M. A. in Applied Linguistics
MAAL6018
Vocabulary Teaching and Learning
Session 4 – Vocabulary Teaching and Learning (Part One)
Discussion
1. What is meant by “incidental” and “explicit” vocabulary learning?
2. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches?
3. What kind of words do you think should be learnt explicitly?
4. Given the limitations of both approaches, what do you think is the best approach to
vocabulary teaching and learning?
Incidental vs. explicit learning / teaching of vocabulary
The most commonly drawn distinction is that between incidental (implicit) and explicit
(deliberate) learning.
Incidental learning of vocabulary involves picking up the language through natural exposure
and using the language for communication purposes afterwards. A common activity that
goes with such an approach is extensive reading. Increasingly, teachers are also using
listening activities to help students acquire spoken vocabulary naturally. While incidental
learning of vocabulary may be useful in developing intuition for collocations of words, this
approach requires a massive amount of input. (Remember the number of exposures
needed in reading before a word can be learnt?) Therefore, incidental learning is more often
associated with negative terms since the learning process can only be very gradual (and slow)
and that intention of remembering the vocabulary information is usually absent.
Explicit learning focuses attention directly on the information to be learnt, which gives the
greatest chance for successful acquisition.
This learning approach could be very time
consuming because of the large number of words that a learner would need to study
(Remember the vocabulary targets for different key stages?) and would be regarded as very
laborious by average students (Schmitt, 2000).
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When can we start the implicit learning of vocabulary?
It is generally believed that learners need some vocabulary when it comes to learning
language through reading. In other words, the learners need to reach a vocabulary size
threshold before incidental learning can take place through reading. To start reading
authentic texts intended for adult native speakers, the threshold is somewhere between
3000 and 5000 word families [which is roughly the targets for KS3 and KS4 (S3 and S6) in HK
respectively] (Nation & Waring, 1997). Does it mean students cannot acquire any language
through reading before S3?
Even though there is evidence that incidental learning of vocabulary can occur through
reading and leads to gains in vocabulary knowledge, this is the result of both interactive
vocabulary instruction and moderate amounts of self-selected and course-related reading
(Zimmerman, 1997). A more recent study by Zahar, Cobb and Spada (2001) revealed that
approximately one word was learnt for every 14 words tested through reading, i.e. .2.16 out
of 30; and this rate decreased with proficiency levels. As reported by Hague (1987),
vocabulary gains resulted from incidental learning was usually insignificant. Meara (1997)
even denied that any substantial gains in L2 vocabulary acquisition could be made from
mere natural exposure to texts.
Groot (2000) pointed out that, apart from high-frequency words which tend to be known by
most learners anyway, “there is not enough repetition for an incremental learning process in
which various features of the words are picked up from the contexts, resulting in a solid
embedding in the mental lexicon, as in L1 acquisition” (p. 63). Hulstijin (1992) found
retention of word meanings in incidental learning tasks where the goal was reading
comprehension tended to be low and any gains from this approach were related to
receptive rather than productive vocabulary knowledge.
One of the main problems for incidental vocabulary acquisition is that word meanings are
often not inferable from context as not all contexts are equally conducive to making
informed guesses (Duquette et al, 1998). Further, it is found that the effect of the number of
exposures on vocabulary acquisition is more pronounced when external aids like glosses
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and dictionaries are available than in ‘pure’ incidental conditions. Here’s a list of prerequisites for successful incidental vocabulary acquisition to occur (Schmitt & McCarthy,
1997; Groot, 2000):

L2 vocabulary must be large enough (to deduce meaning of the unknown word in
context)

Learners must possess strategic knowledge to make inferences

Reading / Listening materials must be rich in contextual clues
The place for graded readers

Promises
o Fun; pleasurable
o Increase exposure to language; increase comprehension
o Exercises help practice new vocabulary and grammar

Graded: according to number of headwords (from most needed by students); word
frequencies; length; textual cohesion

Resource package: exercises and keys; ideas on how the readers can be used
In sum, it seems safe to conclude that incidental vocabulary learning in L2 to any great
extent is rather unlikely. If it at all happens, it would only occur gradually (incrementally)
and in small quantities.
Nation (2001) argues that explicit learning is most appropriate for the first 2000 words or
so, but that beyond this level it may be better to learn through extensive reading, and that
students will need to be taught vocabulary learning strategies to deal with low frequency
words, e.g. use of inferential strategies (guessing meaning from context), use of dictionaries,
how to select, record and revise vocabulary, etc. Nation also suggests that some deliberate
attention to vocabulary is needed when students need certain words to complete a task at
hand, so this is the best moment for teachers to come in and fill in the gaps in students’
vocabulary knowledge.
Nation (2008) suggests a balanced approach to vocabulary teaching and that each of the
four components should take up approximately one quarter of the time in a curriculum.
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Discussion
1. What does each of the four components mean?
2. Match the following task types with the right component.
3. How much time do you (your school) devote to each component?

role-plays and drama

reading or listening to a text for meaning

the 3-2-1 speaking activity

split-information tasks

group discussions

interacting with native speakers

looking up words in a dictionary

giving prepared talks

relating a word to a picture or real object

guessing word meaning from the context

analyzing word parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes)

repeated listening

doing vocabulary exercises

postings in the classroom

reading or listening for fun

immersion (studying other subjects using English as a medium of instruction)

studying grammar rules

word games

learning how to use vocabulary learning strategies

rehearsals for talks and drama etc.

repeated reading
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Examples of task types
Meaning-focused input
Meaning-focused output
Language-focused learning
Fluency development
Depth of Processing
Incidental and explicit vocabulary learning are usually connected to notions of ‘shallow’ and
‘deep’ processing. The Depth of Processing Hypothesis (DOPH) was first proposed by Craik
and Lockhart (1972). The central idea of DOPH is that ‘deeper’ analysis of a stimulus leads
to a more persistent memory trace and better recall, with ‘depth’ referring to a greater
degree of semantic involvement. For instance, the task of copying words involves a very
shallow type of processing. Comparing words in terms of rhymes, on the other hand,
involves a slightly deeper level of processing. “Depth”, as admitted by Craik later (1979),
should be interpreted with flexibility. While some criticise the notion of ‘depth’ being too
loose and general, most agree it usually involves more efforts, greater amount of elaboration
or the greater amount of distinctiveness of processing. Many studies have been conducted
regarding the DOPH in recent years. Laufer and Hill (2000), for instance, investigated the
number of look-ups in a CALL dictionary and retention and found that the two did not
correlate well. Hulstijn et al (1996), on the other hand, suggested that inferred meaning was
remembered slightly better than given meaning.
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Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS)
Learning strategies are methods or techniques that we use to make our learning more
efficient or more enjoyable. Everybody has their own way of learning new words. For
example, some people can learn and remember new words simply by hearing or reading
them. Some prefer to remember a word by its shape and others by its sound. Some like to
look up words in the dictionary and list them in a vocabulary notebook. Probably the best
way to learn is simply the way that works best for you.
VLS research has pointed to the following:

VLS are important for independent learning of low-frequency words

It is important to use a range of strategies

The quality of strategy use counts for more than the quantity of strategies used

It is important to choose strategies flexibly and appropriately according to context

Strategies can be taught and weaker learners can benefit from strategy training
Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
The first classification dimension came from Oxford (1990) who grouped language learning
strategies into six categories: social, memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective and
compensation.
The second classification was proposed by Nation (1990) who made the distinction between
initial discovery of word meanings (discovery strategies) and remembering word meanings
(consolidation strategies).
Schmitt (1997) produced a taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, by combining
Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies and Nation’s (1990) distinction
between discovery and consolidation strategies in vocabulary learning. His taxonomy
contains:
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(1) Discovery: discovering the meaning of unknown words
a) Determination strategies (finding meaning without recourse to others)
b) Social strategies (consulting or working with others to discover meaning)
(2) Consolidation: remembering words once their meaning has been discovered
a) Social strategies
b) Memory strategies (mnemonics)
c) Cognitive strategies (strategies involving mental processing, but without the use of
mnemonics)
d) Metacognitive strategies (concerned with the management of learning)
Please read through each of the following statements very carefully and then indicate how
true it is.
Circle one of the numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 (1 = “never or almost never true”; 5 = “always or
almost always true”).
Section One: Discovery Strategies
To find out the meaning of a new word, I:
Determination Strategies:
1.
analyse the part of speech of the word (e.g. whether it
is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb).
2.
analyse the word parts that make up the word (e.g. indigest-ible in the word indigestible).
3.
analyse any available pictures or gestures.
4.
guess from the textual context.
5.
use a bilingual dictionary (English-Chinese dictionary)
6.
use a monolingual dictionary (English only dictionary)
7.
use word lists (e.g. a list of words presented in a
glossary).
8.
use flash cards (cards which you have words on one
side and meanings / visuals on the other).
Social Strategies:
9.
ask the teacher for a translation in your mother
tongue.
10. ask the teacher for a paraphrase (rephrase using own/
simpler wording) or synonym (word of the same
meaning) of the new word.
11. ask the teacher for a sentence including the new word.
12. ask classmates for meaning.
13. discover new meaning through group work activity.
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Consolidation Strategies:
Put these consolidation strategies in the right category: social, memory, cognitive, or
metacognitive.
 create or use a visual image about the word in my mind
 paraphrase the word’s meaning (i.e. write down meaning using own/ simpler words)
 continue to study the word over time
 connect the word to its synonyms (e.g. industrious to hardworking)
 take notes about the word in class
 study or practice meaning together with other people
 associate the word with its coordinates (e.g. cello with other kinds of musical
instruments like violin or piano)
 skip the new word
 study the spelling of the word
 list similar words in a table to study the differences between them
 connect the word to its antonyms (e.g. rapid to slow)
 interact with native-speakers
 group words together in some way to help me study them
 repeat writing the word
Section Two: Consolidation Strategies
To consolidate (remember) a word that I’ve met
before, I:
Social Strategies:
14.
15.
Memory Strategies:
16. study the word with a picture of its meaning.
17.
18. associate the word to a personal experience (e.g.
connecting the word snow with an experience of playing
with snow).
19.
20.
21.
22. group words using a mind map (see end of this
questionnaire for an example).
23. use a scale for gradable adjectives (e.g. tiny – small –
medium-sized – big – huge).
24.
25. group words together in a spatial pattern on a page (e.g. in
a diagonal line or in the shape of a cross).
26. group words together within a storyline.
27. connect the new word to another word that sounds similar
and link the two words by a visual image.
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Cognitive Strategies:
28. use the new word in sentences.
29.
30. study the sound of the word.
31. study word parts (prefixes, roots, affixes)
32.
33. use physical action when learning a word.
34.
35. repeat saying the word.
36.
37. use word lists.
38. use flash cards (cards which you have words on one side
and meanings / visuals on the other).
39.
40. use the vocabulary section in a textbook.
41. listen to taped word lists.
42. put English labels on physical objects.
43. keep a vocabulary notebook.
Metacognitive Strategies:
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use English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts,
.
etc.).
45.
46.
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An example of how words can be grouped using a mind map
(taken from p.42 of Ellis, G.. and Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to learn English. Cambridge: CUP):
This is the end of the questionnaire. Thank you very much!
Adapted from Loong Y & Chan S W L, A Study of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Adopted by Dentistry
Students in Hong Kong In Learning Specialized Dental Vocabulary, September 2012, Asian ESP Journal, based
on Schmitt (1997)
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In Schmitt (1997)’s study of 600 Japanese EFL learners applying the use of this taxonomy, it
was found that the great majority of learners preferred using verbal and written repetition.
This is certainly disappointing in the light of DOPH predictions. But it was found in his study
that as the Japanese learners matured, they tended to move away from shallow, mechanical
repetition such as word lists and flash cards to deeper mental processing such as word
association strategies.
Nation later developed a taxonomy (2001) that separates what is involved in knowing a word
from sources of vocabulary knowledge and the learning process (p. 218).
Nation’s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
General class of strategies
Planning: choosing what to focus
on and when to focus on it




Sources: finding information about
the words




Processes: establishing knowledge



Types of strategies
Choosing words to focus on
Choosing aspects of word knowledge to focus on
Choosing appropriate strategies to use and when
to switch to another strategy
Planning repetition (increasingly spaced
repetition)
Analysing word parts
Using the context
Consulting a reference source in L1 and L2 (e.g.
dictionaries, glosses, concordancers)
Comparing similarities and differences in L1 and
L2 words (e.g. cognate words)
Noticing (seeing a word as an item to be learnt,
e.g. keeping a notebook, using word cards,
written and verbal repetition)
Retrieving (recall of previously learnt/met items,
e.g. meeting a word in a new context, covering
parts of a word recorded in a notebook)
Generating (generation of word knowledge, e.g.
using a word in new contexts across the 4 skills,
speaking, reading, writing or listening)
Many subsequent studies on VLS have based their VLS classifications on Schmitt’s (1997)
and Nation’s (2001) taxonomies. Some of these studies specifically involved Chinese
learners are summarized below.
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Research on VLS involving Chinese learners
Most research on vocabulary learning strategies has focused on the effects of strategies on
retention. Below are some of the most important studies on VLS that involve Chinese
learners:
Gu and Johnson (1996) investigated the vocabulary strategies used by L2 learners of English
in China and the relationship between strategy use and learning outcomes in terms of
vocabulary size and language proficiency. While learners reported using a wide variety of
VLS, contextual guessing, skillful use of dictionaries, note-taking, paying attention to word
formation, encoding and activation of newly learnt words were found to be positively
correlated with both vocabulary size and language proficiency. However, visual repetition
of new words was found to be the strongest negative predictor of both vocabulary size and
language proficiency.
In a study among tertiary students in China, Gu (2002) found that female students, using
more often and using a wider range of VLS, significantly outperformed their male
counterparts in terms of vocabulary size and language proficiency. While academic major is
a factor for the number of strategies adopted, it is not an important one. Science students
outperformed arts students in vocabulary size; arts students outperformed science in the
language proficiency test.
Gu (2003) carried out a qualitative study using think-aloud protocols and interviews of how
two successful Chinese EFL learners from a university in China learned vocabulary in an
intensive reading task. The results point to the importance of metacognitive strategies such
as self-initiation and selective attention (select words to learn) of the learners, contextual
inferencing, and activation of newly learned words.
Wei (2007) set out to investigate Chinese college students’ patterns of VLS, the relationship
between VLS and gender, major, and self-rated language proficiency level as well as
problems related to vocabulary learning in general. Results indicated that contextualized
activation and management strategies were seldom used which affected long-term retention
and use of vocabulary negatively. Significant differences existed in strategy use by major and
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self-reported language proficiency level but not gender.
In a study of Taiwan EFL university students’ use of VLS, Liao (2004) found that metacognitive and social strategies were two least used strategies and English-major students
tended to use VLS more frequently than non-English majoring students.
Fan’s study (2003) involved more than 1,000 newly admitted tertiary students in Hong Kong.
Using self-reported questionnaires, she compared findings from her study with previous
studies on VLS. Hong Kong students did not use repetition strategies more often than the
other VLS (Cf. Schmitt, 1997 – study on Japanese students). In fact, one of the least often
used strategies is another rather mechanical one which is learning from wordlists.
Association strategies were not favored by Hong Kong students and this applied also to those
proficient L2 learners. This finding is in line with what Schmitt (1997) found among his
Japanese students.
No conclusion can be drawn as to whether Hong Kong students
preferred shallow or deep processing strategies more. More proficient students, however,
are found to be using various kinds of VLS more often than those who were less proficient.
Comparing guessing and dictionary strategies, most students used the former more often
but considered the latter more useful.
Both the above studies and others conducted in other parts of the world involving nonChinese non-native English learners (e.g. Ahmed, 1989; Ridley & Singleton, 1995) suggest
that:
1. It is important to use a range of strategies;
2. The quality of strategy use counts for more than the quantity of strategies used;
3. It is important to choose strategies flexibly and appropriately according to context;
4. Strategies can be taught and weaker learners can benefit from strategy training.
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Guessing strategies
Six steps for guessing words from context.
Step 1:
Find the part of speech of the unknown word
What part of speech is it? Is it a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb?
Step 2:
Does it contain any familiar parts?
Does it look similar to another word you already know?
For example:
The young man picked up the piece of food from the plate and looked at it closely. It
seemed dry, hard and tasteless. He thought it was probably quite indigestible.
Step 3:
Examine the immediate context. If the unknown word is a
Noun
What adjectives describe it?
What verb does it go with?
What does it do and what is done to it?
Verb
What nouns go with it?
Does an adverb tell you more about it?
Adjective
What noun does it go with?
Adverb
Which verb does it go with?
Step 4:
Examine the wider context. Look at the relationship between the clause or sentence
containing the unknown word and other sentences or paragraphs.
Sometimes this relationship is signalled by a linking word, e.g. but, because, if, when,
however, as a result. Words like this, that and such as also provide useful information.
Look for a definition or synonym in the near context.
For example, read the following sentence and figure out the meaning of entities and discrete.
Don't think of words as separate, discrete items, or entities.
Or you can look for an antonym in the near context. For example, read the following
sentence and figure out the meaning of enamored.
I was not exactly enamored of the travel plans my agent made for me; my lack of
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enthusiasm was triggered by the eight-hour layover required between flights.
Or try looking at the punctuation for clues.
dashes - may signal explanations
colons : and semi colons ; often signal lists of related ideas.
For example:
I was not exactly enamored of the travel plans my agent made for me; my lack of
enthusiasm was triggered by the eight-hour layover required between flights.
Corrosion, the destructive chemical attack on metal objects, can be prevented in a number
of ways.
Step 5:
Guess the meaning.
Step 6:
Check that your guess is correct. Does the part of speech of your guess match the
meaning of the unknown word? Maybe you think you know the meaning in Chinese. Can you
think of an English word with a similar meaning? Substitute your guess. Does the sentence
make sense? If so, your guess is probably correct.
(adapted from Nation, 1990; http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/as/511.HTM)
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Selecting words to focus on
Most students do not have the ability to decide which words they should learn while they
read. Here’s some advice (adapted from Nation, 1990):
1. Is the word related to the subject
you’re studying?
YES
↓
NO →
Ignore it
NO →
Ignore it
NO →
Ignore it
NO →
Ignore it
Learn it as part of your curriculum.
2. Do you remember seeing this word
before?
YES
↓
Learn it. It can be a word that you
have encountered and partially
learned before.
3. Does it contain familiar parts e.g.
prefixes or roots that you know? Does
it look like another word that already
know?
YES
↓
Learn it. The familiar parts will help
you remember it.
4. Is it repeated in the text you’re
reading?
YES
↓
Learn it. It's a useful word in the text
you’re reading and the repetition will
make it easier for you to remember it.
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Strategies for recording vocabulary
Here are some suggestions on recording vocabulary information. Do you have other good
suggestions?

Use a pocket-sized notebook so that you can study the words anywhere you are

Use note cards with the English word on one side and on the other side the Chinese
translation / English dictionary definition / pronunciation / an example of the word
used in a sentence. (Cards can have a hole punched in the corner and be kept on a ring.
Cards can also be rearranged according to their meaning, or part of speech, or spelling.
They can be mixed up and you can test yourself on your way home, or whenever you
have a few minutes to spare.)

Note the new word with its opposite (antonym) or with a word which has a similar
meaning (synonym), e.g. an arduous task → opposite of easy; means difficult

When recording vocabulary, note down a phrase (collocations / words that go before or
after) instead of a single word. For example:
Pattern
Examples
Noun + Verb
People slip
Cars skid
Verb + Noun
Abandon ship
Make a wish
Catch a bus
Take a walk
Adjective + Noun
Handsome man
Pretty woman

Note if a noun is countable or uncountable – can you add an “s” at the end? does it take
“a/an/the”?

Note a word with its different word classes, e.g.
Noun
Adjective
Verb
Adverb
admiration
admirable
admire
admirably

Make a simple drawing to illustrate the meaning of the word

Others:
__________________________________________________________________
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References:
Gu, Y. (2002). Gender, academic major, and vocabulary learning strategies of Chinese EFL
learners. RELC Journal, 33(1), 35-54.
Liao, Y. F. (2004). A survey of Taiwan EFL Freshmen’s vocabulary learning strategies. Journal
of Pingtung Teachers College, 23(9), 271-288.
Nation, P. (2001) Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: C.U.P. (Chapter 7 –
Vocabulary learning strategies and guessing from context)
Wei, M. (2007). An examination of vocabulary learning of college-level learners of English
in China. The Asian EFL Journal, 9 (2), 93-114.
Pre-session 4 reading
Fan, M. Y. (2003) Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second
language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. Modern Language
Journal, 87(2), 222-241.
Gu, Y. (2003). Fine brush and freehand: The vocabulary learning art of two successful
Chinese EFL learners. TESOL Quarterly, 37(1), 73-104.
Gu, Y. and Johnson, R.K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning
outcomes. Language Learning, 46 (4), 643-679.
Liu, Y. F. A survey of Taiwan EFL Freshmen’s vocabulary learning strategies. Journal of
Pingtung Teachers College, 23 (9), 271-288.
Post-session 4 reading
Brahler, C. J. & Walker, D. (2008). Learning scientific and medical terminology with a
mnemonic strategy using an illogical association technique. Advances in Physiology
Education, 32, 219-224.
Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.),
Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 199-227). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Preparation for the next session:
Share any good resources / activities for vocabulary teaching with your classmates next week.
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