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Genetics
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Anaesthesia
Husbandry
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There are a large number of captive breeding colonies of
tammar wallabies in Australia. These are associated with
various universities, CSIRO Divisions, zoos and private
fauna parks. Tammars, being small macropods, can be
kept in large groups in relatively small enclosures.
However, they browse heavily on grass and consequently
it is necessary to spell tammar yards periodically.
Additionally, tammars, along with other macropod
species will ringbark trees, therefore tree guards made of
wire are necessary. Tammars are fed pelleted food
similar to that fed to domestic ruminants from feed bins
which are opened every second day. If no grass is
available, their diet may be supplemented with lucerne
hay. The natural habitat of tammar wallabies is dry
sclerophyll forest, heathlands, coastal scrub, mallee and
woodland thickets (Kennedy, 1992). It is important
therefore to provide shelter of some kind, so hides made
of branches and/or large hollow concrete tubing are
placed in each yard.
Tammar wallabies are of a size which makes
them relatively easy to catch, at least for experienced
handlers. To minimise stress, captures should be well
planned and experienced personnel should be used.
Catching should be as efficient as possible so that the
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Tammars can be anaesthetized by various methods
depending upon the procedure to be carried out (see Tribe
and Middleton, 1988; Blyde, 1994). Appropriate
anaesthetic agents include:
● Diazepam (Valium) Ñ a useful sedative for short
procedures such as pouch checking and blood
collection at a dose rate of 1 mg/kg intravenously;
● Zoletil Ñ a good immobilising drug providing smooth
recovery and induction at a dose rate of 20 mg/kg
intramuscularly;
● Ketamine / Xylazine mixture Ñ similar effect to
Zoletil at dose rate 15 mg/kg Ketamine mixed with 5
mg/kg Xylazine, intramuscularly; and
● Isoflurane or Halothane Ñ both can be administered by
mask to reach surgical anaesthesia following
immobilisation by any of the above agents.
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In comparison to eutherian (ÒplacentalÓ) mammals, little
is known about the genetics of marsupials. Along with
Monodelphis domestica (the American opossum) and
Sminthopsis crassicaudata (the Australian fat-tailed
dunnart), tammar wallabies are the best studied species.
Studies of the genetics of the tammar wallaby have added
to our understanding of the relationships between
different tammar populations, provided general
information regarding the level of genetic variability in
macropods, allowed for assessment of the natural origins
of the expatriate population in New Zealand and provided
data regarding the evolution of the mammalian genome.
There is very limited genetic variation in
particular genes which are involved in immune reactions
(McKenzie and Cooper, 1994). These genes, known as
the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II
genes, are extremely variable in many eutherian species
except those which have suffered a severe reduction in
numbers. It was therefore supposed that all mammals
would show high levels of genetic variability in MHC
genes if they had not passed through a population
ÒbottleneckÓ. One of the most striking differences
between eutherians and marsupials is their mode of
reproduction. Marsupials give birth to very immature
young therefore the majority of offspring development
occurs in the pouch. Genetic variability at MHC genes
has been implicated as being important in successful
eutherian reproduction. It has been suggested that the
lack of variation at these loci in tammars could be related
to the shorter gestation period of marsupials in
comparison to eutherian mammals (McKenzie and
Cooper, 1994).
chance of injury to the animal from running into fences or
other animals in the yard is minimised. The standard
catching procedure is to make animals run along a fence.
They are then caught with a long handled landing net.
Animals are removed from the net by the base of the tail
and placed into a close-mesh hessian bag which must
allow adequate air flow to avoid hyperthermia. It is
important that the bag is as light-proof as possible
because once restrained and in relative darkness the
animal will usually become calm, allowing for easier
examination.
The most common reason for catching tammars
in captive situations is to monitor their breeding.
Examination of the pouch is carried out (whilst the animal
is still in a hessian bag) by holding the animal by the base
of the tail and placing it on its back. The back legs are
freed from the bag to prevent injury and the pouch is
exposed. The state of the pouch can be used as an
indicator of the animalÕs reproductive state. Usually the
pouch is dirty, and is covered in a dark, tacky secretion.
If a pouch is moist and clean it is likely that the female
has been licking it in anticipation of an imminent birth.
The presence of an elongated teat in an empty pouch
indicates continued suckling of an at foot pouch young.
Female tammars can suckle two pouch young at the one
time, one new born and one at foot.
Euthanasia can be performed by intravenous
injection of an overdose of sodium pentobarbitone
(Reilly, 1993).
Diseases
Macropods may be affected by a number of different
diseases, some of which are common to particular
species, others are common to all macropods and some
are rarely seen ( see Spielman, 1995). Many diseases are
avoidable if good husbandry techniques are employed.
Provided that stocking rates are low, there is an adequate
number of feeding stations, water troughs are cleaned
regularly, faeces are removed from concrete enclosures
and animals that do become ill are isolated, disease
incidence can be minimal in captive macropod colonies.
ANZCCART News Vol 8 No 4
December 1995
Insert
Captive breeding and maintenance of
the fat-tailed dunnart
Clive Chesson and Rory Hope
Department of Genetics, University of Adelaide
South Australia 5005
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Introduction
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The fat-tailed dunnart, Sminthopsis crassicaudata
(Marsupialia Dasyuridae) is a mouse-sized nocturnal
marsupial, widely but patchily distributed across southern
and central Australia west of the Great Divide (Archer,
1981). Its habitat ranges from wet grasslands to dry stony
deserts. The demise of dunnart populations in suburban
areas such as the Adelaide plains has probably resulted
from alterations to the natural habitat and the presence of
feral predators. Animals from different geographic areas
differ in external morphology and behaviour (Morton and
Alexander, 1982; Hope and Godfrey, 1988). Extensive
studies on the ecology of the species were carried out by
Morton (1978). Martin (1965) recognised the potential of
this polyoestrous marsupial as a small laboratory mammal
suitable for biological research.
The history of the breeding colony of dunnarts at
the University of Adelaide has been well documented
(Smith et al. 1978; Bennett et al. 1982; 1990). In 1995,
responsibility for management of the colony passed from
the Department of Genetics to the Animal Services
Division of the University of Adelaide. Currently the
colony comprises approximately 1000 animals. The
features of the species described below are based on our
experience with the colony in the Department of Genetics.
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Necrobacillosis, or lumpy jaw, is one of the
most well described and characterised diseases affecting
macropods and although there is more to learn about its
aetiology and inciting agents, it is relatively well
understood. It is associated with overcrowding, poor
hygiene or poor diet, although it can occur in situations
where none of these factors is apparent. The first signs
are swellings around the jaw associated with necrotic,
foetid and erosive lesions. Internal organs may also be
involved.
Once the disease is detectable, antibiotic therapy
is probably universally unsuccessful without surgery.
However, precursor conditions (such as gum disease) may
be effectively treated with antibiotics. Animals suffering
will usually show some improvement with treatment, but
the disease is only slowed, not cured. Unless the
circumstances are exceptional, the animal should be
euthanased.
Toxoplasmosis can occur in marsupials, which
act as an intermediate host for the coccidian parasite,
Toxoplasma gondii. Transmission is usually via ingestion
of oocysts excreted in the faeces of domestic cats. Slight
to severe neurological signs are manifested, including
head tilt, ataxia, difficult respiration and sometimes
sudden death. Treatment is only effective if given early
and should include a combination of vitamin E / selenium,
corticosteroids, diazapam (to reduce anxiety and produce
sedation), sodium bicarbonate and intravenous fluids.
Helminths are common in macropods and do not
produce problems, except in times of stress. Good
husbandry procedures provide the best means of
protection (see Spielman, 1995).
Zoonoses
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There are a few known diseases which can be transmitted
from macropods to humans. There is a high carrier rate of
salmonella species in young macropodids and even
normal adults and these bacteria can cause sudden death,
diarrhoea, lethargy, poor appetite and pneumonia in
affected animals. Ringworm can be severe and is highly
contagious to humans. It can cause oval to round areas of
redness, scaliness or itchiness. However, most cases are
mild and self-limited. Larger macropods can harbour the
cystic stage of the tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosus),
and are a possible source for spread to domestic animals
and humans. Uninspected carcases should not be fed to
dogs. Macropods can be infected by encephalomyocarditis
virus, which is spread by rats and perhaps mice. It can
cause death in animals and is potentially a serious zoonosis
(Spielman, 1995).
Table 1. Some useful data for the tammar wallaby✝
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Body weight
3-5 kg
Body temperature
36.4oC
Basal metabolic rate
8.19W
Intake of lucerne hay
29.4kg-0.75 day-1
Min. urinary N2 excretion 60mg.kg-0.73 day-1
Creatine excretion
23-39mg.kg-0.75 day-1
Total body H2O content
60.8 (% body weight)
Total water turnover
65.2ml.kg-0.8 day-1
✝
Adapted from Hume (1982).
ANZCCART News Vol 8 No 4 December 1995
Insert
Husbandry
Animals can be housed in windowless rooms with
artificial light and constant temperature (20-240C). One
room can have the day length reduced to eight hours as a
pre-treatment to stimulate males to breed. Other rooms,
one a nursery and animal store, the other a breeding room,
have a day length of 16 hours. Galvanised metal breeding
cages (about 50 x 35 x 20 cm) incorporate a mesh top with
a hinged flap at the front, a removable plate glass front
and a separate metal base tray. Standard laboratory rat
cages can be used for weaning and storage. A wellventilated plastic nest box containing shredded paper is
supplied in each cage, and plastic mouse wheels were
provided for breeding animals but not for nursing females.
Clean dry autoclaved sand (important for animal
grooming) was maintained in the cage trays.
The natural diet comprises invertebrates
including locusts, moths, cockroaches, centipedes and
scorpions, and vertebrates such as small lizards and baby
mice. In the laboratory, animals can be fed canned pet
food, dry cat food and mealworms (Tenebrio molitor).
Water and dry cat food should be supplied ad libitum.
Dunnarts can be held by the tail with the body
supported, or for a short period, by the scruff of the neck.
Pouch and health checks should be carried out once per
week. More frequent checks inhibit litter production.
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Research with the dunnart
Disease was not a major problem in the colony.
Respiratory infections occasionally occurred but were
preventable by good husbandry. The most common
parasite Ornithonyssus bacoti was ready controlled using
commercially available flea powders.
The species has considerable potential for biomedical and
genetical research. Animals can be housed in a relatively
small area and bred efficiently in captivity. The species is
well characterised cytogenetically and has a small number
of large distinct chromosomes (2n = 14) that can be
identified on the basis of their size and shape without the
need to apply specialised chromosome banding
techniques. Cultured cell lines are available and
chromosome suspensions prepared from such cells can be
sorted to high levels of purity with a fluorescent activated
cell sorter (Hope, 1993). A number of genetic markers
have been described and some linkage data are available
(Bennett et al., 1990; Hope et al., 1992; Hope, 1993).
The small body size of the dunnart in
comparison with other model marsupial species such as
the tammar wallaby and the grey short-tailed opossum
(Monodelphis domestica) gives the species an obvious
advantage for comparative biomedical research. Because
the young are born at a relatively early stage of
development and are accessible in the pouch, marsupials
such as S. crassicaudata provide excellent models for
developmental studies (Hope, 1993).
The dunnart has a number of attributes that make
it one of the best marsupial models (and one of the best
vertebrate models) for investigating the factors of critical
relevance to reintroduction biology (Bennett et al., 1990).
A major benefit of using the dunnart to investigate
reintroduction biology is that the results obtained are
likely to be of direct relevance to the re-establishment of
populations of endangered species, including the sandhill
dunnart (S. psammophila), the mulgara (Dasycercus
cristicauda), the kowari (Dasyuroides byrneii), and other
threatened dasyurids.
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Disease
Reproduction and growth
210
Males sexually mature - first matings
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Haematological data
Haematological parameters and blood cell indices of the
species have been determined by Haynes and Skidmore
(1991).
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Special techniques
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An inhalation anaesthetic was used (ethrane 4%) carried
by a 1:1 mixture of oxygen and nitrous oxide at one litre
per minute. The room used for anaesthesia was kept warm
to prevent rapid loss of body heat by anaesthetised
animals (Bennett et al., 1982).
Blood (0.1 - 0.5 ml) can be obtained from
anaesthetised animals by puncturing the orbital sinus if
skilled, or the jugular or recurrent tarsal vein, with an 25gauge needle attached to a heparinised syringe.
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Growth stage
Birth weight = 14 - 16 mg
Pouch bulging and young visible
Young protruding from pouch
Permanent attachment to nipples ceases
Eyes open
First leave nest, eat solid food
Weaned - body weight = 5 - 8 g
Females sexually mature (1st oestrus)
Weight 8 - 11 g
Weight 10 - 14 g
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Age (days)
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37
40
49 - 50
59 - 63
70
91
98
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The oestrous cycle length is approximately 31 days
(Godfrey and Crowcroft, 1971) and the gestation period
13.5 days post-coitus (Bennett et al., 1990). Females can
nurture only 10 young in their pouch. Often more than 10
young are born, the excess failing to attach to one of the
ten nipples and dying. Females can be first mated at three
months of age and males at seven months. The optimal
ratio is four females per male in each cage. Litters are
usually weaned 70 days after birth with underweight
litters left an additional 7-14 days until animals reach at
least 5.5 g body weight. A few exceptional males can sire
as many as 45 litters. Unlike the situation in the wild,
litters in the colony can be produced throughout the year.
Some characteristics of postnatal growth and
development are summarised below (Ewer, 1968;
Godfrey and Crowcroft, 1971).
The common brushtail possum
Janine A. Duckworth and Lynne M. Meikle
Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research
PO Box 69, Lincoln 8152, New Zealand
Introduction
The common brushtail possum, Trichosurus vulpecula
(Marsupialia Phalangeridae), is the most widespread of
the three species of brushtail possum in Australia. It is a
nocturnal, predominantly arboreal mammal commonly
found in wooded and forested areas throughout eastern,
central and south-western Australia. The possum is well
adapted to suburban life, frequently cohabiting with
humans (Strahan, 1983). In the 1830s, common brushtail
possums were first introduced to New Zealand to
establish a fur trade. They have spread throughout that
country and occur at much higher densities than in their
native Australia. Their impact on New Zealand plants and
animals and their role as the main wildlife reservoir of
bovine tuberculosis infecting farmed cattle and deer make
the possum New ZealandÕs most serious vertebrate pest
(Cowan, 1990).
ANZCCART News Vol 8 No 4
December 1995
Insert
The common brushtail possum is one of the
most extensively studied non-macropod marsupials. It is
a hardy animal, and large enough to make it suitable for
endocrine studies using repetitive blood sampling. As
with other marsupials, many of the physiological and
biochemical systems of the possum are extremely
immature at birth. The possum neonate provides an
accessible model for the study of early development of
mammalian organs and their physiological and
neurological function (Tyndale-Biscoe and Janssens,
1988). These factors, together with an intensification of
research to develop technologies to reduce possum
numbers in New Zealand, have increased the need for
information on successful animal husbandry methods for
possums. Landcare Research maintains a captive animal
facility for basic biology and possum control research at
Rangiora, Canterbury, New Zealand.
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cages (0.76 m x 0.6 m x 0.6 m) (Fitzgerald et al., 1981).
Housing should provide opportunity for seclusion, such
as the use of solid sides, with a drape over the cage front.
Trays under cages should be cleaned and waste food
removed daily. Nest boxes should be cleaned at least
once a fortnight, more often for some individuals.
Animals can be successfully group-housed
outdoors in wire mesh pens with grassed or concrete
floors. The pen should be well constructed and verminand bird-proof. Possums have been successfully bred in
an enclosure with an area of about 11 m2 for two animals
(Bergin, 1978), 16 m2 for three to four animals (Jolly et
al., 1995), or eight m2 for up to seven animals (Curlewis
et al., 1985). Group-housed animals may be individually
identified by a small numbered metal ear tag. Although
possums can maintain a body temperature of 36-370C
over a range of ambient temperatures from 10 to 300C
(Tyndale-Biscoe, 1973), outdoor pens should include a
rain- and wind- proof shelter. Sufficient nesting boxes or
hessian nesting sacks should be provided for each
individual and numerous branches and perches for
climbing. This will reduce aggression. In warm areas,
effective ventilation and insulation against excessive heat
may be required.
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Possums can inflict painful wounds with their sharp claws
and teeth and should be handled with care. A possum
may be handled by grasping its tail. If it is confined to a
sack, it is possible to physically examine an animal,
including the pouch, without anaesthesia. Use of forceful
restraint causes stress to animals and handlers and should
be avoided. Confining animals in nest boxes or hessian
sacks makes the handling, transport, and anaesthesia of
possums easier.
A wide range of anaesthetic agents is effective
(Tribe and Middleton, 1988; Blyde, 1994). Short-term
anaesthesia can be maintained using a 1:2 mixture of
oxygen and carbon dioxide gases (Jolly, 1993). Longterm anaesthesia for surgical procedures can be induced
with a mixture of halothane (or isoflurane) and oxygen in
a closed container and maintained by a mask (NHMRC,
1990). Ketamine/xylazine as intramuscular injection,
(dose rate 20 mg/kg ketamine, 2mg/kg xylazine; or
ketamine alone, dose rate 30-50 mg/kg) gives reasonable
restraint as does Zoletil (dose rate 10-15 mg/kg
intramuscularly). For surgical anaesthesia this may be
followed with halothane and oxygen by mask. Diazepam
(0.5-2.0 mg/kg intramuscularly) can be useful in
facilitating handling. Expert advice should be sought
before using anaesthetics.
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Wire or solid sided box traps ( 0.6 m x 0.3 m x 0.3 m),
baited with an apple and a lure of cinnamon oil, icing
sugar and flour mix, are suitable for the capture of
possums from the wild. Trapping success is best on dry
nights in winter and early spring when natural food is less
plentiful. In warm climates traps must be checked early
in the morning since trapped possums are susceptible to
heat exposure and dehydration. Possums are easily
transferred from the trap to a thick sack for initial
examination and transport.
Newly captured possums may be anaesthetised
with a 1:2 mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide (Jolly,
1993), and then weighed, sexed and checked for signs of
infection, injury, or the presence of pouch young. At
Landcare Research, possums are individually caged
indoors for a six week acclimatisation period before
assignment to outdoor pens or research trials.
Acclimatising animals are checked daily, weighed each
fortnight and subjected to minimum disturbance. Newly
captured possums may experience some initial weight
loss (Presidente, 1982; Buddle et al., 1992, Meikle,
unpublished data), probably due to stress. Some animals
may not adjust, despite specialised care. They develop
diarrhoea, become anorexic and dehydrated, and require
euthanasia. Stress-related mortality may also be a
problem in overcrowded conditions, especially during the
breeding season (Hope, 1971; Presidente, 1982).
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Trapping and acclimatisation
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Adults generally avoid contact with each other except
during the mating period (Winter, 1976) or when nesting
and feeding sites are limited (Fairweather et al., 1987).
To date no standardised cage sizes have been specified
for possums. At Landcare Research, animals are kept in
individual wire cages (1 m x 0.4 m x 0.4 m) with mesh
floors and a removable nest box (0.35 m x 0.2 m x 0.2
m). Cages are currently being enlarged (1 m x 0.4 m x
0.55 m). Individual possums have also been successfully
housed in galvanised wire rabbit cages (0.5 m x 0.3 m x
0.55 m) (Dellow and Harris, 1984) and in stainless steel
ANZCCART News Vol 8 No 4 December 1995
Insert
Nutrition
Possums are hindgut fermenters and their digestive
system is adapted to high-fibre diets (Wellard and Hume,
1981). The caecum and proximal colon are well
developed and are the principal sites of microbial
fermentation (Hume, 1982). In the wild, possums are
5
predominantly herbivorous, feeding on the leaves,
blossom, and fruit of a wide range of tree species. They
also feed on grass, clover, and broadleaf weeds and are
known to eat small birds, eggs and invertebrates (Kerle,
1984; Cowan, 1990). In captivity, possums thrive and
breed when fed a wide variety of foodstuffs such as
carrots, apples, other fruits and vegetables, maize,
eucalyptus and other leafy vegetation, bread, and rabbit
or stock feed pellets (Hope, 1971; Presidente, 1982;
NHMRC, 1990). A varied diet should be provided.
Maintenance requirements for individually
caged animals have been estimated as 40 g digestible
DM/kg W0.75 (Fitzgerald et al. 1981). At Landcare
Research possums in pens are offered about 200 g of
grain-based pellets each day plus seasonal fruit and
greens. They tend to be wasteful feeders. A 3.0 kg
animal eats about 60-160 g of pellets daily. Animals
should have free access to clean water. In outdoor pens
dried grain-based pellets are provided ad libitum from
water-proof hoppers, and clean water supplied from a
self-filling water trough. As possums are susceptible to
calcium toxicity resulting in calcinosis (Jackson, 1983),
food with a high calcium content should be avoided.
Adult live weight of possums varies greatly (1400-6400 g),
largely as a reflection of genotypic origin and nutrition
(Tyndale-Biscoe, 1973; Presidente, 1982; Cowan, 1990).
Diseases
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Health problems in captive possums are often a
consequence of stress associated with their capture and
adjustment to new surroundings. For animals in group
housing,
fighting during the breeding season,
introduction of new animals, cold wet weather, and
overcrowding are all sources of additional stress
(Presidente, 1982, 1984). Salmonellosis, yersiniosis, and
staphylococcal and streptococcal infections can cause
problems in captive colonies (Hope, 1971; Presidente,
1984), possibly because of a stress-induced suppression
of the immune response (Buddle et al., 1992). The range
of parasites and diseases that have been reported in
possums has been reviewed by Presidente (1984).
Diseases of concern to people in contact with possums
include leptospirosis, giardia, cryptosporidiosis, Q fever
(Australia), and bovine tuberculosis (New Zealand).
General experimental techniques
Blood samples may be collected by intracardiac puncture
(only from an anaesthetised animal) (Buddle et al., 1992),
by venepuncture from the jugular vein or from the lateral
or ventral tail vein of an anaesthetised animal.
For reproductive studies, the stage of the
oestrous cycle can be determined through the cytology
and presence of sperm in daily vaginal smears (Pilton and
Sharman, 1962) or urine samples (Duckworth,
unpublished data). Euthanasia can be performed by
intravenous or intra-peritoneal injection of sodium
pentobarbitone (150 mg/kg) (Reilly, 1993).
For information on haematology, see Dawson
and Denny (1968), Presidente (1982) and Buddle et al.,
(1992).
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Reproduction
In the wild, births may occur in every month of the year,
though in most populations they are highly seasonal. The
main season for births is in autumn (April-June) , with a
smaller, more variable peak in spring (OctoberNovember). The incidence of spring breeding and the
proportion of females breeding in both autumn and spring
(double-breeders) is not strongly related to latitude but
more to habitat and density (Kerle, 1984; Cowan, 1990).
Possums are seasonally polyoestrous and monovular with
an oestrous cycle of about 25 days and gestation length of
17-18 days (Pilton and Sharman, 1962; Curlewis and
Stone, 1986; Tyndale-Biscoe and Renfree, 1987).
Oestrus and ovulation are usually suppressed throughout
lactation. If the pouch young dies or is removed during
the breeding season, oestrus often follows 8-12 days later.
Repeated removal of pouch young will induce repeat
breeding throughout the breeding period (Pilton and
Sharman, 1962; Jolly et al., 1995).
Age at first-breeding in females varies from one
to three years (Green, 1984). Female possums possess a
large forward-directed pouch with two teats. The singleborn young weighs about 0.2 g at birth (Tyndale-Biscoe
and Renfree, 1987) and climbs unaided from the
urogenital tract to the pouch. The growth and
development of the young in the pouch has been
described by Lyne and Verhargen (1957), Gilmore
(1966), and Crawley (1973). The young remains
permanently attached to the teat for the first 70-90 days.
At first, young gain weight slowly to reach about 100 g
at 90-110 days of age and then more rapidly to attain
about one kg live-weight at 200-240 days. Fur is evident
about 90-100 days, eyes open at 100-110 days, and
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homeothermy develops about 110-120 days. The young
emerge from the pouch for gradually increasing intervals
from about 120-140 days and leave permanently between
150 and 240 days (Winter, 1976). Orphaned pouch
young older than 90 days can be successfully handreared, with good hygiene practices, patience, and care in
feeding (Presidente, 1982; Walraven, 1990).
Male possums reach sexual maturity at one to
two years (Gilmore, 1966). They produce sperm
throughout the year, and although testis weight does not
vary seasonally, the weights of the epididymis and
particularly the prostate gland are heavier in the breeding
season (Gilmore, 1969; Tyndale-Biscoe and Renfree,
1987).
6
ANZCCART News Vol 8 No 4
December 1995
Insert
References
Ewer, R. F. (1968). A preliminary survey of the behaviour
in captivity of the dasyurid marsupial, Sminthopsis
crassicaudata (Gould). Z. Tierpsychol. 25: 318-365.
Bennett, J. H., Smith M. J., Hope, R. M. and Chesson, C. M.
(1982). Fat-tailed dunnart Sminthopsis crassicaudata:
establishment and maintenance of a laboratory colony.
In The Management of Australian Mammals in
Captivity. (Ed. D. D. Evans). Zoological Board of
Victoria. pp. 38-44.
Fairweather, A.A.C., Brockie, R.E. and Ward, G.D. (1987).
Brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) sharing dens:
a potential infection route for bovine tuberculosis. New
Zealand Veterinary Journal, 35: 15-16.
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Bakker, H.R., Bradshaw, S.D. and Main, A.R. (1982). Water
and electrolyte metabolism of the tammar wallaby
Macropus eugenii. Physiological Zoology, 55:209-219.
Fitzgerald, A.E., Clarke, R.T.J., Reid, C.S.W., Charleston,
W.A.G., Tarttelin, M.F. and Wyburn, R.S. (1981).
Physical and nutritional characteristics of the possum
(Trichosurus vulpecula) in captivity. NZ J. Zool, 8:
551-562.
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