Glaciated
Environments
by Angharad Harris
W
hilst 12% of the Earth’s surface is currently ice-covered
(glaciated), a much larger proportion has been covered
by ice sheets and valley glaciers in the past. Some areas
still lie on the impermanent boundary between what is and what
was once a glaciated environment.
of Wales – from the summit of Snowdon, with its spectacular
arêtes and cirques, to the shores and sarnau (morainic ridges)
of Cardigan Bay. Whether the area under consideration is
‘post-glacial’ or ‘glacial’ in character, the environment will offer
opportunities for people. But it may also limit human activity.
The evidence of ice action is evident the length and breadth
Listed below are examples of:
‘Post-glacial’ areas
Glacial areas
Snowdonia
The Alps
The Brecon Beacons
The Himalayas
The Lake District
The Andes
The Cairngorms
The Rockies
Loch Lomond
In Britain most of the areas bearing the imprint of glacial activity,
namely the uplands in particular, are National Parks. Such areas
were designated National Parks in order to:
l safeguard and improve the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage
l provide opportunities for leisure and access to the countryside.
The aims of National Parks, and the fact that much of the
‘post-glacial’ uplands of the United Kingdom (UK) have been
designated as National Parks, are an indication that
l there is a need to safeguard them from damage
l these areas include wildlife of particular interest
l since time immemorial, people have been drawn to these environments by the opportunities that they provide – were it not so, there would be no cultural heritage to safeguard.
In Cwm Idwal, you can follow in the footsteps of Charles Darwin
and his geological mentor, Adam Sedgwick, by treading a firstclass footpath which provides opportunities to learn about the
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The Geography Magazine
glaciation of Snowdonia, or you can follow one of several paths
that lead to the summit of Pen y Fan in order to study how
the valleys to the north and south of the Brecon Beacons were
sculpted by ice, and the clear opportunities that arose as a result
of glacial erosion.
But there is one National Park in the UK which experiences
the full vagaries and extremes of mountain weather, including
prolonged wet or snowy winters.
Until 2009, late-lying snowpatches characterized parts of
the Cairngorms National Park (Ùghdarras Pàirc Nàiseanta a’
Mhonaidh Ruaidh) in Scotland. This mountain mass, which
bears all the hallmarks of glaciation, is the largest area of ‘arctic’
character in the United Kingdom and its climate lies close to
the boundary between one characterized by small, late-lying
snowpatches or an absence of such snowpatches. It is the largest
ski resort in the UK and one of two areas (Glencoe is the other)
where devoted teams of people (SAIS – SportScotland Avalanche
Information Service) have attempted to reduce the dangers
posed by snow avalanches and the fatalities arising from them.
Glaciated Environments
Cairngorms National Park
Some facts and figures
Area: 3,800km2 (a consultation is underway to assess whether it should be increased in size by including the area towards
Blair Athol)
Population: 61,000 (Snowdonia NP: 1324km2; population 25,482)
10% of the land is over 800m above sea level; 68% over 400m
80% of the economy is dependent upon tourism
25% of the Park’s landscape is protected under European conservation designations
Strongest wind recorded: 173mph
Lowest temperature recorded: -27.2°C
Annual precipitation: 2000mm
The area includes remnants of the Caledonian pine forest – remains of the tundra in the UK
The red squirrel is more numerous here than the grey squirrel
Why is this environment important?
The opportunities provided by the environment are important
to today’s economy. There’s a higher percentage working in
agriculture, hunting and fishing (5.7%) within the Park as
compared with Scotland generally (2.1%), whilst the number
working in hotels and restaurants (19.4%) is substantially more
than the percentage for Scotland as a whole (5.7%).
Forestry and land management
Following the retreat of the ice masses that once covered the
entire area, in all probability, a montane ecosystem developed
over the uplands. Following the growth of birch, willow and
juniper trees on the higher ground, Scots Pine established itself
in the valleys, resulting in the formation of the Caledonian forest.
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The forest has been exploited on a considerable scale and timber
derived from it has been exported since the seventeenth century.
The quickest way to extract the trees was by floating them
down the River Spey. By today, only 20% of the original forest
remains intact. Although natural regeneration has taken place,
overgrazing has prevented the re-establishment of the forest and
hence the supply of timber trees has become scarce. In order to
ensure a supply for the future, tree planting has taken place in
the area. Between 1947 and 1988 the area under forest increased
by 90% thereby transforming areas of blanket mire/bog. Because
land was being drained by the opening of ditches, increased
areas of blanket bog gave way to areas of poor grassland. Where
grazing is intense, regeneration of the natural forest is unable to
take place.
Glaciated Environments
Forest management
strategy
Scotland’s Forest Strategy and
Biodiversity
Strategy
encourage
the planting of native trees, for the
benefit of the environment and the
local economy. This is achieved by
cooperating with the large estates. This
work is made easier as a result of the fact
that large areas of land have recently
been acquired by various societies and
trusts. Planted Ancient Woodland Sites
(PAWS), namely areas that were once
ancient woodlands, are now also being
restored as part of Scotland’s strategies.
Conifer plantations are gradually being
cleared and replaced by native trees.
However, the work is of a sensitive
nature. The deer and grouse hunting
industry will suffer in the face of too
many trees, and the income of some of
the large estates will decline. One must depend on these estates
to undertake some of the environmental conservation work
and therefore areas to replant must be carefully chosen. In the
woodlands of Glenmore, the Scottish Forest Alliance has been
working to increase the number of black grouse in the area by
making the deer fences more evident. Six years after beginning
the work, 28 black grouse were recorded, twice the size of the
initial population.
The montane environment
The UK’s largest extent of a landscape of ‘arctic’ character lies
above 600m. The high, open ground is often snow-covered and
the soil poor. This fragile environment is vulnerable as a result of
overgrazing and people pressure.
Here, the main problem is deer grazing, rather than that of sheep
grazing. Where grazing is intense, vegetation is low in height and
the regeneration of woodland is of limited success. Some people
are of the opinion that an increase in the number of visitors to the
area would encourage the deer to move more often and to graze
less intensively. However, this in all probability would only shift
the problem to another area. Sheep grazing is intense in some
areas where the ground is more fertile. Shepherding the sheep
would reduce the problem, but increase the cost to landowners.
Overgrazing also has an effect on ground-nesting birds and about
10% of dotterel chicks are killed underfoot.
The stamp of visitors in and around the summit of Cairn Gorm
and Ben Macdui also results in the deterioration of the montane
environment, and conspicuous paths are beginning to develop
as a result of erosion. Although some paths are being renewed,
as is the case in Wales, no decision has yet been taken whether
more definite paths are needed on these exposed uplands. The
fact that bicycle paths have been established on the lowlands, in
order to increase the number of summer visitors, is also having
an effect on the montane environment, since bikes are now to
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The patchwork landscape of Glenmore
be seen on the upland areas. Rangers are attempting to educate
bikers and ensure that they act responsibly on the mountains,
whilst those who organise open-air activities are being urged
to adopt the NP’s ‘brand’ and the environmental endeavour
that that entails. Scottish landowners, like their counterparts
in Wales, have ‘discovered’ the quad-bike, which scars the land,
particularly during wet weather, whilst the general pollution
caused by visitors is a problem to be seen everywhere.
However, pollution of an unusual type is having a harmful effect
in parts of the NP.
The summit of Cairn Gorm in February
Glaciated Environments
‘The Poo project’
During winter, when the ground
is frozen or snow-covered, human
faeces are creating a problem in the
uplands. Since visitors are out during
the day and increasingly at night, ‘poo’
is a problem that is on the increase.
Those who choose to camp wild (the
creation of snow shelters is popular)
would normally bury their ‘poo’ but
that is not possible in this ‘arctic’
environment. Although visitors
may bury their ‘poo’ in the snow,
once the snow melts their stinking
faeces, which is a source of disease,
surfaces. Furthermore, it changes the
nature of the thin soils and hence the
plants growing on them, and pollutes
rivers. Since 2007, pots and bags
are distributed free amongst those
who plan to be on the mountains
overnight. On their return, there is a
specific point at the foot of the mountains which deals with the
‘poo’ in an appropriate way, and after the pots are washed and
sterilized, they are reused. To date, conscientious mountaineers
have been more than prepared to co-operate.
The Cairngorms National Parks’ Open-air Access strategy is a
five-year strategy which seeks to reduce and solve any problems
that arise. Since it has yet to run its full course, only time will
tell whether it proves to be a success. However, it is based on
sustainable principles – a network of paths linked to public
transport serving the local community, which allows children
to cycle to school and visitors to travel without using their cars.
The core network of paths, currently being developed, is already
succeeding to persuade visitors to abandon their cars, and venture
far from their vehicles in areas such as Loch Morlin, whilst also
offering opportunities to the disabled and bikers.
The impact of visitors
Eighty percent of the Cairngorms’ local economy is dependent
upon tourism and this can be attributed, in part, to the fact
that the area was once glaciated. The valleys and mountains,
characterized by cold, wet or snowy winters and warm summers,
attract visitors throughout the year. This creates employment
for local people and keeps them within the area, who in turn
maintain and safeguard the environment so that it will continue
to offer employment in the future – a delicate balance to achieve
in an area of variable mountain climate.
Over 1,000 tourism companies operate in the area and 5,200 jobs
ar dependent upon tourism. In 2006, visitors to the area spent
£179 million. There is a difference between the type of tourism
that characterizes the north-western part of the Cairngorms
National Park – the Aviemore area – and the eastern section – the
Deeside area. The railway serving the eastern part closed during
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Loch Morlin
the 1960s and hence to reach the area visitors from the south
must travel along the highest road – Glenshee – within the UK.
l
The main roads and railways follow the lines of the area’s
glaciated valleys, the A9 heading towards the west and the
A93 towards the east. The area, therefore, is within easy reach
of densely populated local areas – Inverness to the north,
Aberdeen to the east, and Edinburgh and Glasgow to the south
– and places beyond Scotland. Despite this, a substantial part
of the NP’s central area lies beyond the reach of roads. Some
44% of those that visit the area for a short holiday are from
other parts of Scotland. Only 15% are foreign visitors.
l For skiing or mountaineering, those from the UK are able
to visit the area without having to produce a passport or
exchange their pounds for Euros, and the train journey to the
area is cheaper than flying to Europe. It is estimated that each
skier to the area spends £100 a day (‘Visit Scotland’ data).
l In the mountains, it is possible to travel by train up to an
altitude of 1097m and ski down, or enjoy the views from the
Ptarmigan restaurant, a stone’s throw above the funicular
railway station, without embarking on the strenuous walk to
the summit. The train is in operation for the greater part of
the year but it is closed during very bad weather.
All visitors to the area require places to stay and spend their
money. Villages such as Aviemore are full of hotels, restaurants
and shops that entice visitors, throughout the year, to spend their
money. In order to maintain this service a good infrastructure is
essential, and systems to cope with waste generated by visitors.
But visitors to the area can have a considerable impact on the
environment that they have come to enjoy.
Since 2003, the Cairngorms National Park’s Sustainable Tourism
Strategy commits the authority to fulfil nine aims:
Glaciated Environments
1 to manage the NP environment in order to secure the highest
possible environmental standard;
2 to work with others so that everybody who’s involved in
tourism understand the strategy and is committed to it;
3 to market and increase awareness of the area for all-the-yearround tourism;
4 to ensure that there are opportunities for everyone to gain
information about the special features of the area, and that
the available information is promoted;
5 to improve the quality of the visit and the welcome extended
to all;
6 to offer opportunities for visitors to appreciate and enjoy the
special area;
7 to strengthen the viability of the tourist industry;
8 to manage visitors and attempt to spread their influence
across the entire NP;
9 to gain the support of the local communities in the process of
planning and developing the area’s tourism.
To go along with this, the Cairngorms National Park has its own
particular ‘brand’, a unique logo portraying an osprey with a fish
in claw together with the Park’s name, and a logo different from
any other NP authority.
The ‘brand’ is awarded to businesses who offer quality and positive
environmental management. Businesses are required to apply
to make use of the ‘brand’ and it is awarded by a management
group consisting of members of the National Park, members of
the Cairngorms’ chamber of trade, and the society representing
the area’s Community Councils.
In order to make use of the ‘brand’ businesses must:
l be members of ‘Visit Scotland’;
l be holders of the bronze award; of the Green Tourism scheme,
or aiming to acquire the award
l and if they offer food, it must be local and of a high standard;
l and if they offer open-air activities, 70% of the activities
must take place within the Park, and they must also sign the
behaviour code entitled Caingorms outdoors, and present an
environmental policy.
Businesses may also avail themselves of free courses aimed at
improving the standard of service offered to visitors and, as a
result, ensure that visitors return to the area.
Hitherto, both the National Park and its ‘brand’ are new and
although significant steps have been taken since its establishment
to create a unique ‘brand’, the large number of visitors attracted
to the area can create problems. By committing themselves
to the sustainable tourism strategy and by ensuring that local
communities are an integral part of the National Park’s working
practice, it is hoped to tackle the problem of second homes. By
establishing all-the-year-round tourism and conservation work
in the area, it is hoped that there will be a decrease in the number
of young people leaving the area in search of employment and
affordable houses.
Conservation and natural hazards – ‘The long walk in’
Until the 1960s the Cairn Gorm mountain was in the hands
of nature – no road led into the area and hence the very long
walk that had to be undertaken to reach the mountain, before
beginning to climb it, kept visitor numbers to a minimum. Since
building the road to the foot of the summit area in the 1960s,
and then opening the funicular railway almost to the summit, the
number of visitors and hence the pressures on the environment
have increased significantly.
Ptarmigan – Cairn Gorm’s mountain centre
The centre offers access to the summit area during winter and this
is the way that all the skiers reach the mountain. During summer,
A scarred landscape – a view down towards the foot of
Cairn Gorm
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The Geography Magazine
The Ptarmigan building and ski slopes of Cairn Gorm
Amgylchedd Rhewlifol
KEY TO RUN DIFFICULTY
SLIGHEAN ÌREAN-DUILGHEADAIS
BLACK RUN (VERY DIFFICULT)
TERRAIN PARK
PÀIRC T Ì RE
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www.cairngormmountain.org
T I O GAI D E AN
DAY LODGE POMA
CAIRNGORM RANGER SERVICE
POMA AN LOIDSE
FREICEADAN A'CHÙIRN GHUIRM
Ski-runs of Cairn Gorm mountain
access is limited to the nearby area alone, so as to prevent erosion
of the summit and the fragile montane environment, which is so
important to the Ptarmigan centre itself. So, in summer, it is only
possible to access the summit on foot.
Natural hazards
Landslides occur in summer, triggered mainly by run-off and
overgrazing; in winter avalanches can cause travel problems and
in the absence of communications products are unable to leave
and visitors are unable to reach the area. Even if a substantial
thickness of snow has fallen, it is of no economic benefit if
visitors are unable to reach the area to enjoy it.
Avalanches result in deaths on the mountains on a yearly basis.
Those who venture out on ‘alpine’ mountaineering days are
provided with an avalanche transponder which sends a signal of a
person’s location in the event of being buried under an avalanche.
Lectures are also on offer to those eager to learn how to recognise
avalanche-prone areas. When a person is injured or killed by an
avalanche, it is more than likely that he or she triggered the event
in the first instance. The problem arises when a fresh layer of
snow accumulates on a layer of older, frozen snow, or when layers
of snow of variable nature accumulate on top of one another; for
example, dry powdery snow on top of wet snow. The steepness of
the slope is also an important factor. An area may suffer a surficial
slide, when only the uppermost layer of snow slides down-slope,
or the down-slope movement of snow and ice en masse, which
exposes the underlying rock surface.
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The Geography Magazine
Climate change
In 2009, the late-lying snowpatch in An Garbh Choire, near
Lochaber, which had long since been a feature of the area, melted.
Such snowpatches served to insulate underlying plants from
extreme weather. With the annual melting of winter snow these
localities became ‘oases’ of colour following the flowering of
flourishing arctic-alpine plants such as various mosses, saxifrages
and blueberry. Seasonal snow is also important in the case of
ptarmigan, whose brown summer plumage turns white in winter,
snow bunting, dotterel and the mountain hare. In the absence
of snow, their winter camouflage is ineffective and they become
more visible to predatory foxes and eagles. As a consequence
their relationship with their habitat is destroyed and biodiversity
suffers. If the area becomes warmer, midges will become an
increasing problem. At present, only the southern margin of the
area is badly effected by them. Deer will migrate upslope and
graze the higher ground if the midges worry them excessively,
and this will increase pressure on the delicate mountain plants.
Ticks not killed by the cold of winter will not only pose a problem
for grazing animals but also for visitors.
Not only will animals have to adapt rapidly to change, but also
tourism businesses. With the prospect of no winter skiing,
diversification will be essential. Can the area cope with a greater
number of summer visitors? Their activities will have a more
intrusive impact on the environment and their imprint will be
longer-lasting. By implementing its strategies the Cairngorms
National Park Authority hopes that it will be able to safeguard
and protect the area for the benefit of the local community
by extending the tourist season and creating a more robust
environment for visitors to enjoy in the future.
Amgylchedd Rhewlifol
Bibliography
Useful websites
The Nature of the Cairngorms, eds Philip Shaw a Des Thompson
(SNH, 2006).
The Natural Heritage of the Cairngorm Massif; Working together for
its Future; Scottish Executive
The Forests of the Cairngorms; Cairngorms National Park; Forest and
Woodland Frameworke© CNPA 2008.
Enjoying the Cairngorms; Cairngorms National Park Outdoor Access
Strategy 2007-2012, published by the Cairngorms National Park
Authority
http://www.snh.org.uk/ Scottish Natural Heritage – including
Cairngorms Learning Zone
www.visitaviemore.com
www.cairngormmountain.co.uk
www.sais.gov.uk
www.scotland.gov.uk
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