Shanghai International Studies University
AN ECOFEMINIST APPROACH TO “THE CHRYSANTHEMUMS”
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate School and College of English
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
Degree of Master of Arts
By
Zhang Lili
Under Supervision of Associate Professor Sun Li
May 2009
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, my deepest thanks go to my supervisor, Associate Professor Sun
Li. Without her guidance in my academic studies and her painstaking effort in revising my
draft, the completion of this thesis would not have been possible. Apart from that, I am also
much obliged to her for her sweet caring and guidance in my life.
My sincere gratitude also goes to all the teachers from whom and whose inspirational
courses I have learned a lot during these two and a half years’ study in SISU. Special
thanks go to Professor Yu Jianhua, Professor Li Weiping, and Professor Zhang Dingquan.
Last but not least, I owe greatly to my family members, who have been with me in the
whole process of my writing of this thesis. I owe more than I can possibly say, so I
dedicate it to them with good hope, gratitude, and love.
摘要
生态女性主义是女权运动和生态运动相结合的产物,发轫于 20 世纪 70 年代，为
世人所瞩目则是在 20 世纪 90 年代。它是一种理论话语，其前提是父权制社会对女性
的压迫和对自然界主宰之间的联系。它把人类对待自然界的态度和对待女性的态度与
父权制中心文化联系起来，将自然和女性同视为父权制社会的受害者。生态女性主义
文学批评的魅力在于使人们反思人类中心主义和父权制中心文化在环境和性别上已
经给人们造成的根深蒂固的病态思维。从生态女性主义角度对经典文学作品进行重新
阐释,为探讨环境问题提供了新的视角。
约翰.斯坦贝克(John Steinbeck，1902-1968)是 20 世纪蜚声美国文坛的作家和
1962 年诺贝尔文学奖获得者，在其近四十年的创作生涯中著述颇丰。他的声誉主要
与其 30 年代创作的中、长篇小说联系在一起，代表作有《人鼠之间》(Of Mice and Men，
1937)、
《愤怒的葡萄》(The Grapes of Wrath,1939)等；他的短篇小说亦出类拔萃，收
录于两个短篇小说集中:《天堂牧场》﹙The Pastures of Heaven,1932﹚和《长谷》(The
Long Valley,1938)。《长谷》收录了一篇被世人称为“斯坦贝克在艺术上最成功的小
说”《菊花》。
本文从文本细读入手，基于生态女性主义理论, 结合作家的生活经历与价值取
向和社会背景来分析和解读《菊花》这部作品。
引言部分扼要介绍了本研究所用的生态女性主义理论以及国内外学者对斯坦贝
克作品《菊花》的研究成果。
第一章从作者的生活经历入手, 探索了斯坦贝克的女性观和自然观, 从而为作
者在作品中对自然及女性的态度找到了渊源。作者的生活经历、生活体验、对事物的
态度都会极大地影响其作品的创作，斯坦贝克也不例外。他的生态意识和对女性复杂
的态度在《菊花》这部作品中均有体现。
第二章从生态女性主义的角度分析了《菊花》这部作品。这一章共有两部分组成。
第一部分剖析伊莉莎这个人物，她所具有的女性意识、她与自然的联系以及悲剧。第
二部分分析导致伊莉莎和自然悲剧的原因。在导致伊莉莎理想幻灭、精神世界崩溃的
悲剧中有两个关键人物—亨利和补锅匠。他们在工业化的进程中扮演了征服者和统治
者的角色。论文进一步追溯了对自然和女性实行双重统治的根源是父权制二元对立思
ii
维。
论文结束语部分对全文进行了总结：作为一名具有强烈社会责任感和人道主义
思想的作家，斯坦贝克通过对《菊花》中女主人公伊莉莎这个悲剧人物的塑造，表达
了他对女性和自然深切的生态人文关怀。
关键词：生态女性主义；斯坦贝克；
《菊花》；伊莉莎
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Abstract
Ecofeminism emerged in the 1970s and became recognized worldwide in the1990s.
As a combination of feminist and ecological movements, it is based on the association
between the patriarchal society’s oppression of women and its domination of the natural
world, both of which are the victims of the patriarchal society. The charm of ecofeminist
literary criticism lies in enabling people to reflect on the deep-seated ill-thought concerning
environment and gender, which results from anthropocentrism and patriarchal-center
culture. Re-reading classic literary works from the ecofeminist perspective helps to provide
a new approach to exploring environmental issues.
John Steinbeck (1902-1968) is a renowned 20th-century American writer and the
winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1962. He wrote many works in his writing career
of nearly 40 years. However, his reputation mainly rests on the novels and short fiction
created in the 1930s, the representatives of which include Of Mice and Men (1937), The
Grapes of Wrath (1939). Moreover, he is a master in short fiction. There are two
collections of his short fiction: The Pastures of Heaven (1932), and The Long Valley
(1938). In The Long Valley, there is a short story “The Chrysanthemums,” which is
evaluated as a "masterpiece of Steinbeck's short fiction."
This thesis bases its research on close reading of the text and exploration of the writer’s
life experience as well as his value orientation.
In introduction, this thesis briefly introduces the ecofeminist theory adopted in the
present research and presents a review of the research concerning “The Chrysanthemums”
at home and abroad.
The first chapter begins with the author's life experience to seek for explanation of
Steinbeck's attitude toward nature and women in his works. One’s life experience and
world outlook greatly influence his/her creation of works; Steinbeck is of no exception. His
eco-awareness and complex attitude to women can be found echoes in “The
Chrysanthemums.”
The second chapter dwells on the analysis of the causes for Elisa’s and nature’s
tragedies from the ecofeminist perspective. It consists of two parts. In the first part, the
iv
thesis probes into Elisa’s affinity with nature, her feminist sensibility as well as Elisa’s
and
nature’s tragedies. The second part focuses on exploring the causes that lead to the
tragedies of Elisa and nature. There are two key figures in the process of industrialization
—Henry and the tinker, who contribute to Elisa’s disillusionment and collapse of spiritual
world. Then the thesis further traces the social background of that time. It concludes that
the root cause for Elisa’s and nature’s tragedy is the deep-seated patriarchal dualistic
thinking.
Finally, the conclusion summarizes the thesis: as a writer with a strong sense of social
responsibility and humanitarian thinking, through the creation of the tragic character—
Elisa, Steinbeck expresses his deep eco-humanistic concern for nature and women.
Key words: ecofeminism; Steinbeck; "The Chrysanthemums"; Elisa
v
Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract (Chinese)……………………………………………………………………….. ii
Abstract (English)……………………………………………………………………….. iv
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….1
Chapter One Steinbeck, Nature, and Women…………………………………………......9
1.1 Steinbeck’s Awareness of Men’s Dominance over Nature………………………9
1.1.1
Steinbeck : A Witness of Nature’s Victimization…………………………..9
1.1.2
Steinbeck’s Ecological Awareness…………………………………….......12
1.2 Steinbeck’s Awareness of Men’s Dominance over Women……………………..14
1.2.1
Women in Steinbeck’s Life and Fiction…………………………………...14
1.2.2
Steinbeck’s Complex Attitude to Women…………………………………18
Chapter Two Pursuing Harmony in a World of Paradise Lost……………………………21
2.1 The Lost Elisa and Sobbing Nature……………………………………………...22
2.1.1
Elisa’s Affinity with Nature………………………………………………..22
2.1.2
Elisa’s Feminist Sensibility………………………………………………...25
2.1.3
Elisa’s and Nature’s Tragedies……………………………………………..31
2.2 The Causes for Elisa’s and Nature’s Tragedies…………………………………..33
2.2.1 The Destructive Impact of Industrialization………………………………….34
2.2.2 The Root Cause: Patriarchal Dualistic Thinking……………………………..38
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………42
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….45
Introduction
In 1962, Rachel Carson, an American ecologist, published a book, The Silent Spring,
which expressed her great concern for the environmental pollution in the United States. In
this thought-provoking book, she concentrates her attention on the indiscriminate use and
deadly effects of toxic chemicals in the countryside and the widespread destruction of
wildlife in America caused by pesticides, fungicides and herbicides (Rachel Carson,
1962:11). Ever since the publication of this book, various kinds of protests, boycotts, and
campaigns worldwide have been launched to protect the deteriorating environment. People
are gradually made aware that their destruction to the natural world has brought about
serious ecological issues such as the global warming; the increase of the sea level; the
ozone depletion; the pollution of soil, water, and air; deforestation and the endangered
species. Environmental issues have become worldwide concerns and special organizations
have been established to prevent further worsening of environment.
In the process of destroying the natural environment, humankind also suffers the
revenge of nature. Women are the first to notice the harmful effects of environmental
pollution. They find that their health and livelihood are directly connected with
environmental quality and the deterioration of natural environment has great impacts on
them, especially their children. The deep concern for their descendants’ future has
motivated these women to launch campaigns against the environmental crisis and protect
the natural world. In the 1980s, after finding that the radiation of chemical wastes caused
their children to suffer from serious diseases, some women in America opposed the
dumping of chemical wastes. The mothers or the mothers-to-be launched campaigns to
fight against the use of pesticides in farming. That is because they believed that the use of
pesticides in farming might result in disabilities and handicap of their children. In Narmada
Valley, an Indian woman named Medha Padha led India’s most vital environmental
campaign against the construction of mega dams on the Narmada River (Shiva, 1993:4-5).
In the 1970s, some feminists began to realize that the domination of women and
exploitation of nature are closely linked with each other. Just as Ariel Salleh says, there is a
1
“parallel in men’s thinking between their right to exploit nature, on the one hand, and the
use they make of women […].” 1
The term “ecofeminism” was first introduced in 1974 by a French writer, Francoise
d’Eaubonne, in her book, Le Feminisme ou La Mort. In this pioneering work, d’Eaubonne
appeals for public attention to women’s potential for an ecological revolution. Apart from
the early voice of Francoise d’Eaubonne, representative ecofeminists include Carolyn
Merchant, Val Plumwood, Ariel Salleh, Karen J. Warren, Rosemary Ruether, Vandana
Shiva, Greta Caard, and Patrick D.Murphy.
Ecofeminism, as a social movement, believes that the oppression of women and
nature is interconnected. Ecofeminists give thought to the interconnections between sexism,
the domination of nature, racism, and social inequalities. Hence, ecofeminism can be
understood as a movement working against the interconnected oppression of gender, race,
class, and nature.
There are eight types of women-nature connections that have been identified by
ecofeminists, which include historical, conceptual, empirical, symbolic, epistemological,
political, ethical, and theoretical connections on how one treats women and earth.
First, let’s talk about historical connections. Most types of ecofeminism turn to a
historical analysis of ideology for support. This kind of analysis concludes that the
oppression of nature and women emerged with a western ideology called patriarchy, which
came into existence about 5000 years ago. Ariel Salleh pratically defines ecofeminism as
“a recent development in feminist thought which argues that the current global
environmental crisis is a predictable outcome of patriarchal culture.” 2
Three conceptual links have been offered when ecofeminists probe into the sources of
historical woman-nature connections and want to find the conceptual props that they claim
to keep these historical dominations in place. One account places a conceptual basis of the
twin dominations of women and nature in value dualisms, i.e., disjunctive pairs in which
the disjunctions are seen as oppositional (rather than as complementary) and as exclusive
(rather than as inclusive) and value hierarchies, i.e., perceptions of diversity organized by a
spatial up-down metaphor, which attributes higher value (status, prestige) to what is higher
1
2
Ariel Salleh. “Stirrings of a New Renaissance.” Island Magazine 8 (1989):26-31.
Ariel Salleh. “Epistemology and the metaphors of production: An eco-feminist reading of critical
theory.” Studies in the Humanities 15.2 (1988):130.
2
(“up”). 3 A second account expands on the first by locating the problematic value dualisms
and value hierarchies in larger, oppressive conceptual frameworks—ones that are common
to all social “isms of domination.” 4 A third account houses a conceptual basis in
sex-gender
differences,
particularly
in
differentiated
personality
formation
or
consciousness. 5
Empirical connections are identified when ecofeminists concentrate on uncovering
empirical evidence associating women (children, people of color, and the underclass) with
environmental destruction. A variety of health and risk factors borne disproportionately by
women, children, racial minorities, and the poor resulted from the presence of low-level
radiation, pesticide toxics, and other pollutants have been pointed out by some
ecofeminists.
Symbolic connections are presented after some ecofeminists have studied the
symbolic association and devaluation of women and nature that appear in religion,
theology, art, and literature.
The above listed historical, casual, conceptual, empirical, and woman-nature
connections have also stimulated the need for new, ecofeminist epistemologies. As Val
Plumwood suggests, if one mistakenly construes environmental philosophy as only or
primarily concerned with ethics, one will neglect a key aspect of the overall problem,
which is concerned with the definition of the human self as separate from nature, the
connection between this and the instrumental view of nature, and broader political aspects
of the critique of instrumentalism. 6 From Plumwood’s opinion, ecofeminist epistemologies
must critique rationalism in the Western philosophical tradition and develop ethical views,
which do not retain and preserve harmful value dualisms and hierarchies, especially
human-nature ones.
Political connections should also be mentioned that is because ecofeminism has
always been a grassroots political movement motivated by pressing pragmatic concerns.
3
Val Plumwood. “Nature, self, and gender: feminism, environmental philosophy and the critique of
rationalism.” Hypatia 6.1 (1991): 3.
Karen J. Warren. “Feminism and ecology: making connections.” Environmental Ethics 9.1 (1987):3.
Ariel Salleh. “From Feminism to Ecology.” Social Alternatives 4.3 (1984):8-12.
Val Plumwood, “Nature, self, and gender: feminism, environmental philosophy and the critique of
rationalism.” Hypatia 6.1 (1991): 3.
4
5
6
.
3
Till now, the majority of the philosophical literature on woman-nature connections has
been in the area of environmental philosophy, which is known as environmental ethics. It
claims that the interconnections among the conceptualizations and treatment of women,
animals, and the rest of nature call for a feminist ethical analysis and response.
The discussion of “theoretical connections” offered here is confined to environmental
ethics. Contemporary environmental ethics reflect the range of positions in the
contemporary philosophical ethics, which covers traditional consequentialist and
non-consequentialist positions, as well as challenges to them by non-traditional
approaches.
Among the various connections, it is of high significance that ecofeminists have
noticed that throughout human history both women and nature have been in a position of
being subordinated to and dominated by men. Human history can be viewed as a history of
men’s arrogant domination and control over nature and women. The assumption of “men’s
power over nature” dates back to Christian tradition. In The Bible, God says to Adam,
“Replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over
the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.” 7 This kind of
biblical assumption provides cultural supports for men’s dominance over nature. Nature
was only degraded to “natural resources” to be exploited by human beings to fulfill their
needs and purpose. When men exert their power over nature, they also place themselves in
the dominant and superior position over women. By reviewing the history of men’s
dominance over nature and women, ecofeminists find that feminist and ecological theories
have something in common because of
their examination of the patriarchal dualism.
They hold that the dominations over women and nature originate from the same source and
follow the same pattern—the patriarchal dualistic framework of mind. From ecofeminists’
viewpoint, the twin domination of women and nature are culturally analogous. By
naturalizing women and feminizing nature, the patriarchal ideology subordinates both
women and nonhuman nature.
According to Karen J. Warren, women are often described
in animal terms, such as cows; foxes; chicks; serpents; bitches; old bats; pussycats; and
bird-brain, hare-brains and she says that nature is often raped, mastered, conquered,
7
Huang Xinhua , ed. The Bible Story (Guangzhou: Zhongshan University,1998) 6.
4
controlled, and mined. 8 .
Therefore, ecofeminists challenge the patriarchal dualistic framework and question
the assumed superior position of men above women and nature. They express concern for
the well-being of the earth, which is undermined by patriarchal concept of controlling and
conquering nature. They put forward that all life is interconnected, that oppression cannot
be prioritized, that men are not the zenith of life on earth, and rebalancing dualistic
thinking is supreme.
As a component of literary criticism, ecofeminism finally made itself felt in literary
studies in the 1990s, and since then critics began to develop the insights of it. By
employing ecofeminist literary criticism, many literary works can be reinterpreted from a
new different angle.
John Steinbeck, one of the American Nobel Prize winners, has long been
acknowledged as one of America’s preeminent writers and attracted a substantial
readership. In Long Valley, he focuses on simple, dramatic portraits of characters and
places he knows firsthand. “The Chrysanthemums” is probably his most popularly
successful short story.
Steinbeck wrote in a letter on February 25, 1934 to George Albee, saying that “I shall
be interested to know what you think of the story, ‘The Chrysanthemums.’ It is entirely
different and is designed to strike without the reader’s knowledge. I mean he reads it
casually and after it is finished feels that something profound has happened to him
although he does not know what nor how.” 9 Steinbeck wanted to capture the reader in a net
of words so that the reader could not escape seeing multiple levels of charm of the story.
It is really the case. Since its first publication, it has gained many comments from
critics. Just as Steinbeck predicted, the critics tried to probe into the story from different
angles, concentrating on the profundity of the story. Their perspectives are mainly confined
to the analysis of the heroine and the interpretation of the symbolic meaning of the
chrysanthemums.
For one part, many critics put emphasis that suppression and struggle
characterize the theme and structure of the short story. These persons argue that the story
dramatizes how women (in this case Elisa Allen) and “femininity” itself tends to be limited
8
9
Karen J. Warren. “Feminism and ecology: making connections.” Environmental Ethics 9.1 (1987):3.
Lewis, Clifford L. “Jungian Psychology and the Artistic Design of John Steinbeck.” Steinbeck
Quarterly 10 (Summer-Fall 1977): 91.
5
and undervalued by our society. For instance, Charles Sweet holds that Elisa is an
immature feminist; 10 Leroy Thomas analyses the characteristics of Elisa’s behavior and
points out that planting chrysanthemums can release her sexual repression. 11 Marilyn L.
Mitchell says the conflict in “The Chrysanthemums” is “between society’s view of what
constitutes masculinity and its view of what constitutes femininity.” In this conflict, Elisa
is “trapped between society’s definition of the masculine and the feminine” and is
“struggling against the limitations of the feminine.” “Steinbeck reveals fundamental
differences,” says Mitchell, “between the way women see themselves and the way they are
viewed by men.” 12 Gregory J. Palmerino further traces the above questions and concludes
that the lack of communication between husband and wife is the main issue reflected in the
story. 13 For the other, some critics discuss the role that the chrysanthemums play in Elisa’s
life. Mordecai Marcus thinks that the chrysanthemums can make up the absence of
children in Elisa and Henry’s marriage. 14 The above perspectives of interpreting “The
Chrysanthemums” can broaden readers’ horizon and help them achieve a deeper
understanding of it. We think that the shared weakness of these arguments is that they
haven’t explored the factors striking heroes’ evilness at their root.
Here, it is necessary to mention one person, Cynthia Bily, one of the few scholars,
who interpret “The Chrysanthemums” from ecofeminist perspective. She puts forward that
the relationship between Elisa and the chrysanthemums is the embodiment of
ecofeminism. 15
To date, “The Chrysanthemums,” as one of the most highlighting short stories, has
been introduced into China. Just like foreign scholars, some Chinese scholars employ the
perspectives of feminist and psycho-analysis to interpret the heroine in the story and others
10
11
12
13
14
15
Charles A. Sweet, Jr. “Ms. Elisa Allen and Steinbeck’s ‘The Chrysanthemums.’” Modern Fiction
Studies 20 (1974): 210-214.
Leroy Thomas. “Steinbeck’s ‘The Chrysanthemums.’” Explicator 45.3 (1987): 50-51.
Marilyn L. Mitchell. “Steinbeck’s Strong Women: Feminine Identity in the Short Stories.” Modern
Fiction Studies 20 (Summer 1972): 304-306.
Gregory J. Palmerino. “Steinbeck’s ‘The Chrysanthemums.’” Explicator (Helen Dwight Reid
Educational Foundation, Washington, DC) 62.3 (spring 2004): 164-167.
Mordecai Marcus. “The Lost Dream of Sex and Childbirth in ‘The Chrysanthemums.’” Modern
Fiction Studies 11 (Spring 1965): 54-58.
Cynthia Bily. “The Chrysanthemums.” Short Stories for Students (Michigan: The Gale Group, 1999).
6
focus on the theme and structure of the story. Wang Xing and Yuan Yi focus on the four
dialogues in the story to give an over-all analysis of the suppressed female in that society.
Lv Ke analyzes the heroine’s personality structure and self-defense mechanism from the
perspective of Freud’s psycho-analysis and concludes that Elisa is a tragic figure.
Duan Yanli concentrates on the living conditions of Elisa and argues that the valley,
the fence, and the chrysanthemums symbolize the suppression of natural environment,
Phallus culture, and sex suffered by Elisa. Through text-based analysis, Zhai Yanxia argues
that by employing the recurring symbolism and repetition, Steinbeck reveals his
contradictory attitudes toward women and the heroine’s desire for a free life.
Jiang Shuqin and Yan Qigang apply A. J. Greimas’ theory of “semiotic square” to the
analysis of the narrative structure of “The Chrysanthemums” and the binary oppositional
relationship between the semantic semes. Their analysis into the binary oppositions in the
narrative structure clarifies the complex relationships between the characters and their
symbolic meanings and better readers’ understanding of the story’s artistic beauty and deep
theme. Zheng Lingling discusses the environment, symbolism, and character of the
components of the short story to trace the process of the psychological growth of Elisa and
explore her feminist thought. Wu Xiaoqing and Zhan Xiaofeng discuss in their papers
respectively about the symbolic meaning of the chrysanthemums in the short story. Meng
Fang pays attention to the barren spiritual world of modern people in the process of
modernization, which is revealed in “The Chrysanthemums.” Hu Tianfu points out in his
paper that Steinbeck shows great concern for human being’s destruction and exploitation of
nature in “The Chrysanthemums.”
The particular significance of the technique in “The Chrysanthemums” is that the
story, while critically construed as one about a woman’s place, as one dealing with
rejection, or as a simple portrait of the Salinas Valley, is also clearly a story about women’s
and nature’s tragedies and their relationship as well. Of all Chinese scholars, only Fu
Wenzhong and Hu Hong analyze the short story from ecofeminist point of view. In their
paper “An Ecofeminist Interpretation of ‘The Chrysanthemums,’” they argue that in “The
Chrysanthemums,” Steinbeck describes the close relationship between Elisa and the
chrysanthemums to express his deep concern for women and the nature. Their paper is
thought-provoking. Nevertheless, the need to confine its statement to a concise article
7
keeps it from being an in-depth analysis. Therefore, there is still room for exploring the
subject further. This thesis intends to focus on “The Chrysanthemums” and through a close
reading of the short story in the light of ecofeminism, tries to construct a more convincing
interpretation.
8