Arkadiusz Zukowski
Katarzyna Maciejewska-Mieszkowska
Populism in speeches of the presidents of the New South Africa
Abstract
In the paper comparative analysis of populism issues in the speeches of the presidents
of the New South Africa - Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma will be conducted
from the perspective of their leadership and political communication. Special attention will be
drawn to such “hot” issues in the contemporary South African politics as: land reform,
corruption, poverty, unemployment and social justice.
Preliminary version of the paper
“Wilson was once asked how long it took him to write a speech. He answered, 'That depends. If I am to speak
10 minutes, I need a week for preparation. If 15 minutes, 3 days. If half hour, two days. If an hour, I am ready
now”.
Woodrow T. Wilson
Populism phenomena is a frequent element of political leaders’ speeches nowadays.
Most often it takes the form of political, social and economical slogans which contain simple
solutions of difficult issues of given community. Politicians construct messages strongly
marked with emotional charge that appeal to basic values and beliefs of given audience 1 in
order to gain listeners and persuade them to politicians’ ideas. They use various rhetorical
figures, such as: rhetorical questions, allusions, word-play, negations, hyperboles or
metaphors to evoke certain emotions and achieve intended effect. However, the trick is to use
them in such a way that the audience receive this message as a spontaneous and genuine, and
not as a elaborated marketing product which is a result of several hours work.
Speech construction is determined by two main factors: an audience and an aim which
is to be achieved by this speech. The main purpose of delivered speech is convincing listeners
to arguments presented by speakers. In case of political speeches it is also fundamental
whether the speech takes place during election campaign or in the post-electoral period.
In the context of above assumptions a speech analysis of three presidents of the New
South Africa (unofficial name of the country after dismantling apartheid and democratic
election in 1994): Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma was conducted applying
the following criteria for choosing research material:
1
See: Leksykon politologii [Lexikon of Political Science], eds. A. Antoszewski, R. Herbut, Third edition,
Wroclaw 1997, p. 312.
- Audience;
- Circumstances in which a speech was delivered (events);
- Raised issues.
Qualitative analysis, comparative method and descriptive method were used in the
research. Overall eight speeches were analyzed: three of N. Mandela, three of T. Mbeki and
two of J. Zuma. To the research the following speeches were chosen: speeches inaugurating
presidency, speeches from sittings of the National African Congress and speeches finishing
their activity as a head of state (except J. Zuma who is currently a President).
Since the chosen speeches have classical composition it is possible to distinguish in
them such elements as: a phrase to the audience, an introduction, a testimonial and
argumentation part and a conclusion. Basic differences are very clear in the content of
speeches, which to varying degrees address political, social and economic issues.
The most attention was drawn to political, systemic and legal issues in the speeches of
Nelson Mandela. His speech from 7th February 1991, delivered for an inauguration of the 48th
National Conference of the African National Congress, was centered above all on the
systemic-legal issues and party organizational issues. The party was about to prepare to
operate in new political conditions which were to arouse in the consequence of party
negotiations with then the South African government and prepare for elections, which were to
take place in 1994. Thus, N. Mandela in the introduction of his speech pointed out: „The week
ahead of us is therefore very important. […] During the few days ahead of us we will have to
take very important decisions which may very well decide the fate of this country for many
years to come”2. As a main goal of sitting he indicated: „We have convened as part of our
continuing effort to make further inputs into the unstoppable offensive to end the criminal
system of apartheid, to transform South Africa into a non-racial democracy and to reconstruct
it as a country of justice, prosperity and peace for all our people, both black and white, in
keeping with the objectives contained in the Freedom Charter”3.
Particular issues, which were to help in the realisation of the main conference goal,
were presented in the testimonial and argumentation part of the speech, which was divided
into the following thematic areas:
- Balance of Forces;
- Negotiations;
2
Nelson Mandela's Opening Address to the 48th National Conference of the African National Congress;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS062&txtstr=1991; (28.06.2014).
3
Ibidem.
- Freedom now;
- National Party4;
- All-Party Congress;
- Constituent Assembly;
- Policy positions;
- Organisational needs;
- Challenges for MK5;
- ANC Constitution.
It’s characteristic that economic and social issues were not raised in the speech. N.
Mandela focused solely on organizational and political activities of the ANC to party
members and used meetings to: create a joint program of activities in the fight against
apartheid in a changing political reality, take concrete decisions related to the gradual
takeover of power in the state and changes of law and the political system of the New South
Africa.
Quite different was the inaugural speech of President N. Mandela which was delivered
on 10th May 1994, in Pretoria. This was no longer “working speech”, because it did not
address the members of the party, but referred to starting of a new phase of declaration of N.
Mandela in politics (as he emphasized) the construction of a new society (“We will build a
society in which all South Africans, both black and whites will walk without fear in the their
hearts, give them an inalienable right to human dignity”)6 and a guarantee of peaceful actions
of the new authorities (“We are committed to building a complete, just and lasting peace”)7.
In the end of the speech it was underlined that: “there is no easy road to freedom. We
know it well that none of us acting alone can achieve success. We must therefore act together
as a united people, for national reconciliation, for nation building, for the birth of a new
world.
Let there be justice for all.
Let there be peace for all.
4
In Afrikaans language Nasionale Party - a white political party in South Africa which governed the country
during apartheid era (1948-1994).
5
MK is abbreviation of Umkhonto we Sizwe (in Zulu language Spear of the Nation) - the armed wing of the
African National Congress.
6
Statement of the President of the African National Congress, Nelson R Mandela, at his inauguration as
President
of
the
democratic
Republic
of
South
Africa;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS176&txtstr=1994; (28.06.2014).
7
Ibidem.
Let there be work, bread, water and salt for all.
Let each know that for each the body, the mind and the soul have been freed to fulfil
themselves.
Never, never and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the
oppression of one by another and suffer the indignity of being the skunk of the world”8.
The end calculation of the speech undoubtedly indicates that, its form and nature are
populist slogans that are impossible to realize in one hundred percent; what is more, N.
Mandela did not specify any means and ways of his achievement. This calculation was
therefore based on wishful thinking, but not on appropriate programme. The experience of
consecutive years shows, negative aspects of social phenomena (such as crime, poverty and
corruption), which was undoubtedly the denial expressed by N. Mandela demands, not only
were not destroyed, but even intensified.
Attention should also be paid to the language that was used in the presented citations.
Words such as for example: justice, peace, freedom, equality, reconciliation and nation are
shaping positive ratings of speech and uniting the tendency of audience9. They are
characterized by a high degree of generality, which means that each of the recipients can
individually interpret in a rather broad context, and thus the speaker can use them without fear
that the audience of this message will not be identified. They are characteristic for the transfer
of a populist persuasion.
The third analyzed speech of N. Mandela delivered at the end of his presidency was a
retrospective, but it was also characterized by a high degree of generality. N. Mandela,
referred to the past alluded primarily five years of his presidency, especially until winning the
elections in 1994 and changes in the political system. He said that “if our peaceful transition
[to move away from apartheid – A.Z, K.M-M] was reaching the entire nation, let us not forget
that this liberation movement in all its formations was primarily responsible for the release of
all of South Africa’s system of oppression”10.
In the final part of a speech which was set forth in a very general manner, he pointed
out the challenges faced his successor and his generation: “The task of this generation is to
assist in the attainment of our long-nurtured dream of peace, justice and development within
8
Statement of the President of the African National Congress, Nelson R Mandela, at his inauguration as
President
of
the
democratic
Republic
of
South
Africa;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS176&txtstr=1994; (28.06.2014).
9
See: B. Dobek-Ostrowska, J. Fras, B. Ociepka, Teoria i praktyka propagandy [Theory and practice of
propaganda], Wroclaw 1999, p. 99.
10
Speech by Nelson Mandela at a farewell banquet in his honour hosted by President Thabo Mbeki;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS084&txtstr=1994; (28.06.2014).
and between nations and regions of the world. Their task is to take the fate of developing
countries and the poor, particularly in Africa”11.
In the speech nothing about the economic and social affairs has been mentioned,
which does not mean that the outgoing President was not aware of their importance, since in
his last sentences he stated that, “it is not easy to rest, while millions continue to bear the
burden of poverty and insecurity”12.
Given the theme of all three speeches it can be concluded that N. Mandela
concentrated in them primarily on issues related to the change of the political system of South
Africa. In contrast, the degree of details in terms of programming and content depended
mainly on the type of audience to which it was directed. In this respect, it is important to
focus on the speech at the ANC conference, which clearly indicates the tasks and problems
that the party must face in order to win elections and, consequently, to take power in the
country and eventually eliminate apartheid. The other two speech had already eminently
solemn and formal character, not a programme one and therefore were shorter, more general
and courtesy. It should also be noted that constructing his speeches N. Mandela used the
characteristic instances of persuasive techniques such as: appointment to the universality of
the court, matching the vocabulary of positive or negative emotional charge (depending on the
needs of occurrence) and periphrases.
Speech by Thabo Mbeki at the end of the 50th National Conference of the ANC,
similarly as in the case of conference speeches of N. Mandela, did not include economic
assumptions as well as social aspects. The ANC leader noted, however, that “as the new
chairman of the party, he has the obligation of delineation of political, social and economic
life of South Africa as a whole”13 and that the conference enabled the participants to identify
their weaknesses as the ruling party, to strengthen the power and pave the way for what is still
ahead of them.
In his speech, mainly he focused on reminding the responsibility of ANC and its
leaders (Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Joseph Johannes Marks, Moses Kotan, Yusuf Dadoo,
Braam Fischer, Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, Dora Tamana, Francis Baard, Ruth Mompati)
and the wrongs caused by system of apartheid on the black people of South Africa. It seems
that the speech used in a retrospective look at the activities and achievements of the ANC was
to serve just release party leaders responsibility for the heritage of “eighty-five years of the
11
Ibidem.
Ibidem.
13
50th National Conference: address by ANC President Thabo Mbeki, at the Mafikeng stadium;
13
http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=2449; (28.06.2014).
12
ANC struggle for social justice, prosperity and peace”. T. Mbeki also stressed that this
experience can help in getting a “new level of social and economic achievements”. The high
degree of generality of these statements does not allow for substantive assessment of the
views expressed, which gives it more character of populist policy statement, although it is
called “working speech’ directed at members of his own party.
On the unresolved social and economic problems of South Africa T. Mbeki pointed
out during the opening remarks of his presidency. Among the biggest problems he mentioned:
poverty; child malnutrition and as the result of this, diseases; unemployment and an increase
in crime among the poor; huge disparities in wealth of citizens; frightening increase in the
number of women and children who are victims of rape and violence; an alarming increase in
the number of people affected by HIV and AIDS; development of organized crime; social
conflicts arising from racial division and discrimination against women and corruption.
According to T. Mbeki, in order to counteract the negative and dangerous phenomena,
there must be tangible process of comprehensive renewal of our country - its revival - driven
by the enormous talent of all citizens, both black and white, made possible thanks to the
knowledge and awareness that we share a common destiny, regardless of the shapes of our
noses”14. In a similar way and style, the then President expressed the hopes and expectations
of the government's activities and cooperation with citizens (e.g. “a government fully aware
that it has entered into a contract with the citizens, to cooperate with them in order to build
together a winning nation”15, “whatever the difficulties, we are moving forward to integrate to
a single nation in the complex process of co-creation and renewal”)16. The speech of T. Mbeki
lacked concrete proposals to solve even one of the growing problems of South Africa,
sometimes even literary style of speech meant that it had a populist approach. The richness of
the used language does not give the essence of substantial content, therefore, the main
purpose of the speech was to gain attention and sympathy of the audience, not the solution to
specific problems. Persuasive nature of the speech was obtained by using, inter alia, portable,
comparison, and presuppositions.
The recent investigation refers to T. Mbeki’s public message to the nation on 21st
September 2008 in which he announced that he was standing down from his position of
President of South Africa. As part of speech there were listed, among others, his achievement
14
Speech
at
his
inauguration
as
President
of
South
http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/1999/mbek0616.htm; (28.06.2014).
15
Ibidem.
16
Speech
at
his
inauguration
as
President
of
South
http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/1999/mbek0616.htm; (28.06.2014).
Africa
June
16
1999;
Africa
June
16
1999;
and the government, to which the outgoing president included: the transformation of the
economy and the longest period of economic growth in the history of South Africa, to help the
poorest people, empowerment of women, the organization of the FIFA World Cup 2010,
South Africa’s choice of a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council and to provide
citizens with respect for the rule of law and human rights. T. Mbeki noted, however, despite
the economic growth, he failed to eliminate disparities in wealth of citizens (“extreme poverty
still co-exists side by side with wealth and abundance”17 and has not resolved the issue of
growing crime and corruption.
The issue of corruption and the development as well as independence of criminal
justice system, was an important part of the whole speech, because it is the allegation of
pressure on law enforcement agencies as one of the factors that led to his resignation as
President of South Africa. The outgoing president said in his message, such as: “I wish to say
categorically that [...] has never violated the law of National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) to
decide who intends to prosecute or to discontinue the proceedings. This also applies to the
painful matter relating to the court proceedings against the president of the ANC, Comrade of
Jacob Zuma”18.
Concluding his speech the President expressed his hope that the new government will
continue to act “in order to achieve a better life for all” and cope with challenges such as
poverty, underdevelopment, unemployment, illiteracy, the issue of public health, crime and
corruption.
Since the end of the presidency of T. Mbeki was due to the political crisis that arose
after the so-called, Zuma’s case, message to the nation included not only a summary of its
activities and achievements, but also ensured the activity in accordance with the law, the
Constitution and the spirit of guiding ideas of the ANC. This was not an instance of courtesy
as was in the case of outgoing speech of N. Mandela, but a kind of settlement of the existing
political activity. It is significant also that although T. Mbeki resigned from his position under
pressure from his own political party, he constantly emphasized his commitment to the party
and its ideals.
Current South African President Jacob Zuma, despite the associated corruption
scandal on 18th December 2007 won the position of President of the ANC in the party
17
Address
to
the
Nation
by
President
Thabo
Mbeki,
http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/2008/mbek0922.html; (28.06.2014).
18
Ibidem.
21
September
2008;
elections defeating T. Mbeki. The speech, which was delivered at the end of the session which
was so fruitful for him at the ANC conference included the following blocks of issues:
- assurance that, despite the rivalry with T. Mbeki for the position of chairman, will “continue
to work together to unite and build a stronger ANC. [...] Both as members of the ANC will
primarily develop good relations of cooperation between the government and the ruling party,
backed by the collective leadership”19.
- ANC policy to determine: economic development of the state agrarian policy, poverty,
crime, HIV and AIDS;
- Identify the main problems of the party, and plans for further development.
As shown by the subsequent experience of the first of these assumptions on
cooperation with President T. Mbeki, J. Zuma failed to achieved them, which in turn resulted
in the resignation of T. Mbeki as President of South Africa.
However, it is important to focus first of all on assumptions of J. Zuma on various
aspects of development of the state. In the first place, the newly elected ANC leader asserted
that under the resolution adopted at the conference, does not provide fundamental changes in
economic issues. The conference established that, investments should develop foreign and
domestic investors and encourage activities at the local level. He noted, however, that creating
a favorable climate for investment need to be careful “not to violate the National Democratic
Revolution”.
One of the factors that is not conducive to economic development and social stability
of the country is a crime, and therefore one of the challenges facing the ANC is conducting
actions to prevent this phenomenon. Unfortunately, J. Zuma’s speech had not included ways
of possible achievement.
As he referred briefly to the methods of combating poverty, unemployment and
underdevelopment, he stated only that there is a plan of “tightening of policy instruments”
having a direct impact on the negative social phenomena.
In his additional speech he urged, “agrarian revolution, calling for the redistribution of
30% of the land in 2014 and support for agriculture and food security while maintaining a
productive agricultural sector”20, and the fight “against HIV and AIDS in all aspects of the
national strategy: prevention, treatment, and providing support for families and individuals
19
52nd
National
Conference:
Closing
speech
http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=2538; (28.06.2014).
20
52nd
National
Conference:
Closing
speech
http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=2538; (28.06.2014).
by
ANC
President
Jacob
Zuma;
by
ANC
President
Jacob
Zuma;
affected and for the infected”21. Unfortunately, in this case, J. Zuma presented a demand
without considering the methods that will help him in his execution.
The third point in the deliberations of the ANC leadership was the situation and
problems which arise within the party. In order to improve the relationship between members
of the group J. Zuma proposed among others:
- “Every problem or issue needs to be thoroughly discussed and resolved in a way to satisfy
all concerned”;
- “Collective leadership will serve all members of the ANC, regardless of whether the person
voted for Thabo Mbeki, Jacob Zuma or any other member or leader. We cannot have a camp
Zuma or Mbeki camp, there is only one ANC”;
- “ANC commitment to gender equality. [...] Our Constitution was unanimously amended to
increase the quota of women in our structures, from 30 to 50 percent [...]. We are committed
to the creation of the material and cultural conditions that enable women to fully develop their
talents and enrich the lives of the people”22.
Comparing his presentation to his party predecessors speeches of J. Zuma undertook
broad issues of economic and social aspects of the activities of the party. However, a large
part of South Africa’s greatest problems (unemployment and poverty) again was only
mentioned as a negative phenomenon, which must be resolved. In the case of the economic
and agrarian policies, specific methods of action were not prescribed (the exception is to
determine rates for the redistribution of land), and declaration of only general assumptions.
Vague and populist nature of the occurrence had also taken place during presidential
inauguration of J. Zuma, its substance can be divided into two main parts: the first, which
accounted for thanks to his predecessors as President for their contribution to the development
of South Africa and declarations of program addressed to citizens. Among the next should be
distinguished commitment on the issue of South Africans life and statements related to their
citizen rights and obligations:
„We make a commitment here and now, before the eyes of the world, that:
For as long as there are South Africans who die from preventable disease;
For as long as there are workers who struggle to feed their families;
For as long as there are communities without clean water, decent shelter or proper sanitation;
For as long as there are rural dwellers unable to make a decent living from the land on which
they live;
For as long as there are women who are subjected to discrimination, exploitation or abuse;
For as long as there are children who do not have the means nor the opportunity to receive a
decent education;
For as long as there are people who are unable to find work, we shall not rest, and we dare not
falter” 23.
21
22
23
Ibidem.
Ibidem.
Address by His Excellency Mr Jacob Zuma on the occasion of his Inauguration as Fourth President of the
Republic
of
South
Africa,
Union
Buildings,
Pretoria,
9
May
2009;
http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/2009/jzum0511.html; (28.06.2014).
The commitment undoubtedly was the most important issues related to domestic
citizens, however, did not contain any specific solutions. What’s more, some of these negative
social phenomena such as corruption, crime and problems of AIDS which steadily increased
during the rule of successive leaders of the ANC, and therefore the same postulate to combat
these problems, without providing a plan of action is clearly a populist approach.
In the same way, J. Zuma kept to ensure civil rights and guarantee the democratic functioning
of the state. The newly elected President has committed himself to:
- The introduction of provisions to guarantee all citizens of South Africa the right to freedom
of speech, protest, organize and practice their faith;
- To guarantee the freedom of the media;
- Deepen the practice of participatory democracy in all spheres of public life;
- To strengthen the democratic institutions of the state;
- The protection of the independence and integrity of those institutions whose mission is to
defend democracy and power control;
- Priority of the government is to be the unity of the nation.
Similarly the socio-economic issues as well as those concerning compliance with the
basic principles of democratic states had declarative character by nature; the essence of the
speech does not state how they will be implemented.
At the end of his presentation J. Zuma announced in addition continuation of the
cooperation “of multilateral and bilateral” in order to eliminate worldwide poverty,
strengthening peace and security and promotion of democracy. We will continue to use
multilateral and bilateral forums and relations to take forward the goals of eradicating global
poverty, strengthening peace and security and to promote democracy and also appealed: “Let
us build a nation that remains forever mindful of its history, of those who have sacrificed so
much, and the many who put down their lives so we can be here today. A nation filled with
the laughter and joy of children. A nation filled with a hope born of the knowledge that if we
work together, we will achieve our dreams”24. It can be observed that, the ending instance of
appeal is so universal in nature that can be applied in principle to most of the speeches of
politicians, regardless of political views represented or political system. J. Zuma also just as
his predecessors, in his speech, used rhetorical figures, which aimed to strengthen the
persuasive nature of his speech. Most of them were repetition, vocabulary characterized by
positive emotional charge and invoking to the universality of the court.
*
*
*
The analysis of selected speeches helped to establish that all characterized by a high
degree of generality in economic and social issues; what is more in the case of N. Mandela’s
speeches, these issues were basically ignored, as his policies focused primarily on a legal
system of South Africa, as can be seen clearly for example in his speech of inaugurating the
conference of the ANC. It is also significant fact that, despite differences in the approach to
economic issues between T. Mbeki (more liberal approach) and J. Zuma (left-wing approach)
in their speeches, these differences were not marked in any way. A common feature of all
24
Address by His Excellency Mr Jacob Zuma on the occasion of his Inauguration as Fourth President of the
Republic
of
South
Africa,
Union
Buildings,
Pretoria,
9
May
2009;
http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/2009/jzum0511.html; (28.06.2014).
occurrences were referring to the history of the ANC and the success of previous leaders of
this group. This treatment was to seek confidence in the audience by the speaker who is aware
of the achievements of his predecessors in order to continue their activities.
The multiplicity, diversity and great magnitude of the problems faced South Africa's
presidents make them incapable, for the presentation of detailed solutions in their speeches;
these politicians also hadn’t made any decision even to identify and clarify which of the issues
were a priority for them. The mere enumeration of the problems to be solved is only wishful
thinking and populist approach, but not substantive. One of the factors that has strengthened
this character was the style of speech and uttered language speech. Rhetorical figures and the
colorful language used by the presidents allowed them for the smooth transition from one
topic to another, what is more, some of the statements had so versatile character that can be
used in the speeches of politicians of every political option no matter to any political system
they would adhere to.
Bibliography:
1. 50th National Conference: address by ANC President Thabo Mbeki, at the Mafikeng
stadium; http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=2449; (28.06.2014).
2. 52nd National Conference: Closing speech by ANC President Jacob Zuma;
http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=2538; (28.06.2014).
3. Address by His Excellency Mr Jacob Zuma on the occasion of his Inauguration as
Fourth President of the Republic of South Africa, Union Buildings, Pretoria, 9 May
2009; http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/2009/jzum0511.html; (28.06.2014).
4. Address
to the Nation by President Thabo Mbeki, 21 September 2008;
http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/2008/mbek0922.html; (28.06.2014).
5. Dobek-Ostrowska B., Fras J., Ociepka B., Teoria i praktyka propagandy [Theory and
practice of propaganda], Wroclaw 1999.
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Third edition, Wrocław 1997.
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National
Congress;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS062&txts
tr=1991; (28.06.2014).
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http://www.dfa.gov.za/docs/speeches/1999/mbek0616.htm; (28.06.2014).
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Thabo
Mbeki;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS084&txts
tr=1994; (28.06.2014).
10. Statement of the President of the African National Congress, Nelson R Mandela, at his
inauguration as President of the democratic Republic of South Africa;
http://db.nelsonmandela.org/speeches/pub_view.asp?pg=item&ItemID=NMS176&txts
tr=1994; (28.06.2014).