diabetes mellitus, marked by hyperglycemia and glucosuria. (For more information see transparency series Hormones III no. 763).
Supplementary microscope slides: Av122d, Am221c, Pi156c, Ma254f, Ho354f, Ho3543e
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 16.06, 16.391, 16.39, 28.22, 22.81
10
2413c Tongue, of cat, t.s.
The tongue is covered with mucous oral epithelium and mainly consists of striated muscle. Its interlacing fibers course in
longitudinal, transverse, and vertical direction and give maximum mobility. The tongue transports the intaken food between the
teeth for chewing, moves the chewed food into the pharynx, and starts the process of swallowing. Its mobility is important for
talking, especially for pronouncing the consonants, and it, finally, tests the taste, touch and the temperature of the food.
The mucous membrane on the dorsal lingual surface is studded with three kinds of projections, papillae. Whereas the fungiform
and circumvallate papillae serve for tasting, the filiform ones have the more mechanical function of food transport. They are much
more numerous and are quite evenly distributed over the dorsal surface of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.
The lower part of our picture is taken by the network of longitudinal, transverse, and vertical muscles. These are covered by a
small layer of connective tissue, which also forms the slender vascular core of the filiform papillae. The stratified squamous
epithelium cornifies and forms one or more secondary projections which toper into thread-like points.
The rasp-like tongue is very characteristic of the cat family. The rasp consists of dagger-like curved filiform papillae (1) which
protrude above the stratum corneum (2) of the stratified squamous epithelium of the surface of the tongue. Striated skeletal
muscles (3) are arranged in a regular plaited way to give a woven texture and form the complicated apparatus that moves the
tongue.
2414d Stomach of cat, t.s. through fundic region showing gastric glands
The stomach is an organ for storage and digestion of food. It extends from the cardia (1), the entrance of the esophagus (2), to
the pylorus (3) where it is continuous with the duodenum (4), the upper region of the small intestine, and is closed by the
pyloric sphincter (5), a circular muscle. Folds form a canal (6) along the lesser curvature to conduct liquid from the cardia to the
pylorus. That is why you can drink with your stomach full. The liquid passes into the small intestine without diluting the contents
of the stomach. In the empty state, the human stomach is J-shaped and almost tubular. Fig. (a) shows it moderately distended.
Whereas its upper, fundic part (7), acting as a reservoir, has only slight peristaltic contractions, these increase in intensity
toward the pylorus to thoroughly mix the constituents of the food with the secretions of the gastric glands.
The wall of the stomach consists of the four layers typical of the alimentary tract: mucosa (8), submucosa (9), muscularis
externa (10) and fibrosa or serosa (peritoneum) (11). There are numerous anastomosing ridges, rugae (12), in the mucosa,
extending along the inner surface of the gastric body. When the stomach is fully distended, they almost disappear. The mamillated surface (13) of the mucosa is studded with gastric pits (14) into the bottom of which open the gastric glands (15). In
contrast to the stratified columnar epithelium of the esophagus, the stomach is lined by simple columnar epithelium (16). At the
junction of the esophagus and the stomach, the type of epithelium changes abruptly. The apical end of every surface cell has a
deep, cup-shaped zone filled with mucigen (17). Depending on the shape of the cell and the amount of mucigen, the nucleus is
oval or spheroid. Delicate interweaving connective tissue fibers of the lamina propria (18) extend between the gastric glands.
The underlying muscularis mucosae consists of thin layers of inner circular (19) and outer longitudinal smooth muscle (20).
Gastric glands (15) are found throughout the greater part of the mucosa, whereas pyloric and cardiac glands are confined to
their special regions and produce mucus. The gastric glands are simple, sometimes branched tubular and extend through the
lamina propria to the muscularis mucosae. Their mouth (d) opens into the gastric pit, their neck (e), a constricted portion, is
continuous with the body (f) of the tube which terminates with the fundus (21). Mucous neck cells (22), parietal cells (23), and
chief cells (24) compose the gastric gland. The mucous neck cells are characterized by their basal oval nucleus. They secrete
mucus which has part in protecting the gland form the HCl and proteolytic enzymes produced by the other cells. The parietal
cells, very numerous in the neck region where they reach the lumen, produce the hydrochloric acid (HCl) of the gastric juice. In
the body and especially in the fundus, the parietal cells are pushed away from the lumen by the chief cells but maintain a
connection with the lumen by intercellular canaliculi (25). The chief cells are the most numerous glandular cells. They produce
pepsinogen which is activated by HCl and converted to pepsin. This breaks proteins down into peptides. In a certain concentration, HCl has a disinfecting function on the contents of the stomach. Lymph nodules (26) (comp. 754) are found between the
basal parts of the gastric glands. The submucosa, muscularis and serosa correspond to those of the esophagus (see 755).
Supplementary microscope slides: Re258c, Am217c, Av114c, Ma332f, Ma333d, Ma335d, Ma336f, Ma3361f, Ho334f, Ho3361e
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 81.24, 16.263, 16.32, 16.321, 21.00, 21.86, 22.77, 23.33, 28.24
11
2415c Small intestine (Duodenum) of the cat, t.s. showing villi, crypts and glands
The small intestine of the cat has the same structure as the human one, which, depending on the contraction of its muscle,
measures 3-4 m from at the pylorus of the stomach. It is suspended from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity by mesenteries
containing blood and lymphatic vessels as well as nerves supplying the intestine. The small intestine is the location of the final
digestion. Digestive juices (bile, pancreatic juices, intestinal juices) enzymatically break up carbohydrates to monosaccharides,
proteins to amino acids, and fats to glycerin and fatty acids. These digestive products are absorbed by the intestinal wall.
The intestine has a structure specialized on digestion and absorption. Conspicuous circular or oblique folds (1) protrude about
1 cm into the intestinal lumen. They are covered with about 1 mm long villi (2). The peristaltic movement of the small intestine is
caused by alternating contractions of the marginal layer of smooth longitudinal muscles (3), of circular muscles (4) below
them and supported by muscles in the submucosa of the folds and in the villi (5). The connective tissue in the submucosa
(6) contains duodenal or Brunner’s glands (7) which are characteristic of the upper part of the duodenum. Tube-shaped
glands or crypts of Lieberkühn (B) open between the villi and extend down as far as the muscularis mucosae. They produce
intestinal juice.
The villi are limited with mucous epithelium, which contains goblet cells (9) and striated resorbing cells (10) covered with
microvilli (11). Both types of cells function only for a short time, and are successively replaced by cells developing mitotically in
the crypts. So every day about 250 g of epithelial cells are shed from the intestine. They constitute the hunger feces, which are
produced during a time of famine no food is taken up. A capillary reticulum (12) connects the arteries (13) and veins (14) in the
villi. A lymphatic vessel (15), ending dead at the tip of the villus, is basically connected with the neighboring vessels. Microvilli
and folds substantially enlarge the surface of the small intestine to about 100 m2. - A network of smooth longitudinal muscles
(16) below their epithelium enables the villi to perform pumping movements (17). They allow the villar surface to contact and
absorb new material and to assist in the transportation of the fluid in the lymphatic vessel.(The numbers and letters mentioned in
the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
Supplementary microscope slides: Av114c, Am217c, Ma334d, Ma338d, Ma339c, Ma335d, Ma341d, Ma346d, Ma343f, Ho337f,
Ho338f, Ho339f, Ho345f. Set no. 6500: Digestive systems (54 microscope slides)
Supplementary microscope slides: 16.28, 16.31, 16.32, 16.321, 16.328, 16.33, 16.34, 16.35, 16.351, 16.40, 89.11, 89.09, 68.71,
28.25, 28.26. Set no. 820: The digestive system of man Part II (16 color slides)
2416d Liver from pig, Sus scrofa, t.s.
The embryonic development of the liver starts in the region of the anterior intestinal portal with a ventral evagination from the gut
endoderm. The liver is the biggest gland of humans. It weighs about 1,5 kg in the adult. Well protected by the ribs, it produces
about 1000 ml of bile a day, detoxicates the blood, functioning as the cemetery of the red blood corpuscles, it decomposes the
erythrocytes to the bile color, it furthermore synthesizes glycogen and specific proteins and stores them together with up to 20%
(1,25 liter) of our blood. All the blood coming from the digestive tract, the spleen and the pancreas passes through the liver. Being
the main chemical laboratory of the body it consumes 12% of its oxygen. That is why blood coming from the liver has the
temperature of 41° C.
The human liver has the same structure as the liver of the pig. The microstructure of our liver was not completely understood
before the forties of the last century: 1-2 mm long oval liver lobules (1) are the structural units. They are covered by branches of
the portal vein (2) which transport venous blood from the intestine. Hepatic sinusoids (4) extending between hepatic cords (3)
connect the portal vein with the central liver vein (5). The cords take food substances from the blood to synthesize body
substances. They detoxicate substances such as alcohol. Bile is produced from decomposition products of the erythrocytes,
collected in the bile canaliculi (6), conducted to the peripheral bile ducts (7) and finally stored in the gall bladder. Decomposition, synthesis, detoxication and storing consume great quantities of energy, which are produced by the oxidation of organic
compounds. The liver artery (8) advances the required oxygen and glucose to the liver. The artery is connected with the liver vein
by capillaries (9). This is a common capillary system connecting an artery with a vein. It should not be mixed up with the special
system connecting the portal vein with the liver vein.
12
All of this makes perfectly clear that any injury of the liver by rupture, stab, shooting etc. is extremely dangerous, that any
reduction of its function e.g. by poisonous substances as alcohol has serious consequences for the whole body.
If bile is not drained off due to an inflammation of the liver it finally passes into the blood stream and causes jaundice. If liver
lobules are seriously damaged by some poisonous substance they are substituted by connective tissue. This subsequently
results in the lethal hepatic cirrhosis.
The left picture shows a transverse section of liver lobules, the right one a spatial reconstruction of a lobule.(The numbers and
letters mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
Supplementary microscope slides: Ho357f, Ho359e, Ho362f, Pa4120e, Pa4133e, Pa4134e, Pa4135e, Pa4136e, Ma359f, Ma360e,
Ma361f, Ma3613f, Ma354d
Supplementary microscope slides: 16.37, 16.38, 16.391, 22.80, 22.47, 23.36, 28.28, 29.24, 29.31, 29.32, 29.50, 29.04, 29.08,
29.02, 89.03, 89.04, 89.05, 83.03, 83.04, 83.05, 83.06, 83.07. Series no. 830: Digestive organs III: liver and pancreas (14 color
slides)
2417d Kidney of cat, t.s. through cortex and medulla
The paired kidneys are suspended by their blood vessels from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. They excrete urine. The
bean-shaped kidney (A) is covered by a capsule (1) of firm connective tissue below which we find the cortex (2) with the renal
or Malpighian corpuscles (2) and the medulla consisting of numerous pyramids (4). Usually two or sometimes three of these
unite to form a papilla (5) the rounded apex of which projects into a calyx (6). All calyces open into the renal pelvis (7), which
finally is continuous with the ureter (8) conducting into the urinary bladder.
The functional unit of a kidney is the nephron (B). It consists of the renal corpuscle (3+C), the proximal convoluted tubule
(9), and Henle’s loop (12) with descending (10) and ascending limb (11). All of them are enclosed by a dense capillary
reticulum (13). The loop’s distal end is continuous with the distal convoluted tubule (14) which finally opens into a collecting
tubule (15). Many of these constitute a pyramid. They open at the tip of its papilla.
13
The human kidney is about 11 cm in length and weighs 120–200 g. It has the same structure as the kidney of the cat. Our right
kidney is smaller than the left one. Both produce urine in two steps:
– Due to the blood pressure about 150 liters (i.e. about a tub full) of primary urine is ultrafiltered from the capillaries (16) of the
glomeruli (17) into Bowman’s capsules (18): glomerular filtrate.
– About 130 liters of this liquid is resorbed by the proximal convoluted tubules and – stimulated by vasopressin, the hormone of
the posterior lobe of the hypophysis – 15 to 20 more liters are resorbed in the distal convoluted tubules (see 76.84). In addition
to poisonous metabolic products (nitrogenous and ammonium compounds, urea, etc.) the primary urine also contains substances valuable to the body, e.g. proteins, glucose, phosphates, chlorides, Na+ and K+ ions. These are recovered in the
various parts of Henle’s loops. Finally, 1–5 liters of urine containing about 50 g of poisonous substances are excreted every
day. The presence of proteins, glucose or others of the valuable substances in the urine indicates a disease.
To accomplish all of this, more than 1 000 liters blood pass through the kidney every days (up to 30% of the blood coming from
the heart). – Humans are able to live with only one kidney. If both kidneys stop working, the body is quickly poisoned if the blood
is not „washed“ in dialysis.
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma413e, Ma414c, Ma415f, Ma416f, Ma417f, Ma418c, Ma421c, Ma422c, Ma423c, Ho411f,
Ho419e, Ho421f, Ho422f, Am225c, Pi159c, Re214c, Av117c
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 16.54, 16.541, 16.56, 16.55, 16.563, 16.565, 16.57, 16.58, 16.59, 28.29, 28.30, 84.02,
84.10, 89.12, 89.13. – Series 840: The urinary organs (12 color slides). – Series 3165: Excretory system (13 color slides)
2418e Ovary of cat, t.s. showing follicle development
The cat’s ovary, though being smaller than the human one, has the same structure and hence is better suited for microscopic
mounts.
The human ovary is an ovoid organ, somewhat flattened on its sides. It weighs 4–7 g and is suspended from the posterior wall of
the abdominal cavity by the mesovarium (1), by the suspensory and the ovarian ligament. The ovary is supplied by a number of
spirally arranged vessels (2). Its cortex (5) consists of an epithelium (3) of cuboidal cells and a layer of fibers (4) continuing
into the medulla (6).
Here, close to the cortex, primary oocytes develop from primordial germ cells. These have migrated from the coecal endoderm by
way of the entodermal gut and dorsal mesentery into the epithelium of the genital ridge, the initial stage of the ovary.
In oogenesis, the development of the female reproductive cells, the following phases are distinguished:
– Reproductive phase: mitotic divisions of the primordial germ cells result in the formation of 400 000 to 1 million primary
oocytes before birth. They remain in the prophase of the first meiotic division until in puberty the
– phase of growth begins. Mitoses have stopped. The egg cell grows in size due to the production of yolk material by the
nourishing cells. During puberty the first meiotic division ends, the second division starts but is not ended for the time being.
A
– primary follicle (8) develops consisting of one layer of follicular cells and a primary oocyte. It soon becomes a
– secondary follicle (9) with several layers of follicular cells and a secondary oocyte due to the action of follicle stimulating
hormone FSH secreted into the blood stream by the hypophysis (see series 763: Hormones III). Now the follicular diameter
is 0,2 mm. It develops into a
– Graafian or tertiary follicle (10) by the formation of follicular fluid. The mature Graafian follicle attains a size of 1,5–2 cm.
Its egg has a diameter of 0,11–0,14 mm. It produces oestradiol which stimulates the production of luteinizing hormone LH
in the hypophysis. When a certain ratio of LH : FSH is attained the follicle ruptures (11). The
– phase of maturation is terminated with the second meiotic division. The luteinizing hormone now stimulates the
– development of the corpus luteum, the transformation of the follicular wall (12) into the corpus luteum (13).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma433g, Ma4332f, Ma434d, MaMa4342e, Ma435c, Ma438d, Ma440d, Ma255e, Ho429f,
Ho430f, Ho434f, Ho435f, Ho438f, Ho439f.
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 16.77, 16.78, 16.79, 16.793, 16.82, 28.31, 28.32, 28.33, 28.34, 28.35, 28.36, 28.37,
28.38, 28.41, 71.31, 71.32, 74.06, 89.28, 89.29, 86.70. Series 3360: Development of follicles in mammalian ovary (12 color
slides). Series 710: Reproduction (37). Series 763: Hormones III (68 ).
14
2419d Testis of mouse, section showing spermatogenesis
The mature human testes are 4–4,5 cm in length. Due to their position in the scrotum their temperature is 2–5° C less than in the
abdominal cavity. Spermatogenesis functions only at this lower temperature.
Each testicle is enclosed in a dense fibrous capsule (1) which extends into connective tissue septa (2), partitioning the organ
into 200–300 lobules (3). They contain the 30–60 mm long convoluted seminiferous tubules (4), the location of spermatogenesis. The tubules empty into the rete testis (5), an irregular network of channels from which about 15 ductuli efferentes (6)
arise. They converge to form the ductus epididymis (7). It is continuous with the ductus or vas deferens (9).
Spermatogenesis starts during puberty, when the hypothalamus starts the production of the releasing hormone FSH-LH-RH,
which stimulates the anterior lobe of the hypophysis to produce FSH and LH. (The gonadotropic hormones produced by the
anterior lobe of the hypophysis to stimulate the gonads are the same in both sexes). LH stimulates the cells of Leydig or
interstitial cells (10) between the seminiferous tubules to produce testosterone, which in its turn stimulates the development of
the secondary male sex characteristics. FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells (11) within the seminiferous tubules to produce androgen-binding protein. Combining with testosterone it renders spermatogenesis possible (comp. set no. 763: Hormones III):
– Reproductive phase: Spermatogonia (12) at the basal membrane divide mitotically. One of the two daughter cells goes on
dividing mitotically while the other one enters the
– Maturation phase as a spermatozoa mother cell (13). Meiosis results in the formation of four haploid spermatids (14),
which mature to become four spermatozoa (15): two female gynecospermia (22 + x) and two male androspermia (22 + y).
They first cluster around the Sertoli cells (11) but later pass through the seminiferous tubules into the epididymis to be stored
till ejaculation. Human spermatozoa are about 60 µm long.
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma462d, Ma463d, Ma464d, Ma466d, Ma467d, Ma468d, Am146e, Am229d, Ho460f, Ho461f,
Ho463f, Ho466f, Ho467f, Ho468f
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 16.789, 16.81, 16.82, 28.40, 28.41, 28.42, 22.736, 71.11, 71.12, 71.13, 74.05, 90.57,
91.08, 89.29. Set no. 710: Reproduction (37 color slides), set no. 763: Hormones III (68 color slides)
2420d Cerebrum, human, t.s. of cortex showing pyramid cells and fibrous region
The cerebrum consists of the inner white matter (1) with ganglionic masses and the grey matter or cortex (2) which covers the
convolutions and fissures of the cerebral hemispheres. With an area of about 200 000 mm2 and a thickness varying between 1.5
and 4 mm, it contains the bodies of nearly 14 billion neurons together with nerve fibers, neuroglia and blood vessels.
The cerebral cortex is formed by six layers. The molecular layer (a) is the outermost one. It consists chiefly of cell processes and
horizontal cells interconnecting neighboring cortical layers. The underlying external granular layer (b) is characterized by small,
triangular cell bodies. The following pyramidal layer (c) is composed of relatively large pyramidal cells and many granule cells.
The pyramidal cells (3) are typical of the cerebral cortex and are characterized by a pyramidal shaped cell body (4) with an
apical dendrite (5) directed toward the surface of the brain and an axon (6) leaving the cellular base to course into the white
matter. They provide the principal output of the cortex, whereas the granule cells (7), characterized by their small cell body,
numerous dendrites coursing in various directions, and a relatively short axon provide the input. The internal granular layer (d)
is chiefly made up of stellate or granular cells. The following ganglionic layer (e) contains large and medium sized pyramidal
cells, and the innermost multiform layer (f) contains cells of widely varying shape.
The grey matter of the cerebral cortex is made up of nerve cell bodies and has an interconnecting function, whereas the white
matter consisting of nerve fibers, axons, is conducting. There are sensory cortical areas representing the different parts of the
body. Other areas are connected with the inition and control of motor activities or with speech, hearing, seeing, etc. Association
areas are linked with motor and sensory regions. In humans, finally, there are areas of higher mental activities. (More about the
structure and function of the brain is found in the series 856 „The Human Brain“).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma512f, Ma514d, Ma521e, Ma518f, Ma522e, Am230c, Am231f, Av123d, Pi161d, Ho511f,
Ho5125f, Ho512g
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 17.03, 17.02, 17.036, 17.08, 17.104, 17.105, 17.082, 28.49, Set no. 856 The Human
Brain
15
2421d Cerebellum of cat, t.s. showing Purkinje cells
Characteristic of the cerebellar cortex and its functions are the Purkinje cells. They have a most conspicuous structure and were
discovered by JOHANNES EVANGELISTA RITTER VON PURKINJE (1787–1869, professor at the universities of Breslau and
Prague). Similar to an espalier tree the Purkinje dendrites (1) branch fan-like within the molecular layer in a plane at right angles
to the long axis of the cerebellar fold. The axon (3), arising from the opposite pole of the cell body (2), extends through the white
substance to one of the cerebellar nuclei. A collateral (4) branches off the axon. The cerebellar cortex contains about 15 millions
Purkinje cells.
The cerebellum has two entrances: through the mossy fibers and through the climbing fibers, but only on exit, through the
Purkinje axon. All neurons of the cortex except the granule cells (5) have an inhibitory function. That is why an input is extinguished already within 0,1 sec, and the cerebellar region is ready to receive the next input. Due to this automatic „clearing“ quick
movements are possible.
Programs, formed by earlier experiences, are stored in the cerebellar cortex. They are called upon by the input and have an
inhibitory function by association with the Purkinje cells. Thus an unrestrained building up of the cerebrocortical pyramid cells is
checked efficiently. Figuratively spoken: Just as much of a crude block is carved away to leave the desired sculpture. So the build
up of cerebrocortical associations are influenced by the Purkinje-function (Detailed information in given in the color slide series
856: The human brain).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma511f, Ma512f, Ma514d, Ma515f, Ma518f, Ma521e, Ma522e, Ma525d, Ma526d, Ho511f,
Ho512g, Ho5125f, Ho5126g, Ho514f, Ho5155f, Ho5125f, Ho5126g, Ho514f, Ho515g, Ho5155f, Ho5156g, Ho517g, Ho525g, e.a.
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 17.08, 17.082, 17.09, 17.10, 17.104, 17.105, 17.11, 22.873, 23.624, 28.49, 28.50,
84.83, 84.84. 84.89. – Series 3171: The nervous system (25 color slides). – Series 856: The human brain (45). – Series 850: The
nervous tissue (24). – Series 847: The nervous system of the vertebrates (30).
16
2422c Spinal cord of cat, t.s.
The embryonic development of the spinal cord starts with the neural plate, a thickened ectodermal band extending on the middorsal line of the germinal disc. It folds to form the neural groove, bound on each side by an elevated neural fold. Both folds
meet and fuse, rolling the original plate into the neural tube. The fusion line remains to become the dorso-median septum (1)
of the spinal cord and the lumen of the neural tube becomes the central canal (2). This is enclosed by the grey substance (3)
containing the dorsal (4), lateral (5) and ventral grey columns (6). The grey commissure (7) is constituted by fibers connecting the left side with the right one. Numerous nervous cell bodies are to be seen in the grey substance. Motor axons (8) of root
cells in the ventral grey columns extend into the ventral root (9) of the spinal nerve (10). Sensory dendrites (12) extend
through the dorsal root (12) to the cell bodies constituting the spinal ganglion (13) from where sensory axons (14) are linked
with intermediate neurons (15) in the dorsal column. These connect with neurons in the lateral and the ventral columns. The
arrow indicates the direction an impulse is conducted. The grey substance is a connecting organ whereas the white substance (16) is a conducting one. Here myelinated fibers (17) are transverse sectioned. The white substance of the spinal
cord is the „biggest nerve of the body“. The ventral or anterior medial fissure (18) separates the left half of the spinal cord
from the right one whereas the fibers of the white commissure (20) connect both halves of the white matter between the basis
of the fissure and the grey matter.
The spinal cord is well protected within the spinal canal of the vertebral column (not visible in the picture). It is covered by the soft
pia mater, „suspended“ in the cerebro-spinal fluid by the arachnoid, which is enclosed by the tough dura mater.
Detailed information about the development and the function of the spinal cord is given in the series 847: The nervous system of
the vertebrates (22 color slides), and 853: The spinal cord (28 color slides).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma525d, Ma526d, Ma527e, Ma528f, Ma529d, Ma531e, Ma532e, Ma533e, Ma534e, Ma540f,
Ma541e, Ma542e, Ma543d, Ma551e, Ma5513f, Ma564f, Ho5252t, Ho5254f, Ho534g, Em609f, Em610f, Em611f, Em612f, Em613f,
E617g, Em619f, Em703f, Em705f, Em711f.
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 17.11, 17.12, 17.123, 17.04. 17.05, 84.72, 84.73, 84.74, 84.75, 84.76, 84.80, 85.32,
85.35. – Series 3171: The nervous system (25 color slides). Series nos. 447 and 853 as mentioned above.
2423e Medullated nerve fibers l.s.
Nerve cells are specialized to initiate and to conduct nervous impulses. A nerve cell or neutron is the structural unit of the nervous
system. It consists of the star-shaped cell body containing the nucleus and numerous shorter tree-like branching processes, the
dendrites, as well as one long process, the axon or the nerve fiber. Dendrites conduct impulses toward the cell body, the axon
conducts them away. An impulse is conducted along the axon with a speed proportional to the root of the axon diameter. This is
relatively slow. Simultaneously much energy is required to restore the axon to its rest potential along its entire length. The
„invention“ of myelin, an insulating substance, and together with this of the myelinated or medullated nerve fiber, which now
conducts impulses with higher speed simultaneously using up less energy, made the development of the vertebrates possible, of
big animals with quick reactions.
The slide shows parts of medullated axons impregnated with osmium tetroxide. This is a very satisfactory microtechnical method
to represent the fine structures of nerve fibers. Osmium tetroxide fixes perfectly. Simultaneously it stains certain cellular substances, making myelin visible by differentiating it grey-black.
The drawing shows Schwann’s cells (1) with the nucleus (4) and the myelin (2) it produces. The node of Ranvier (5) separates
two neighboring Schwann cells. These are wrapped around the axon (6) with numerous windings the marginal pads of which
contain protoplasm. Due to the insulating function of the myelin impulses can develop only at Ranvier’s node and then leap form
one node to the other. As energy to replace the rest potential is consumed only at the nodes this „saltatorial“ conduction of
impulses is most energy-saving. If the human spinal chord consisted only of unmyelinated fibers a diameter of several meters
would be required to produce the same results.
(The numbers and letters mentioned in the text refer to the corresponding diagrams and designs)
17
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma551e, Ma533e, Ma544c, Ma545c, Ma546e, Ma552h, Ma564f, Ma512f, Ma515f
Supplementary microscope slides: 85.70, 85.71, 85.72, 85.73, 85.74, 85.75, 85.76, 17.04, 17.07, 17.082, 17.10, 17.12, 17.149,
17.15, electronmicroscopical pictures: 89.21 and 89.22. Series no. 850: The nervous tissue (24 color slides), Series no. 856: The
human brain with introduction into reception, conduction and transmission of information (45 color slides).
2424e Motor nerve cells, smear from spinal cord of cow showing cell bodies and their processes
Nerve cells or neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. They are specialists for conducting nervous
impulses and, hence, can be very long, attaining lengths of more than 5 feet (1.5 m). A neutron consists of the cell body or
perikaryon (1) which is vital for the survival of the entire cell, and the processes. They are specialized for
–
reception of stimuli (dendrites) (2),
–
conduction of nerve impulses to areas distal from the receptive area (axon) (3),
–
synaptic transmission of the signal to subsequent neurons, to muscle or gland by neurotransmitters in the nerve terminals (4) (effector function).
According to their shape, we distinguish
–
multipolar neurons (a) (a number of dendrites and the axon arise from the cell body, e.g. Purkinje cells (720), pyramid
cells, motor neurons, etc.),
–
bipolar neurons (b) (one process arises from each pole of an elongated cell body, e.g. olfactory peripheral neurons), and
(pseudo-)
–
unipolar neurons (c) (in sensory ganglion, comp. 720).
Nerve cell bodies vary considerably in size (granule cells of the cerebellum 4 µm diameter, human motor cells 135 µm). Motor
neurons are found in the ventral horns of the grey matter in the spinal cord. Their spherical nucleus (5) is generally pale with
widely dispersed chromatin which makes the relatively large nucleolus (6) appear prominent. The cytoplasm contains the Nissl
18
substance or bodies formed by ribosomes (7) and the endoplasmic reticulum (8). Found in the perikarya and in the proximal
parts of the dendrites, but absent from the axon and the axon hillock (9), they and the neurofilaments (10) are the most
characteristic features of the nerve cell cytoplasm. After silver impregnation, aggregates of neurofilaments show under the light
microscope as neurofibrils. Further structures in the cytoplasm are the Golgi apparatus (11), mitochondria (12) (they are
plentiful in the nerve cell body, as well as in the dendrites and axons), microtubules (13), lysosomes (14), and cytoplasmic
inclusions (15) (fat, glycogen, lipofucin).
Dendrites spread like the branches of trees (name) and allow the neutron surface to expand for the reception of axon terminals.
Their surface is often studded with spiny or knobbed excrescences to form synapses (4). Large neurons may receive as many as
100 000 axon terminals on their dendrite surface. There is only one axon arising from the neutron body. It may have side
branches, collaterals (16), but its most prominent branching occurs shortly before its termination in enlarged terminals. (for more
information about the structure and function of the nerve cell see series no. 856 „The Human Brain“).
Supplementary microscope slides: Ma515f, Ma526d, Ma527e, Ma531e, Ma540f, Ma542e, Ma5513f, Ma552h
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 28.44, 17.032, 17.042, 17.05, 17.082, 17.10, 17.15, 89.23, 89.21, 89.22, 85.13, 85.12,
85.15, 85.16, 85.23,
2425d Human scalp, vertical section showing l.s. of hair follicles
Mammals are characterized by their coat of hair. It protects from loss of heat and forms the color pattern. Hairs are horny
structures of the skin.
The growth of human hairs begins in the third month with the eyebrows. Epidermal cells proliferate obliquely through the corium
(2) and into the subcutis (3) where they form the hair bulb (5), into which the papilla (6) pushes from below. It consists of
connective tissue and capillaries. Under high power magnification stages of mitotic divisions as well as pigment cells can be
found in the epidermal layer covering the papilla. In this germinal layer cell divisions take place, and the daughter cells become
pigmented. They are pushed forward by consecutive cell divisions forming the hair (in the transparency: orange), which grows
outward through the epidermal root sheath (8) (red). The root sheath is enclosed by the connective tissue sheath of the hair
follicle (9) (blue). It contains capillaries and a network of free nerve endings which are easily stimulated if the hair is slightly bent.
So every hair also functions as a tactile organ. If in the run of the years the pigment cells loose their pigment the hairs become
white. The more air spaces they contain the more they shine.
On the lower side of the obliquely directed follicle a lobular evagination of the root sheath into the corium becomes the sebaceous gland (10). Its excretory duct empties into the neck of the follicle. The sebaceous cells produced by the marginal germinal
layer disintegrate to form a fatty substance which renders the hair water-repellent and pliant. Sebaceous glands are holocrine
glands, their cells disintegrate to become the secretions.
Below the sebaceous gland the smooth arrector pili muscle (11) is attached to the root sheath. Upon cooling down or shock the
muscle contracts, erecting the hair and lifting the surrounding skin: goose-pimples. The exerted pressure simultaneously causes
the sebaceous gland to empty.
The human hair grows 0,20-0,30 mm/day. It lives from 1/2 to 4 years. Every day about 100 hairs are shed. In a manner similar to
the replacement of the milk teeth they are pushed out of the follicle by the replacing hair. The visible part of the hair is called the
hair-shaft (13). The hair root (12) is hidden in the skin.
The ideal longitudinal section of a hair is rarely found in a normal slide. It can be composed from successive sections. A good
longitudinal section is furnished by this photomicrograph. Here the epidermis (1) is red, the connective tissue of the corium (2)
blue, the subcutaneous fat cells (4) violet, vesicular. Numerous tubular sweat glands (14) are cross sectioned in the peripheral region of the corium (in the picture red, because they are epidermal). - (The numbers mentioned in the text refer to the
diagram).
Supplementary microscope slides:
Ma636d, Ma637d, Ma640c, Ma643f, Ma642d, Ma644d, Ma651d
Supplementary projection slides 35mm: 17.79, 17.80, 17.81, 17.812, 17.814, 17.823, 17.5
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LIEDER
Our Product Line:
Prepared Microscope Slides
For Zoology, Histology, Botany, Bacteriology, Cytology, Parasitology, Pathology, Medical Sciences, Embryology, Ecology, Technology, Vocational Training. – LIEDER high quality microscope slides are made in our own laboratories under
rigorous scientific control. The slides are expertly produced from carefully selected specimens and brilliantly stained to
augment, contrast and differentiate delicate structural details. Size 26 x 76 mm (1 x 3'’), best glasses with fine ground
edges. – LIEDER microscope slides meet all scientific requirements.
Multimedia Program for Biology
The new MULTIMEDIA PROGRAM FOR MICROSCOPIC BIOLOGY aims to give a strictly outlined synopsis of all
those lines of biology important for instruction at schools, colleges and universities and suitable for working with the
microscope. The following media are offered with the Multimedia Program: Prepared microscope slides - Colour photomicrographs 35 mm - Color atlas of overhead projector transparencies - Manual with detailed descriptions and drawings
- Complementary media package with overhead transparencies, sketch- and work sheets.
Multimedia Packages for Teachers and Students
LIEDER offers a new range of MULTIMEDIA PACKAGES OF LIFE SCIENCE for interactive learning and teaching in
school and education. Well selected media packages of 6 and 12 units with microscope slides, color overhead
transparencies, sketch- and work sheets, descriptions and pictures of the drawings serve the teacher to work with the
subject during the lessons. .
Overhead Projector Transparency-Atlases
Color Overhead Transparencies as modern visual aids become more and more part of biology, physics and chemistry
teaching programs. The atlases consist of 24 to 42 transparency sheets (size 22 x 26 cm) comprising a great variety of
beautiful drawings, diagrams, tables, anatomical pictures, brilliant micro- and macrophotographs, electron and X-ray
photographs, impressive life cycles, human photographs, landscape photographs, scenes, test data and results. Each
Transparency Atlas is accompanied by a comprehensive interpretation text giving a detailed description of all pictures.
Our multi-colored transparencies are printed by a special process and excel by reason of their high projection quality.
New Teaching Media “Knowledge and Education on CD-ROM”
We offer a new range of more than 30 CD-ROMs for interactive learning and teaching in school and education. All
pictures and illustrations are taken from our own stocks to guarantee superior quality. Every CD comprises the following
topics: A great variety of beautiful diagrams, color photos, tables, anatomical pictures, life cycles, test data and results
with detailed explanations, necessary for teaching the subjects. Slides can be observed with a Virtual Microscope. A
special test program is implemented to check the knowledge of the pupils. An automatically running demo-program in
every CD-ROM. Special accompanying material enables evaluation of what has been seen and creative learning. Texts
will be in five languages (English, German, French, Spanish and Portuguese).
Color Photomicrographs (Original-Exposure)
LIEDER projection slides on 35 mm film. In order to obtain the maximum quality all LIEDER Color Slides are Original
Exposure. They are of high definition and clarity, coupled with color reproduction which has resulted in slides of unsurpassed quality. Mounted between glass in solid dust proof 50 x 50 mm (2 x 2'’) plastic frames of best quality.
Color Projection Slides
A comprehensive program of over 100 series for modern teaching in biology, physics and chemistry: Human locomotor
system - Digestive system - Circulatory and respiratory system - Reproduction - Hormones - Nervous tissue - Nervous
systems - Transmission of information - Human brain and spinal cord - Sense organs - Cytology - Molecular genetics Electron micrographs - Mendelism - Variability - Human genetics - Origin and evolution of life - Our environment, threats
and protection - Our waters, pollution, protection and recycling - The forest, essential to Life - Protecting crops from
damages and diseases - Plant societies - Ecosystems - Animals and Plants - Structure of the Matter - Electricity and
Magnetism - LIEDER slides are mounted between glass in solid dust-proof 50 x 50 mm (2 x 2'’) frames.
Drawing Sheets for Human Biology, Textbooks and Manuals
Drawing sheets, transparencies and explanatory comments for the teacher. Motion: skeleton, muscular system, apparatus of motion. – Metabolism: nutrition, respiration, circulatory system, excretion. – Control System: sense organs,
nervous system, hormones, information. – Genetics: reproduction, embryonic development, transmission.
Please write for free catalogues
JOHANNES LIEDER GmbH & Co. KG
Prepared Microscope Slides – Publishers of Transparencies and CD-ROM
D-71636 Ludwigsburg Solitudeallee 59 P.O.Box 724 Germany
Tel:: + 49 7141 921919 Fax: + 49 7141 902707 Telex: 7264555 lied d
Homepage:
www.Lieder.de www.Lieder.com
Email: [email protected]
Welcome in our new HOMEPAGE www.lieder.de and www.lieder.com. Visiting our web-site you will find a
comprehensive depictured presentation of all our products in five languages.
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