TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
CHAPTER 2 2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING? .......................
WHO CAN LEARN TO THINK CRITICALLY? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WHAT ARE YOU EXPECTED TO LEARN IN THIS
CHAPTER?......................................
DISCUSSIONS, DISAGREEMENTS, ARGUMENTS,
AND FIGHTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WHEN IS IT STUPID TO ARGUE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL STATEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
COUNTEREXAMPLES ..............................
"PROOF" BY FAILURE TO FIND A COUNTER·
EXAMPLE ........................................
IS YOUR THINKING STUCK IN A RUT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS. . . . . . ..
2
3
4
5
7
10
12
14
15
22
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
SYMBOLS USED IN THIS CHAPTER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
"OR" SENTENCES AND THEIR TRUTH VALUES. . . . . . . . ..
"AND" SENTENCES AND THEIR TRUTH VALUES. . . . . . . ..
DOUBLE NEGATIVES AND MULTIPLE "~" SIGNS .........
NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS. . . . . . . . . . ..
"IF·THEN" SENTENCES .............................
TRUTH VALUES OF "IF·THEN" SENTENCES .............
PROPOSITION, CONVERSE, INVERSE,
CONTRAPOSITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
SUBSTITUTION OF CONVERSE OR INVERSE FOR
ITS PROPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
"ONLY IF" SENTENCES AND THEIR TRUTH VALUES ......
ARGUMENTS, PREMISES, AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . ..
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS ........
26
28
30
32
34
36
37
42
46
47
50
53
CHAPTER 3 - SOME BASIC CONCEPTS FOR CRITICAL
THINKING
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "PROBABLE"
AND "POSSIBLE"? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
ALLEGORIES, OLD SAYINGS, AND LITERARY
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
PEOPLE MAY HAVE DIFFERENT FEELINGS ABOUT
THE SAME WORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
A CHANGED DEFINITION MAY PRODUCE A
CHANGED CONCLUSION ............................
DON'T JUMP TO A CONCLUSION-THE OBVIOUS
ONE MAY BE WRONG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
EYEWITNESSES AND CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE ......
IMPLICATIONS AND INFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS . . . . . . ..
CHAPTER 4 4.1
4.2
58
59
63
65
70
72
77
79
COMMON ERRORS IN REASONING
CIRCULAR REASONING ............... '.' ............ 86
"PROOF" BY SELECTED INSTANCES .................. 87
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CHAPTER 1 -
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
AVOIDING THE QUESTION ...........................
SPECIAL PLEADING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
FAKING A CONNECTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS. . . . . . .
88
90
91
93
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
"BANDWAGON" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
REPETITION ......................................
"TRANSFER" .....................................
"TESTIMONIAL" ...................................
"EXIGENCY" .....................................
"FREE" AND "BARGAIN" ............................
"GLITTERING GENERALITY" .........................
INNUENDO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
"NAME·CALLlNG" .................................
MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES ......................
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS ........
CHAPTER 6 6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
98
99
100
101
1 03
105
1 06
1 08
110
112
114
116
ADVERTISING AND SCHEMES
INTRODUCTION ...................................
"GET RICH QUICK" SCHEMES .......................
WHAT'S IN A NAME? ...............................
ADVERTISING SELLS IDEAS .........................
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES ...........................
STUPID ADVERTISEMENTS ..........................
MISCELLANEOUS SCHEMES ........................
ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT ADVERTISEMENTS .........
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS ........
120
120
122
122
124
126
127
129
132
CHAPTER 7 - EXAMINING ARGUMENTS AND VALUE
JUDGMENTS
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
RULESOFASOCIETY ..............................
PROTECTION OF THE LAW ..........................
EMOTIONAL WORDS AND ARGUMENTS ...............
DOUBLE STANDARDS ..............................
WHERE DO YOU DRAW THE LINE? ....................
ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD ARGUMENT .................
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS .... '.' ..
CHAPTER 8 8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
136
136
140
142
146
149
153
LEARNING TO BE OPEN-MINDED
INTRODUCTION ...................................
LOOKINGATTWOSIDESOFANISSUE ................
RECOGNIZING ISSUES AND SUPPORTING POINTS .......
ANTICIPATING ARGUMENTS FOR THE OTHER SIDE ......
FINDING ARGUMENTS OF YOUR OWN .................
DEBATING .......................................
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS ........
156
157
160
164
166
167
170
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173
INDEX ..... ...................................... 176
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CHAPTER 5 - PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES
One technique used in propaganda is called "bandwagon."
The main idea of the bandwagon technique is "join the group."
Example 1:
Ida: "Mom, Janie's invited me over to her house for a pajama
party tonight. May I go?"
Mom: "No, not yet. Wait until you're a year or so older. Then I
won't mind."
Ida: "But Mom, all the other girls in my class are allowed to go
to pajama parties. Their moms say OK and let them go. Please,
Mom?"
--We see that Ida is using "bandwagon" on her mother.
"Bandwagon" may be used to make you think that if you don't
go along with what's suggested, then you're old-fashioned, not
up-to-date, or against progress-that is, you're not one of the
group.
Example 2:
Buford: "How about a kiss? Or two or three?"
Carrie: "No, I'm saving my kisses until that Special Someone
comes along."
Buford: "Nobody's had that attitude for the past fifty years, so
I know you're not serious. You just want to be coaxed a little,
right?"
Buford is using the bandwagon technique on Carrie.
CLASS DISCUSSION PROBLEMS
For each problem, tell whether or not "bandwagon" is being used.
1. Telephone canvasser: "This is the X Home Improvement Co.
calling. We know that your home is not a new one and that it
probably needs some work done on it. We've been doing
extensive home improvement work in your area recently, and
several of your neighbors are having us in to do work on their
homes now. We wondered if we might come to see you while
we're in your neighborhood and give you a free estimate on
the cost of doing any improvements you might have in mind?"
2. Teacher: "We're a little behind where we should be at this
point, so over the Christmas vacation, I'd like to have you
read pages 175-190 and do the exercises included in those
pages."
Student: "Hey, whaddaya tryin' to do to us? Nobody else
gives us homework over Christmas vacation. Some of the
other teachers were going to give us homework, but they
changed their minds and told us to get a good rest and then
we'd catch up when we got back. Can't we do that in this
class, too, please?"
3. TV advertisement: "This offer expires at midnight tomorrow!
Don't miss the opportunity of a lifetime! Order NOW!"
4. Advertisement: "Make your home the showpiece of your
neighborhood! Call us today for a free estimate on
remodeling your home!"
99
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5.2 "BANDWAGON"