Prague, February 2017
Prague Model United Nations Conference
Model United Nations Prague z.s.
Jaurisova 515/4
140 00 Prague 4
The Czech Republic
Web: www.praguemun.cz
Author: Žiga Golobič & Kaya van der Meulen
Graphic Design: Jiří Drozd, MUN Prague
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Dear delegates,
It is both our honour and privilege to serve as your chairpersons at the Prague Model United
Nations 2017 Security Council simulation. We are committed to making our time together in the
beginning of February as fun, exciting and informative as possible. We have performed a wide
variety of roles within the Model United Nations world – in fact, not so long ago, we were both
relative newcomers as upstart delegates in a committee not unlike this one. If you are a newcomer
to this exciting world today, we assure you that you are going to start off your year with the
exciting new hobby and/or addiction that we have come to know and love. Rest assured that we
are always available for any questions and support that you might need, both in the coming
month and during the conference itself. Ask us anything! If you are a seasoned veteran, we are
looking forward to challenging you… and to you challenging us! We believe that the topics that
we are going to be discussing in Prague are as salient as they are essential and it is our sincere
hope that this study guide will serve you well during your preparations.
See you in Prague!
Žiga Golobič & Kaya van der Meulen
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Contents
Security Council Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 5
About the Security Council: ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Thematic topics discussed by the committee ................................................................................................. 6
Limitations of the committee (mandate of the UNSC) .......................................................................... 7
Topic A: Non-state military actors and the threat to global peace .............................................................. 8
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Definition .......................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Constituent Threat ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
International action.....................................................................................................................................................12
Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................................13
Further reading .............................................................................................................................................................13
Topic B: The situation in South Sudan......................................................................................................................15
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................15
Discussion of the topic............................................................................................................................................... 17
General background information .................................................................................................................... 17
Current situation.......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Current conflict ........................................................................................................................................................ 18
International response and efforts to address the situation................................................................... 20
United Nations ....................................................................................................................................................... 20
African Union .......................................................................................................................................................... 20
World Bank ................................................................................................................................................................21
International Court of Justice ............................................................................................................................21
Kenyan troops in South Sudan.........................................................................................................................21
Important actors and documents ........................................................................................................................21
Colonel Jaafar Muhammad Numeiri .............................................................................................................21
The Machakos Protocol...................................................................................................................................... 22
Dr. John Garang de Mabior .............................................................................................................................. 22
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Salva Kiir Mayardit ............................................................................................................................................... 22
Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon ............................................................................................................................. 23
The Sudanese People's Liberation Army / Movement (SPLA / SPLM) ....................................... 23
Addis Ababa Agreement / Addis Ababa Accord................................................................................... 23
The Southern separatist Anya-Nya (or Anyanya) movement......................................................... 24
Comprehensive Peace Agreement ............................................................................................................... 24
UN Draft Resolution 2016/1085 ..................................................................................................................... 24
Peace Agreement ................................................................................................................................................. 24
Timeline - A chronology of key events..............................................................................................................25
First civil war.............................................................................................................................................................25
First peace accords ...............................................................................................................................................25
Second civil war ......................................................................................................................................................25
North-south peace deal..................................................................................................................................... 26
Fragile peace .......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Tension over Abyei ................................................................................................................................................ 27
New state born ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
Civil war ..................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Peace talks .............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Recap of main points.......................................................................................................................................... 29
Challenges ............................................................................................................................................................... 30
Possible avenues towards solutions............................................................................................................. 30
Questions to be addressed by the committee ...............................................................................................31
Further reading ........................................................................................................................................................... 32
Sources used ................................................................................................................................................................ 33
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United Nations Security Council
Security Council Overview
About the Security Council:
The United Nations Organisation is widely considered to be one of the greatest successes in
international relations. Founded in the aftermath of one of the most destructive international
conflicts in human history – the 2nd World War – the hope was that it would improve international
cooperation and promote international peace and security.
The United Nations Security Council is one of the principle bodies of the United Nations
Organization. It consists of fifteen state members, including five permanent members (also known
as the P5 group: the French Republic, the People’s Republic of China, the Russian Federation, the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America) and ten
non-permanent members (which are elected by the United Nations General Assembly for twoyear terms - Bolivia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Senegal, Sweden, Ukraine and
Uruguay are the current non-permanent members). 1
By United Nations Charter mandate, the Security Council is primarily responsible for the
maintenance of international peace and security. Article 24 of the Charter particularly stresses the
need for “prompt and effective action” by the United Nations, which is why in Article 25 of the
Charter all United Nations member states commit to “accept and carry out the decisions of the
Security Council,” regardless of their membership or non-membership therein. One of the most
unique features of the workings of the Security Council is the requirement of zero opposing votes
from permanent member states in order for any substantive decision to be taken, which is often
the source of a perceived impasse in its work.
The mandate of the Security Council is derived from its above-mentioned primary responsibility,
but is otherwise virtually limitless. Chapters VI and VII of the United Nations Charter outline some
of the possible courses of action that the Security Council might take in pursuit of the peaceful
settlement of disputes or in order to respond to threats to international peace and security. It is
important to note that, when acting under Chapter VII of the Charter, decisions taken by the
1
United Nations Security Council membership - http://www.un.org/en/sc/members/ (3.1.2017).
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Prague Model United Nations 2017
Security Council are legally binding, be it towards every member of the international community
or towards only a select few (as per the Security Council’s decision). 2
Thematic topics discussed by the
committee
The topics discussed by the UNSC concentrate themselves on the following thematic topics:
Justice, Rule of Law and Impunity;
 Human Rights;
 Protection of Civilians;
 Women, Peace and Security;
 Children and Armed Conflict;
 Terrorism;
 Small Arms;
 Arms Control and Disarmament, including small arms;
 Drug Trafficking and Security;
 Energy, Climate and Natural Resources;
 Piracy;
 Health Crises.
Current topics discussed in the Security Council concern among
others:
 The situation in the Middle East, including the Palestinian question - 23 December,
S/RES/2334 (2016)
 The situation in Liberia - 23 December S/RES/2333 (2016)
 Reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan and South Sudan - 23 December,
S/2016/1085 (Report was not adopted)
 Peace consolidation in West Africa - 21 December, S/PRST/2016/19
 Maintenance of international peace and security - 20 December, S/RES/2331
(2016)
2
United Nations, Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council (2012-2013): Part VII – Actions with Respect to
Threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression, 80-81. Found at: http://www.un.org/en/sc/
repertoire/2012-2013/Part%20VII/2012-2013%20Part%20VII.pdf#page=85 (3.1.2017).
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United Nations Security Council
 Reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan and South Sudan - 19 December,
SC/12642
The most discussed and highly controversial Resolution that was recently adopted was UNSC Res
2334 (2016) by 14 votes in favour, while the United States abstained from voting (this is the first
Resolution in the list above). This Resolution concerned the construction of Israeli settlements in
Palestinian (West Bank) territory. The reason that the Resolution is very controversial is because
the United States usually vetoes any Resolution pertaining to Israel that curtails the latter in any
way.
Limitations of the committee (mandate of the UNSC)
The UN Charter allows the UNSC to do the following:
 Investigating any situation threatening international peace;
 Recommending procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute;
 Calling upon other member nations to completely or partially interrupt economic
relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio communications, or to sever
diplomatic relations; and
 Enforcing its decisions militarily. This is a measure of last resort and applies when
no diplomatic solution can be reached.
In principle, the UNSC can impose sanctions on States (even on non-Member States although
membership is nearly universal). In some cases, the Security Council can resort to imposing
sanctions or even allow for the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security,
for example by sending UN troops. This is what renders the UNSC very powerful and well-known
in the international system. Furthermore, the Security Council advises the General Assembly which
Secretary-General to appoint and which new Member States to allow accession into the United
Nations. Finally, the UNSC elects the judges of the International Court of Justice in concert with
the General Assembly. It is important to note that the UNSC is not the ICJ: the UNSC does not act
as judge, jury and executioner. That being said, the UNSC does have the power to act and make
a real difference. However, due to differing opinions in the Council - especially troublesome if
among the P5 Member States, Resolutions often fail as Draft Resolutions and are not adopted.
Breaking the stalemate and renewing the UNSC (as well the UN as a whole) is a challenge faced
by the upcoming Secretary General, Mr. António Guterres, who has assumed office on 1 January
2017.
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Topic A: Non-state military
actors and the threat to global
peace
Introduction
Non-state actors have increasingly come to feature in the established discourses of international
relations and international law. The international has always been the realm of nation states first
and foremost, with everything below state level relegated to the sovereign jurisdiction of individual
states. When this state-centric status quo began to shift due to technological advancements and
the societal implications thereof, international legal perspectives on the matter began to shift as
well. One obvious and extremely important breaking point is the creation of the United Nations,
which effectively outlawed offensive use of force by member states (as expressed in Article 2 of
the Charter). 3
With inter-state conflict thusly regulated on a previously unprecedented level, the fall of the Berlin
Wall and the end of the Cold War in turn signified two very important things: the end of the bipolar distribution of power in the international community and the rise of asymmetric warfare.
Traditional conflict involving multiple sovereigns has almost entirely disappeared over the past
25 years – instead, non-state actors have become a staple of both national and international
conflict. In international humanitarian law, the de facto departure from a state-centric approach
are exemplified in the comparison between the 1899 and 1907 Hague conventions and the 1949
Geneva conventions. Whereas the 4th Hague convention, in Article 2, expressly limits its
applicability only to cases where “/…/ all of the belligerents are parties to the Convention,” 4 the
3
Charter of the United Nations. San Francisco, June 26 1949. Accessed at: http://www.un.org/en/ charter-unitednations/ (3.1.2017).
4
Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations concerning the Laws
and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, October 18 1907. Accessed at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl /INTRO/195
(3.1.2017).
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United Nations Security Council: Topic A
so-called common Article 3 of the Geneva conventions on conflicts not of an international
character definitively expands that applicability to include non-state actors as well. 5
The present study guide will attempt to provide a brief overview of the topic and illuminate some
of the challenges in discussing the threat of non-state actors to international peace and security
in today’s globalised world. It should by no means be considered a definitive and exhaustive
source on the issue, which is why it is imperative to upgrade the basic overview provided here with
your own research.
Definition
When considering the threat posed to global peace and security by non-state actors, it is essential
that we first clarify the definitions and establish what exactly is being considered. The emphasis
in this case lies squarely on the definition of “non-state actor,” as the term itself – as selfexplanatory as it might seem – is quite expansive and general. At its most basic, a “non-state
actor” simply denotes any actor in the international community that is not a state (or, by
extension, an inter-governmental organisation).6 There are four major categories that
immediately come to mind for our evaluation: non-governmental organisations (otherwise known
as NGOs), multinational corporations (otherwise known as MNCs), individuals (given that the
conditions for personal accountability to the international community are met), and violent nongovernmental groups.
Examples of NGOs (The International Red Cross, Greenpeace International) and MNCs (Apple,
KPMG, ExxonMobil) are not generally international actors that would, in a vacuum, present a
threat to global peace and security and are as such not traditionally subject to Security Council
scrutiny. On the other hand, the participation of violent non-government groups that either
directly or indirectly support non-governmental combatants (or are themselves combatants) in
conflicts has risen exponentially since 1989, featuring prominently in more than half of all ongoing
conflicts in 2015. 7
5
Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field. Geneva,
August 12 1949. Accessed at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/INTRO/ 365?OpenDocument (3.1.2017).
6
Henderson. 2010. Understanding International Law, pp. 28. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
7
According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program – accessed at: http://ucdp.uu.se/ (3.1.2017).
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No precise definition of a military non-state actor exists in the international community today –
almost every term that is used to describe the groups in question is politicised relative to the
concerned government – for example, a government facing an armed uprising on its own soil will
most likely label the group as “rebels” or “terrorists,” while they might label that same group as
“freedom fighters” or “revolutionaries” if the group’s activities were directed towards an
international rival. For the purposes of a neutral and impartial discussion, the following definition
endorsed by the Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) may be
considered: “/Military non-state actors are/ any organised group with a basic structure of
command operating outside state control that uses force to achieve its political or allegedly
political objectives.” 8 This definition encompasses international terrorist organisations (such as
Al-Qa’ida), international drug cartels and other forms of violent organized crime (such as the
Sinaloa cartel), international maritime piracy networks or even state-like actors that possess
multiple characteristics of states, but lack the international recognition of their statehood.
Constituent Threat
This study guide has greatly emphasized the shifts away from state-centrism that have been
taking place in the international community in the past century and, while every change in the
shifting international landscape sets an important precedent, the present day international
community is still very much state-centric in its conception. International relations are relations
between states first and non-state actors (or states and non-state actors) second – which is why
the concept of international peace and security is intimately linked with the concept of the state.9
At the core of the state lies the notion of sovereignty. Internal sovereignty, or the ability of the
state to monopolize the use of force on its territory, is one of the prerequisites of statehood – and
increasingly the link in the chain where the erosion of sovereignty is most evident.10 This is where
military non-state actors challenge state sovereignty directly with their ability to use force or even
completely supplant the state as the monopolist of violence within a certain territory.
The scenario described demonstrates the traditional conception of a non-state security threat –
a military non-state actor that is based within the sovereign territory of the state in question and
8
Geneva Centre for Democratic Control of Armed Forces. Horizon 2015. Working Paper No. 5, pp. 7-8. Accessed at:
http://www.dcaf.ch/content/download/53925/812465/file/ANSA_Final.pdf (3.1.2017).
9
Mingst & Arreguin. 2010. Essentials of International Relations, pp. 83-7. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
10
Henderson. 2010. Understanding International Law, p. 29-32. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic A
as such constitutes an internal problem – a threat to the state’s internal sovereignty. Many such
cases still exist today and many of them, it could be argued, constitute a threat to international
peace and security by virtue of their regional or global political implications or as derived from
the concept of the responsibility to protect.11
What is becoming an increasingly common and problematic issue in the context of state security
are external military non-state actor threats. In these cases, a military non-state actor that is
based outside of a given state attacks the state in question. Traditional notions of state
sovereignty, the sovereign equality of states and the principle of non-interference clash with the
right of the “victim state” to self-defence. Sveinbjörnsson12 puts forward three notable examples
of modern non-state actor security threats with an international component, that will serve to
demonstrate some of the archetypal situations relevant to the discussed topic.
First, the example of the Allied Democratic Forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
between 1997 and 1999 in relation to the DRC’s neighbouring state Uganda. The Allied Democratic
Forces were based in the DRC, where they were engaged in a politically driven campaign of
violence to overthrow the contemporary government. However, the group allegedly operated
across state borders, committing attacks in Ugandan territory and thus posing a direct
international security threat. The issue was brought before the International Court of Justice13
after the Alliance itself was dissolved.
Second, the example of piracy off the coast of Somalia. In this case, the Security Council itself
determined that non-state actor threats can in fact constitute a threat to international peace and
security.14 The pirates, very loosely organized and based on the Somali coast, raided international
shipping in the Gulf of Aden – a matter that is ordinarily considered a criminal act on the high
seas was deemed by the international community to be of a sufficient magnitude to warrant an
international response.
11
More on the responsibility to protect from the Office of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide:
http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/adviser/responsibility.shtml (3.1.2017).
12
Sveinbjörnsson, D. Ö. 2009. The Non-State Actor Threat (Ma. diss., Lagadeild Haskola Islands). Accessed:
http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/2401/7760/1/2009_fixed.pdf (3.1.2017).
13
International Court of Justice. 2005. Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic
Republic of the Congo v Uganda). Accessed at: http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php? p1=3&p2=3&case=116
(3.1.2017).
14
United Nations Security Council Resolution on Somalia – S/RES/1816(2008). Accessed at:
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1816(2008).
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Thirdly, the example of the international terrorist network Al-Qa’ida. The group has clear political
motivations and global reach in their ability to stage terrorist attacks. In many respects this
organisation exemplifies the core of the issue discussed, since it’s diffuse organisational structure
means that it is extremely difficult to target effectively and as such represents a truly international
threat.
International action
The international community, expressed both through the member states of the United Nations
and through the inter-governmental institutions that facilitate much of their cooperation and joint
engagement with issues, has so far had limited success in comprehensively addressing the threat
of non-state military actors to global peace and security. So far, the states have resorted to
addressing every case individually on the national, regional and global levels – no extensive
international policy framework, that would facilitate a systematic approach, is in place.
An approximation of what could be a comprehensive framework on the topic is the established
Security Council practice on the issue of “terrorism.” This practice is somewhat problematic
because the definition of the term “terrorism” itself is contested in the international community.
The Security Council itself has established a working version in 2004: “criminal acts, including
against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of
hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of
persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an
international organization /…/”. 15However, the term itself remains disputed because of its
political connotations.
The Security Council has, however, built up an extensive practice of addressing non-state military
actor threats individually. One such example was already mentioned above regarding the
question of piracy in Somalia. One of the earliest examples of the Security Council not only
recognizing a non-state actor, but also imposing targeted sanctions, was resolution 864 on
Angola. Recently, the Security Council has adopted Resolution 2325, reaffirming the efforts of the
15
Security Council Resolution 1566 on Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts. 2004.
Accessed at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp? symbol=S/RES/1566(2004) (3.1.2017).
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United Nations Security Council: Topic A
international community to curtail the threat of non-state actors in the form of terrorism in relation
to weapons of mass destruction. This is one successful example of a more general and
comprehensive approach to the topic in a very specific, albeit essential, area of international
policy.
Conclusion
In closing, finding a common thread with which to bind the various disparate threats to
international peace and security originating from non-state military actors is a challenging
proposition. One the one hand, the topic is politically sensitive in that any universal precedent can
potentially undermine virtually any individual nation’s position in the future, should it face a
specific non-state military actor threat that would have to be counteracted within that framework.
On the other hand, the explosion of non-military actor threats facing states worldwide in the last
couple of decades clearly demonstrates a need for a comprehensive, systematic approach that
is founded in international relations, rather than individual states and is able to overcome the
state-centric legal barriers that are currently the centrepiece of international law.
Further reading
United Nations - Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council. Found at:
http://www.un.org/en/ sc/repertoire/actions.shtml. Highly recommended, extensive source of
UNSC practice that comes in handy both as a general overview of its mandate and as a resource
for researching precedent.
Security Council Report. Found at: http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/. An excellent source of
data and analysis on the work of the Security Council, broken down thematically and extremely
easy to use.
European Parliament Primer on Hybrid Threats. Found at:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2015/564355/EPRS_ATA(2015)5643
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55_EN.pdf. An informative and quick overview of a topic often interconnected with non-state
military actors.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Topic B: The situation in South
Sudan
Introduction
Importance of the topic of South Sudan to the UNSC
In order for a body to be able to act in any way, a legal basis is needed which stipulates what
action said body is allowed to undertake. In light of the UNSC’s mandate and taking into
consideration the nature of the current situation in South Sudan, the legal basis on which the
UNSC may act is Chapter VII of the UN Charter, entitled “Action with respect to Threats to the
Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression”, which are Articles 39-51 of the Charter.
Due to the on-going hostilities in South Sudan, the UNSC is directly and indirectly involved in the
effort to prevent the possible outbreak of a civil war. The main importance to the UNSC lies in the
fact that a new civil war could heavily destabilise the entire region, draw neighbouring states into
the conflict, and endanger the newfound peace with Sudan. This threat to national and regional
peace triggers the UNSC’s attention, which is compounded by international diplomatic efforts in
the Council to find a peaceful solution to the current situation.
Concise historical overview of South Sudan
Before gaining independence, when Sudan and South Sudan were still one entity, the region was
ruled by the Egyptian Muhammad Ali dynasty, also known as the Alawiyya dynasty in which the
family of Mohammed Ali Pasha - an Ottoman warlord of Albanian descent who had been
commissioned to drive Napoleon’s forces out of Egypt - seized power and ruled till Egypt’s
independence. The territory of Sudan and South Sudan later became a colonial condominium cogoverned by the British and Egyptians. Sudan subsequently gained independence in 1956.
Despite Sudanese independence, ethnic and religious strife continued to destabilise the country.
We can in part trace the historic roots of this societal instability back to the different colonial and
foreign influences in Sudan.
The north of the country is predominantly Muslim and was subjected to Arab influence for a
sustained period of time during Arab colonialism in Africa, whereas the south was influenced much
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Prague Model United Nations 2017
more by Western powers and its population adhere to the Christian faith. The US was one of the
first major countries to recognise Sudan in the early years of the Cold War. The subsequent proxy
wars fought between the US and the Soviet Union (SU) on African soil prompted the SU to deliver
weapons to Sudan. The First Sudanese Civil War erupted on 8 August 1955 and war ravaged the
country for seventeen years killing roughly half a million people till an armistice was signed under
the diplomatic offices of Ethiopian leader Haile Selassie; the Addis Ababa Accords of 27 March
1972. The Sudan Autonomous Region which attributed more power to the south, lasted from 1972
till 1983, until a second war started in 1983, the direct cause of which being the putting in place of
Sharia law. This war ended in 2005 with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement after having left
2,5 million citizens dead and over 4 million people displaced.
The call for independence did not fade and in 2011 the new state of South Sudan was established.
It was subsequently recognised by most of the world’s states - the first country in the world to
recognise South Sudan being Sudan. This recognition made for a peaceful transition of power and
the drawing of new international borders which are mutually agreed upon except for the disputed
oil-rich border region of Abyei.
The euphoria for a better a future quickly faded when internal peace in South Sudan was not
reached upon independence and fighting erupted as the situation escalated into turmoil. This
remaining unrest is owing to the fact that the sitting President, Mr. Salva Kiir Mayardit, as well as
opposition leader Mr. Riek Machar claim the country’s Presidency. Both are backed by their
respective armed groups as well as parts of the population backing each leader, which in turn also
divides the South Sudanese society itself further and destabilises efforts to heal the existing
societal rifts.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Discussion of the topic
General background information
South Sudan, its official name being the Republic of South Sudan, is the newest country in the
world and the 55th country on the African continent. It gained independence from Sudan (the
Republic of the Sudan) on 9 July 2011 and is situated in the East-Central region of Africa. The state
shares borders with Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya to the southeast, Uganda to
the south, the Dem. Rep. Congo to the southeast, and the Central African Republic to the east.
The capital of South Sudan is the city of Juba, the largest city in the country. Like many African
countries, South Sudan is a tribal society with the predominant tribes / ethnic entities being the
Dinka, the Nuer, the Azande and the Bari.
South Sudan statistics
(Source: World Bank and BBC)
Population
12.34 million 2015
GDP
GDP growth
Inflation
Republic of South Sudan
Area: 619,745 sq km (239,285 sq miles)
Major religions:
Christianity
Traditional
$9.015 billion 2015
-6.3% 2015
50.2% 2015
Capital: Juba
Languages: English, Arabic (both official),
Juba Arabic, Dinka
religions, Currency Sudanese pound
South Sudan Economic Outlook
(Source: African Economic Outlook (AEO) 2015)
There has been a major drop in oil revenues in South Sudan, which is affecting its economy. GDP
rates have fallen over 5% in 2015 and behave erratically, as they are driven by conflict and
fluctuations in oil prices. National net oil-revenue in 2015/16 fiscal year was only 17% of the
previous year
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Internal and external threats to peace and stability continue after independence. The situation
has been deteriorating since December 2013. The parties to the conflict signed a peace agreement
in August 2015 but implementation forms a major obstacle.
The conflict bears a massive humanitarian cost. As of November 2015, over 2.2 million people, an
increase of 200 000 since the beginning of 2015, have been displaced. Over 1.6 million people are
IDP (internally displaced persons); while over 616 000 people have fled to neighbouring countries.
Severe food insecurity and shortages affected 4.6 million people in 2016, compared to 3.8 million
in 2015. Extreme poverty levels have risen from 44.7% in 2011 to over 57% in 2015.
South Sudan struggles with massive economic and fiscal problems. There are major budget
deficits due to a major national oil production drop as well as a sharp decline in oil revenues on
the international oil market. South Sudan is the most oil-dependent country in the world, with oil
accounting for almost all exports, around 60% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and over 95%
of governmental revenues in previous fiscal years. Oil production in 2014-15 was 40% lower than
projected in November 2013. The budget deficit has heavily slowed down investment in
development activities. Depending on a swift and successful implementation of the 2015 peace
agreement as well as a stabilisation of international oil prices, the African Development Bank
estimates a revival of the South Sudanese economy in 2017 with an 8.8% growth rate.
Current situation
Current conflict
The main reason for the current conflict is the disunity between acting of President Salva Kiir and
former Vice President and opposition leader Riek Machar. These men are powerful figures in their
respective, opposing ethnic groups / tribes and each enjoys a reasonable following amongst the
wider population. As briefly stated, the South Sudanese leadership of President Salva Kiir is
challenged by opposition leader Riek Machar. The following excerpt from UN Draft Res
S/2016/1085 presented on 23 December 2016 provides critical context:
“Machar is the leader of the SPLA-in-Opposition. In late November 2015, Machar organized and
appointed regional commanders for Equatorian militia groups. In late 2015 and early 2016,
Machar was involved in resupply efforts for Equatorian rebel groups that were attacking
Government forces. He was the First Vice President in the Transitional Government of National
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Unity from April 2016 until July 2016, when he fled after fierce fighting broke out in Juba. In
September 2016, Machar’s opposition faction declared war on the South Sudanese Government
and called for armed resistance. He stated that he intended to “wage a popular armed resistance
against the authoritarian and fascist regime of President Salva Kiir in order to bring peace,
freedom, democracy and the rule of law in the country.” Machar has entered into alliances with
Equatorian rebel groups to work to overthrow the South Sudanese Government. Forces allied with
Machar have raided villages and abducted civilians and aid workers.” (Source: UN Draft Res
S/2016/1085).
What is most important at the moment is to calm the warring parties down and reach a cessation
of hostilities. According to the Peace Agreement of 2015, Salva Kiir and Riek Machar are to cooperate to bring peace to the country in joint efforts. However, due to personal animosity and
differing opinions on how to resolve the situation, armed factions continue to roam the country
freely and incidents of mass rape, killings, corruption and roadblocks shape the daily lives of the
South Sudanese population. So far, the stipulations of the 2015 Peace Agreement have not been
properly implemented, nor have its goals been attained. Peace and stability are vital precursors
for development, foreign aid and investment opportunities.
The blessing and curse of oil reserves
South Sudan has vast oil deposits, which could be a major asset in its path towards development.
When it seceded from Sudan, it gained 75% of former Sudan’s oil reserves. It is up to this young
state to attract foreign investments so as to develop the oil fields. That being noted, South Sudan
is also the most oil-dependent country in the world. As such, the oil reserves may be a blessing,
yet can also turn into the infamous resource curse wherein corruption reaches peak levels, foreign
petrol companies pump up enormous quantities of oil for unfairly low prices and the trickle-down
effect of wealth to the general society is negated.
The question of Abyei
Abyei has been the focus of a continuing border dispute with Sudan. South Sudan claims Abyei
based on the presence of ethnical and tribal ties, whereas Sudan wishes to retain the Abyei region
on account of its vast oil reserves. Sudan lost nearly 75% of its reserves when South Sudan gained
independence. Abyei is of crucial importance to both states, not just because the region’s mineral
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richness, but also due to its strategic location on the border between both States. Abyei currently
enjoy special administrative status after the 2004 Abyei Protocol that sought to resolve the border
conflict. This protocol is part of the larger Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) that was drawn
up as one of the stipulations to cease the Second Sudanese Civil War.
International response and efforts to
address the situation
United Nations
Several Resolutions can be found regarding South Sudan, most recently UN Draft Resolution
2016/1085 on the situation in South Sudan. UN peacekeeping forces called UNMISS is currently
present and operating on the ground in South Sudan. The United Nations have especially created
a presence in the Abyei region, where they have founded the Interim Security Force for Abyei
(UNISFA). This team is to oversee and assist with the demilitarisation of Abyei and and monitoring
peace in the disputed border area. UN Resolution 2011/1990 (27 June 2011) concerns the situation
in the border region of Abyei. The Security Council is particularly concerned by the violence,
escalating tensions and the displacement of the population in the Abyei area. UNISFA monitors
the border between Sudan and South Sudan and facilitating the delivery of humanitarian aid,
and is authorized to use force in protecting civilians and humanitarian workers in Abyei. “UNISFA’s
establishment came after the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation
Movement (SPLM) reached an agreement in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to demilitarise Abyei and let
Ethiopian troops to monitor the area” (source: UNISFA).
African Union
African leaders from the AU were in favour of deploying regional troops to South Sudan. This
decision was taken in July 2016 after fighting between rival forces left hundreds of people dead.
The coalition of 12.000 troops would come from Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan and Uganda.
The South Sudanese government itself is opposed to the deployment of the coalition of regional
troops.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
World Bank
The World Bank has offered South Sudan a loan of $40 million in 2013 to attribute to the most
fundamental health services in an effort to reduce infant and child mortality rates as well as
combat rampant hunger and disease. The World Bank also seeks to boost youth employment
and entrepreneurial opportunities in South Sudan via the Social Safety Net and Skills
Development Project.
International Court of Justice
The ICJ has published a research report in 2014 on the situation regarding the rule of law and the
independence of the judiciary in South Sudan and has reached alarming conclusions. The ICJ
deems that there is a strong need for international co-operation in South Sudan and it supports
the UN’s actions in the State.
Kenyan troops in South Sudan
As part of the UN peacekeeping mission UNMISS, roughly 1000 Kenyan troops were stationed in
South Sudan until November 2016. However, Kenya has ordered the withdrawal of the troops after
UNMISS inquired about the Kenyan inaction when a hotel in Juba was attacked in July 2016.
Important actors and documents
Colonel Jaafar Muhammad Numeiri (1 January 1930 - 30 May
2009).
This Colonel seized power via a coup d’état in Sudan in 1969 with his faction named the Free
Officers’ Movement and subsequently became President. Col. Numeiri’s decision to implement
Islamic Sharia law on the entire territory of Sudan (including then southern Sudan) sparked
outrage and led to the First Sudanese Civil War.
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The Machakos Protocol (20 July 2002)
“Signed in Machakos, Kenya, in which the parties agree on setting forth the principles of
governance, the transitional process and the structures of government as well as on the right to
self-determination for the people of South Sudan, and on state and religion.” (Source: UNMISS United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan). This document provided renewed feeding
ground for the then southern Sudan to seek self-determination from Sudan before the Second
Civil War had drawn to a close in 2005. The UN write the following on the Protocol: “This
framework agreement restarts the peace process in Sudan and outlines the principles and issues
to be addressed in future substantive talks to resolve the North-South Sudan conflict. It sets forth
the principles on governance, the transitional process and structures of government. It establishes
the principle of self-determination for the people of South Sudan. The parties agree to continue
negotiations on the outstanding issues of power-sharing, wealth-sharing, human rights and a
ceasefire.” For more information on the Machakos Protocol, please see the list on further reading
below.
Dr. John Garang de Mabior (23 June 1945 – 30 July 2005)
Garang de Mabior was a Sudanese politician and leader who was in charge of the Sudan People's
Liberation Army (SPLA) during the Second Sudanese Civil War. Shortly after the Peace Agreement
2005 after the Second Civil War, Dr. Garang de Mabior briefly served as First Vice President of
Sudan from 9 July 2005 until his death in a helicopter crash on 30 July 2005. Dr. Garang is one
of the most influential persons in the young history of South Sudan, if not the most influential
person. His vision was a free and independent South Sudan and he spent his life fighting for this
cause, which was reached six years after his tragic and sudden demise.
Salva Kiir Mayardit (13 September 1951 - )
This man is the first President of the independent Republic of South Sudan. He is a member of
the Dinka tribe, the largest tribe of the country. Salva Kiir fought as an underaged soldier in the
southern Ananya Batallion. He and Dr. Garang defected from the Sudanese armed forces and
joined the rebel Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM). At first he was Dr. Garang’s deputy,
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but after the former’s death, Salva Kiir quickly gained importance and subsequently the
Presidency of the newfound State.
Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon (1953 - )
This man is a politician who has briefly served as the first Vice President of South Sudan, from the
South Sudanese independence in 2011 until 23 July 2016. Riek Machar was dismissed from formal
office in 2016 after allegations had surfaced of plotting to stage a coup to overthrow sitting
President Salva Kiir. He now leads the rebel faction opposing Salva Kiir known as SPLM-IO. Riek
Machar is a member of the Nuer tribe. Both Salva Kiir and Riek Machar have been accused of
enriching themselves during the civil war and making large sums of money off the war itself.
The Sudanese People's Liberation Army / Movement
(SPLA / SPLM)
The Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) started out as a rebel force to seek secession from
Sudan. It has by now become the official military apparatus of the independent country of South
Sudan. The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) is the military wing of the Sudan People's
Liberation Movement (SPLM). That being said, the two are interchangeable in practice.
“The SPLA plays a central role in the government, with influence extending through all layers of a
highly militarised society. The prolonged conflict between the north and South Sudan has left
South Sudanese society highly militarized, fragmented and characterized by a proliferation of
arms and armed groups” (Source: Globalsecurity.org).
Addis Ababa Agreement / Addis Ababa Accord (1972)
This agreement ended the First Sudanese Civil war (lasting from 1955 till 1972). The peace accord
sought to appease the SPLA in their concerns for the southern Sudanese population ruled by the
northern part of the country. The Addis Ababa Agreement allowed for a certain measure of
autonomy to the south of the country. Unfortunately it failed to bring the north and south closer
together and heal societal rifts. As the government seated in the north claimed more of the south’s
oil wealth, disregarded the population in the south and did not heed religious freedom, the
Agreement ultimately faltered. This collapse was an accident waiting to happen, yet its direct
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cause was the imposition of Sharia law in the southern part of the State by Colonal Jaafar. This
led to the Second Sudanese Civil war (lasting from 1983 till 2005).
The Southern separatist Anya-Nya (or Anyanya)
movement
This is a rebel army formed during the First Sudanese Civil War, after which Anya-Nya II was
created in the Second Sudanese Civil War. Anya-Nya has ties to the SPLA.
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) (2005)
This peace accord halted the Second Sudanese Civil War and promised greater autonomy for
southern Sudan. However, by then it had become clear that autonomy would not suffice for the
population of this region. The SPLA kept calling for independence which subsequently
materialised after a referendum held in southern Sudan.
UN Draft Resolution 2016/1085
This Draft Resolution was put forth by the United States and calls for a universal arms embargo
to South Sudan so as to prevent more arms from flooding the country. It furthermore asks the cooperation of the regional states surrounding South Sudan to carry out regular inspections of cargo
bound for South Sudan to check for arms and weapons. Finally, the Draft Resolution erects a
Panel of Experts and Sanctions Committee to help examine possible violation of and noncompliance with the arms embargo.
Peace Agreement (2015)
This is the agreement signed by the government side of Salva Kiir and the rebel / opposition
faction SPLA currently headed by Riek Machar. The main goal of the agreement is to cease the
fighting between the two opposing parties. Since both men are from different tribes, the tribal
background also plays a major role and divides the South Sudanese population further. Despite
the Peace Agreement, fighting, mass-killings and widespread rape are still rampant in the
country.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Timeline - A chronology of key events (main source:
BBC news)
1899-1955 - South Sudan is part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, under joint British-Egyptian rule.
1956 - Sudan gains independence from joint British-Egyptian rule.
First civil war (1955 – 1972)
1962 - Civil war led by the southern separatist Anya Nya movement begins with north.
1969 - Group of socialist and communist Sudanese military officers led by Col Jaafar Muhammad
Numeiri seizes power; Col Numeiri outlines policy of autonomy for south.
1972 - Government of Sudanese President Jaafar Numeiri concedes a measure of autonomy for
southern Sudan in a peace agreement signed in Addis Ababa.
First peace accords (Addis Ababa Agreement) – 1972
1972 – Peace treaty between northern and southern Sudan is brokered with help of diplomatic
offices and mediation efforts by Ethiopian leader
- Southern Sudan Autonomous Region is created, attributing more freedom and a greater degree
of self-rule for southern Sudan
1978 - Oil discovered in Unity State in southern Sudan.
Second civil war (1983 – 2005)
1983 - Sudanese President Jaafar Numeri declares all of Sudan an Islamic country and states
Sharia law as the main source of legislation. This includes the non-Islamic majority southern
region.
1983 - President Numeiri abolishes the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region on 5 June, ending
the Addis Ababa Agreement.
1983 - Fighting subsequently breaks out again between north and south Sudan, under leadership
of John Garang's Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM),
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1988 - Democratic Unionist Party - part of Sudan's ruling coalition government - drafts cease-fire
agreement with the SPLM, but it is not implemented.
1989 - Military seizes power in Sudan.
2002 - SPLA and Sudanese sign agreement on six-month renewable cease-fire in central Nuba
Mountains - a key rebel stronghold. Talks in Kenya lead to a breakthrough agreement between
southern rebels and Sudanese government on ending the civil war. The Machakos Protocol
provides for the south to seek self-determination after six years.
North-south peace deal
2005 - (January) North/South Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) ends civil war; deal
provides for a permanent ceasefire, autonomy for the south, a power-sharing government
involving rebels in Khartoum and a south Sudanese referendum on independence in six years'
time.
2005 - (July) Former southern rebel leader John Garang is sworn in as first vice-president. A new
Sudanese constitution which gives the south a large degree of autonomy is signed.
2005 - (August) South Sudanese leader John Garang is killed in a plane crash. He is succeeded
by Salva Kiir Mayardiit. Mr Garang's death sparks deadly clashes in the capital between southern
Sudanese and northern Arabs.
2005 - (September) Power-sharing government is formed in Khartoum.
2005 - (October) Autonomous government is formed in South Sudan, in line with the January
2005 peace deal. The administration is dominated by former rebels.
Fragile peace
2006 - (November) Hundreds die in fighting centred on the southern town of Malakal - the
heaviest between northern Sudanese forces and former rebels since the 2005 peace deal.
2007 - (October) SPLM temporarily suspends participation in national unity government,
accusing Khartoum of failing to honour the 2005 peace deal. SPLM return to government in
December.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Tension over Abyei
2008 - (March) Tensions rise over clashes between an Arab militia and SPLM in the disputed Abyei
area on the north-south divide - a key sticking point in the 2005 peace accord.
2008 - (May) Intense fighting breaks out between northern and southern forces in disputed oilrich town of Abyei.
2009 - July - North and south Sudan say they accept ruling by arbitration court in The Hague
shrinking disputed Abyei region and placing the major Heglig oil field in the north.
Independence referendum
2011 - January – 99% of the people of South Sudan vote in favour of full independence from
Sudan.
2011 - February - Clashes between the security forces and rebels in southern Sudan's Jonglei state
leave more than 100 dead. Fighting breaks out near Abyei.
2011 - March - Government of South Sudan says it is suspending talks with the North, accusing it
of plotting a coup.
2011 - May - North occupies disputed border region of Abyei.
2011 - June - Governments of north and south Sudan sign accord to demilitarize the disputed
Abyei region and let in an Ethiopian peacekeeping force.
New state born
2011 - 9 July - Independence day.
2011 - August - UN says at least 600 people are killed in ethnic clashes in the state of Jonglei.
2011 - October - President Salva Kiir makes historic first visit Khartoum since independence. South
Sudan and Sudan agree to set up several committees tasked with resolving their disputes.
2011 - November - South Sudan blames Sudan for the aerial bombardment of a refugee camp in
Yida, in Unity State; Sudan's army denies responsibility.
2012 - January - South Sudan declares a disaster in Jonglei State after some 100,000 flee clashes
between rival ethnic groups.
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2012 - February - Sudan and South Sudan sign non-aggression pact at talks on outstanding
secession issues, but Sudan then shuts down the South's oil export pipelines in a dispute over fees.
South Sudan halves public spending on all but salaries in consequence.
2012 - April - After weeks of border fighting, South Sudan troops temporarily occupy the oil field
and border town of Heglig. Sudanese warplanes raid the Bentiu area in South Sudan.
2012 - May - Sudan pledges to pull its troops out of the border region of Abyei, which is also
claimed by South Sudan, as bilateral peace talks resume.
2012 - August - Some 200,000 refugees flee into South Sudan to escape fighting between
Sudanese army and rebels in Sudan's southern border states.
2012 - September - The presidents of Sudan and South Sudan agree trade, oil and security deals
after days of talks in Ethiopia. They plan to set up a demilitarised buffer zone and lay the grounds
for oil sales to resume. They fail however to resolve border issues including the disputed Abyei
territory.
2013 - March - Sudan and South Sudan agree to resume pumping oil after a bitter dispute over
fees that saw production shut down more than a year earlier. They also agreed to withdraw troops
from their border area to create a demilitarised zone.
2013 - July - President Kiir dismisses entire cabinet and Vice-President Riek Machar in a power
struggle within the governing Sudan People's Liberation Movement.
Civil war
2013 - December - Civil war erupts as President Salva Kiir accuses his ex-Vice-President, Riek
Machar, of plotting to overthrow him. Rebel factions seize control of several regional towns,
thousands are killed and many more flee. Uganda troops intervene on the government's side.
2014 - January - A ceasefire is signed but broken several times over subsequent weeks and further
talks in February fail to end the violence that displaces more than a million people by April.
Fugitive ex-Vice President Riek Machar is charged with treason.
2014 - April - UN says pro-Machar forces sack the oil town of Bentiu, killing hundreds of civilians.
2014 - May - UN envoy Toby Lanzer says conflict has resulted in slaughter of thousands,
displacement of more than a million and five million in need of humanitarian aid.
2014 - July - UN Security Council describes the food crisis in South Sudan as the worst in the world.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Peace talks
2014 - August - Peace talks begin in Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa and go on for months as
fighting continues.
2015 - February - China announces the deployment of an infantry battalion on a UN
peacekeeping mission in South Sudan.
2015 - March - Rebels free 250 child soldiers following negotiations with UNICEF, which says
12,000 child soldiers are involved in current conflict.
2015 - August - Despite "reservations" and under threat of UN sanctions, President Salva Kiir signs
an internationally-mediated peace deal under which rebel leader Riek Machar will return as vicepresident.
2016 - April - Riek Machar finally returns to Juba and is sworn in as first vice-president in a new
unity government - but is sacked in July after further conflict.
2016 - November - UN sacks Kenyan commander of its peacekeeping mission over the failure to
protect civilians in Juba during July violence. Kenya responds by saying it will withdraw its
peacekeepers.
Conclusion
Recap of main points
 South Sudan gained independence from Sudan in 2011. Sudan was the first country
in the world to recognise South Sudan;
 Mr. Salva Kiir is the President of South Sudan. However, Mr. Riek Machar, the main
opposition leader, contests this leadership and wishes to become President himself;
 After colonisation, South Sudan has known 50 years of civil war from when it was
still part of Sudan;
 Upon independence the South Sudanese population had high hopes of peace and
development. Unfortunately, this societal stability has not materialised since 2011;
 The UN Security Council has been requested to assist in finding a solution to
counteract the internal strife and instability in South Sudan and help in the efforts
regarding development of state and society.
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Challenges
The two main challenges that the Republic of South Sudan faces for the near future are:
 how to heal the population after war has ravaged the country for over half a
century, traumatised the populace and uprooted entire generations of citizens;
 how to deal with the crippling poverty of the State: the economic situation, the
country’s instability, the working of the institutions, democracy, justice, the rule of
law, the lacking infrastructure and poor security situation which is directly related
to the bleak prospective chances of young people in the country;
The World Bank writes the following on the threats posed by the situation in South Sudan: “The
renewed conflict, in South Sudan is undermining development gains achieved since independence
and worsened the humanitarian situation. Without conflict resolution and a framework for peace
and security, the country’s longer-term development and prosperity are threatened.”
 the Abyei border dispute;
 the extremely high oil dependency rates and lack of economic versatility.
Possible avenues towards solutions
The goodwill is present in the populace: people are tired of the wars and instability and are willing
to work hard to build their newfound state from the ground up. The population is very young,
which means there are ample human resources. The fact that Sudan immediately recognised
South Sudan and seeks no war to reconquer the territory is of fundamental importance: good
bilateral relations with Sudan as well as peaceful regional ties are crucial at this stage. South
Sudan could ask international actors for help and advice: the UN to help bring stability,
international mediation and arbitrage efforts to decide on the question of Abyei, the World Bank
and charity institutions to provide loans and international aid, and build international and regional
relations to form a stable national basis in order to attract international investments. If the oilfields
are to be developed, this could boost the South Sudanese economy. However, despite the massive
potential oil wealth, it is also important to gain more economic versatility and prevent becoming
a rentier state with one export product so that the economy does not collapse if the oil prices drop
again.
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United Nations Security Council: Topic B
Questions to be addressed by the
committee
1. Leadership: what needs to happen in terms of negotiations for Salva Kiir and Riek Machar
to come to an agreement on who will govern the country and how this is to be done?
 Should other states be asked to mediate in these efforts? If so who, how, and on
what terms?
2. Societal stability: what can South Sudan do to heal its broken society? Take into account at
least the following parameters:
 Haunting war past of over 50 years of devastation;
 The layered complexities of a tribal society (one’s primary allegiance may lie with
the tribe rather than the State – it is important to develop a sense of national
identity);
 Religious and cultural differences (mainly animist and Christianity);
 The issue of the guerrilla fighters and armed factions (amnesty, prosecution,
integration into society);
 The issue of reintegration of current and former child soldiers into society.
3. National stability: how can South Sudan become a stable and peaceful state where
investment and tourism are viable options? Take into account amongst others:
 The issue of Abyei and the bilateral relations with Sudan;
 The extreme dependency on oil;
 The question regarding the presence of armed factions and how disarm these
peacefully.
4. National stability II: how can South Sudan strengthen the state of its nation, taking into
account
 Justice
 the rule of law
 democracy-building
 strengthening its institutions
 a fair voting procedure followed by a peaceful transition of power?
5. Development: How can South Sudan develop its land in terms of:
 fighting poverty
 developing crucial and strategic infrastructure (roads, pipelines, hospitals etc.)
 attaining universal literacy and education rates
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 lowering infant mortality rates and eradicating rape
and how can it develop the state of its nation, regarding:
 justice
 the rule of law
 democracy-building
 strengthening its institutions?
Further reading
Sources, graphs and information on the state of South Sudan’s social, financial and economic
situation http://data.worldbank.org/country/south-sudan
African Economic Outlook 2016
https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/AEO_2016_Report
_Full_English.pdf
UN Draft Resolution 2016/1085 on the situation in South Sudan
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2016/1085
UN Resolution 2011/1990 on the situation in the border region of Abyei
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1990(2011)
The 2002 Machakos Protocol
http://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/SD_020710_MachakosProtocol.pdf
For more information on the SPLA / SPLM:
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/spla.htm
The Comprehensive Peace Agreement between Sudan and then southern Sudan (2005):
http://unmis.unmissions.org/Portals/UNMIS/Documents/General/cpa-en.pdf
The UN’s statement regarding the signed Peace Agreement of 2015
https://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc12029.doc.htm
More on the ICJ’s commitment to bring justice and the rule of law to South Sudan
https://www.icj.org/cijlcountryprofiles/south-sudan/
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Sources used
http://www.un.org/en/sc/
http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-securitycouncil.html?referrer=https://www.google.nl/
http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/thematic-general-issues.php
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2016/1085
http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-vii/
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/sudan-civil-war1.htm
http://www.enoughproject.org/blogs/sudan-brief-history-1956
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_South_Sudan
http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article61303
http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article61300
http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/southsudan/overview
http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/southsudan
https://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/south-sudan/south-sudan-economicoutlook/
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14069082
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14019202
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/sudan/nimeiry.htm
http://peacemaker.un.org/sudan-machakos-protocol2002
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Garang
http://answersafrica.com/10-interesting-facts-you-need-to-know-about-south-sudans-salvakiir.html
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/spla.htm
https://unmis.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=515
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http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/08/south-sudan-expected-sign-peace-deal-rebels150826084550000.html
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36833875
http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/06/21/world-bank-help-southsudan-provide-work-job-skills-vulnerable-people
https://www.icj.org/cijlcountryprofiles/south-sudan/
http://www.reuters.com/article/us-southsudan-un-idUSKBN1342AH
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unisfa/
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