Thermochemical energy storage
technologies for building applications: a
state-of-the-art review
..............................................................................................................................................................
Yate Ding and S.B. Riffat*
Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Institute of Sustainable Energy
Technologies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
.............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive and state-of-the-art review on thermochemical energy storage
(ES) technologies using thermochemical materials (TCMs) for building applications. Thermochemical
storage devices (materials, open and closed sorption as well as chemical heat pump) enhance the energy
efficiency of systems and sustainability of buildings by reducing the mismatch between supply and
demand. Thermal ES (TES) systems using TCMs are particularly attractive and provide a high ES
density at a constant temperature. Technical and economical questions will need to be answered for all
possibilities, which warrant more development and large-scale demonstration of TES in future.
*Corresponding author:
saffa.riffat@nottingham.
ac.uk
Keywords: thermochemical storage; sorption; adsorption; absorption; chemical heat pump
Received 21 November 2011; accepted 2 January 2012
................................................................................................................................................................................
1 INTRODUCTION
Globally, the problems of excessive consumption of fossil
resources, oil shortages and greenhouse gas emissions are
becoming increasingly severe. All these problems take a large
impact on sustainable development of human society. Research
and development work on new methods of thermal energy
storage (TES) are required to minimize energy consumption
by harvesting renewable energy sources. The key challenge is to
effectively store excess energy and bridge the gap between
energy generation and consumption. Thermochemical ES is
one of the promising technologies that can help minimize
global environmental pollution and reduce energy consumption. The key role of ES systems is to reduce the time or rate
mismatch between energy supply and energy demand [1]. The
thermochemical ES is particularly an attractive technique,
because it can provide a high ES density. Recent developments
in low/zero carbon buildings have promoted the development
of thermochemical ES systems.
The study of thermochemical ES using chemical heat
pump (CHP) was pioneered by Swedish and Swiss researchers
[2, 3] in the 1970s. In Germany, a long-distance thermal
energy transportation system (EVA-ADAM) was proposed in
1970s and the technology was demonstrated 1980s, and this
was the first practical example of thermochemical heat storage
[4]. A project on super heat pump and energy-integrated
system was conducted in Japan during 1984 – 92. Several
ammoniate/ammonia and halogenated inorganic reactant/
water materials were investigated as a working pair of CHPs
as part of this project [5]. In 1991, an enhanced thermal heat
transfer was examined using the CaO/H2O CHP system [6].
Different reactant mixtures to enhance the thermal heat transfer of adsorbent bed were examined in Japan [7], France [8]
and the UK [9].
This paper represents an overview of the studies conducted
on thermochemical ES technologies for various applications
with particular emphasis on the state of the art of CHPs and
open and closed sorption ES systems.
1.1 Type ES
Nowadays, ES systems can be accomplished by devices or physical media. Basically, an ES is vitally significant to any intermittent energy source to meet variable demands. It is difficult
to evaluate the ES properly without a detailed understanding
of energy supplies and end-use considerations in terms of
complex properties of ES [10]. Advanced ES systems could be
integrated with other technologies to provide feasible innovation solutions in the ES fields. ES devices can be classified in
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116
# The Author 2012. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
doi:10.1093/ijlct/cts004 Advance Access Publication 29 February 2012
106
Thermochemical energy storage technologies for building applications
categories. Dincer and Rosen [11] classified and discussed ES
devices as follows: mechanical, thermal, chemical, biological
and magnetic (Figure 1).
1.2 Classification of TES
TES is commonly defined as an important energy conservation technology. In 2002, Dincer [12] stated that advanced
modern TES technologies have successfully been applied
worldwide, particularly in some developed countries.
Normally, TES comprises a number of other technologies to
storage heat and cold energy for utilization at a later stage.
TES can be employed to balance energy demand between day
and night times [13]. Thermal energy can be stored as sensible heat, latent heat and thermochemical or combination of
these materials. Hence, some possible methods to research
TES can be divided into physical and chemical processes.
Figure 2 shows an overview of the major technique of storage
of thermal energy.
1.3 Sensible and latent ES
In physical ES process, TES can be divided into two principal
types such as sensible (e.g. wood, rock) and latent (e.g. water/
ice, salt hydrates). Sensible heat is defined as the heat absorbed
or released when a substance just undergoes a change in
temperature. The sensible heat storage is a thermodynamic
process, which can be calculated mathematically. Sensible heat
systems usually employ liquids such as water and oil, but in
some cases solids such as molten salts, iron, rock, concrete and
bricks are also used as TES media. But, normally these materials are not used as sensible ES systems in terms of their very
low volumetric heat capacity of gases [14].
In latent heat storage (LHS), heat is released or absorbed by
a chemical substance during a phase change from solid to
liquid or liquid to gas vice versa without a change in temperature. Comparing with sensible heat storage, an LHS system is
particularly attractive. Usually, the latent heat change is much
higher than the sensible heat change for a given medium,
which is related to its specific heat. Therefore, LHS is able to
provide a considerable storage density and store heat at a
Figure 1. A classification of energy storage methods [11].
Figure 2. A classification of TES methods [14, 16, 17, 65].
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116 107
Y. Ding and S.B. Riffat
Figure 3. Classification of chemical and thermochemical storage [17].
constant temperature corresponding to the phase transition
temperature of the heat storage medium [11, 12].
1.4 Chemical ES
Normally, a chemical ES system is comprised of one or more
chemical compounds. The chemical TES category includes
sorption and thermochemical reactions. In thermochemical
ES, energy is stored after a dissociation reaction and then
recovered in a chemically reverse reaction [15]. During this
completely reversible chemical reaction, the temperature of
some substances could probably be increased or decreased.
Hence, this chemical heat energy can be stored through some
effective methods for a long-term storage application. The heat
stored depends on the amount of storage material, the endothermic heat of reaction and the extent of conversion [16].
2 THE STATE OF THE ART
OF THERMOCHEMICAL ES
2.1 Chemical storage and sorption storage
classification
Chemical TES can be categorized into chemical storage and
thermochemical storage, in general. Thermochemical storage
systems can be divided into open and closed systems [17]. The
open storage system is based on the adsorption process to
complete the sorption processes with desiccant and heat
storage systems. Closed systems work with a closed working
fluid cycle that is isolated from the atmosphere. There are two
processes to be defined in a closed system; adsorption and
absorption. Figure 3 illustrates the classification of chemical
and thermochemical storage.
Usually, it is difficult to make clear boundary distinctions
between expressions such as chemical storage, thermochemical
storage and sorption storage [18]. Figure 4 shows the classification of chemical and sorption storage. During chemical ES, a
108 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116
Figure 4. Chemical storage and sorption storage classification [18, 22, 66].
chemical energy can be transformed into other forms of
energy by a chemical reaction [1]. Sorption can be used to
describe a phenomenon of fixation or capture of a gas or a
vapour (sorbate) by a substance in a condensed state (solid or
liquid), called sorbent [19]. Depending on the type of bonding
involved, sorption can be classified as physical and chemical
sorption. Generally, sorption includes both absorption and
adsorption [20 – 22]. Both absorption and adsorption are
different phenomena, but their commonality is that both
involve the physical transfer of a volume of mass or energy.
Specifically, absorption is related to a transfer of a volume into
a volume, i.e. it is a permeation or dissolution of a volume of
energy or mass (absorbate) into another volume of energy or
mass (absorbent). In chemical engineering, adsorption is called
the separation process during which specific components of
one phase of a fluid are transferred onto the surface of a solid
adsorbent. Adsorption refers to the transfer of a volume onto a
Thermochemical energy storage technologies for building applications
surface. It is an accumulation, or massing, of energy or
matter (adsorbate) onto a surface (adsorbent) [21, 23].
Chemisorption processes often offer larger heat of sorption
than physisorption. However, chemisorption processes may be
irreversible [24].
2.2 Principles of thermochemical ES
Sorption and thermochemical storage systems are based on
performing a reversible chemical reaction (or desorption),
which allows absorption of heat in the course of the decomposition (desorption) process that is endothermic. A reverse
synthesis reaction is exothermic and results in giving stored
heat back [25, 26]. In this reversible physico-chemical reaction,
C is the thermochemical material (TCM). With heat supply, C
can be dissociated into components A and B, which can be
any phase and stored separately. Both A and B are reactants as
working pair or sorption couple, and C will be formed with a
heat release when put A and B together [26].
C þ heat , A þ B
2.3 Materials currently used or studied
TCMs are a promising new alternative for long-term heat
storage. The process concerned is based on a reversible chemical reaction, which is energy demanding in one direction and
energy yielding in the reverse direction. Normally, TCMs have
the higher storage density with repetitive storage properties to
use in sorption storage systems, and some of the materials may
even offer storage density close to the properties of biomass
[28]. Because of higher energy density, thermochemical TES
systems can provide more compact ES relative to latent and
sensible TES [29, 30] (Figure 6).
Numerous research work and experiments on various
storage methods have shown that thermochemical ES systems
have the potential to become probably the most effective and
economic method of storing and utilizing waste heat [31, 32]
(Table 1).
Nowadays, there are a number of materials and reactions
that conform to thermochemical ES systems. Some of the
promising thermochemical storage materials that have been
recently identified are listed in Table 2. The table also provides the values of ES density and reaction temperature,
which are two important factors for material selections. In
ð1Þ
A general thermochemical ES cycle includes three main
processes: (i) charging: the charging process is an endothermic
reaction. A required energy resource is used for dissociation of
compound C. (ii) Storing: after the charging process, A and B
will be formed and both are stored in this stage and (iii) discharging, A and B are combined in an exothermic reaction
[15, 27] and material C is regenerated. Meanwhile, the recovered energy is released from this phase (Figure 5).
Figure 6. Different energy storage materials [18, 29, 30].
Table 1. Thermochemical ES materials [31, 32].
Figure 5. Processes involved in a thermochemical energy storage cycle:
charging, storing and discharging [15, 27].
Material
Density(r), kg/m3
Energy density, MJ/m3
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Barium oxide, BaO
Borax, Na2B4O2.10H2O
Calcium oxide, CaO
Magnesium oxide, MgO
3970
5720
1730
3300
3580
4320
4906
1218
6158
6874
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116 109
Y. Ding and S.B. Riffat
Table 2. Characteristics of TCMs investigated by different authors.
Compound
Magnesium sulphate
Silicon oxide
Iron carbonate
Iron hydroxide
Calcium sulphate
Sodium sulphide
Strontium bromide
Calcium hydroxide
References
[5– 39, 39, 39–69]
[35, 68]
[35, 68]
[34, 35, 68]
[35, 68]
[44, 45]
[15, 42, 43, 70]
[31, 59, 71, 72]
Dissociation reaction
C
A
B
MgSO4.7H2O
SiO2
FeCO3
Fe(OH)2
CaSO4.2H2O
Na2S.5H2O
SrBr2.6H2O
Ca(OH)2
MgSO4
Si
FeO
FeO
CaSO4
Na2S
SrBr2.H2O
CaO
H2O
O2
CO2
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
2009, Kato et al. [33] investigated on medium temperature
chemical heat storage materials with metal hydroxides. The
results show that mixed hydroxides can chemically store
medium temperature heat such as waste heats emitted from
internal combustion engines, solar energy system and hightemperature system. Visscher et al. [34, 35] revealed that a
group of salt hydrates in general is considered to be suitable
TCMs: epsom (MgSO4.7H2O) is a commonly used TCM. It
is essential that salt hydrates can incorporate large amounts
of water into the crystal lattice. When a hydrated salt is
heated, the crystal water is driven off. In a long-term seasonal storage system, solar heat can be employed to dehydrate
the salt hydrate in summer. Subsequently, the anhydrous salt
is stored until needed. In winter, this salt experiences reverse
reaction and yields energy in the form of heat, which can be
used for building applications such as heating water and
central heating. Epsom can be used for such ES applications.
Recently, van Essen et al. [36] and Posern and Kaps [37]
assessed the capability of epsom as an ideal material for
thermochemical ES. The results were similar to Stach et al.’s
[38] findings using experimental measurements. In 2010,
Balasubramanian et al. [39] investigated the capability of
MgSO4.7H2O to store thermochemical energy via a mathematical model. This simulated method can help identify
optimal materials for thermochemical storage within practical
constraints. However, this material cannot release all the
stored heat under practical conditions. This is proved by
Essen Van M, et al. [40]. Some experiments performed by
Hongois S, et al. [41] show that the pure magnesium sulphate is quite difficult to use practically because of its low
power density. Abedin and Rosen [42] investigated a closed
thermochemical TES using strontium bromide (SrBr . 6H2O)
as the reactant and water as the working fluid. In 2006,
Lahmidi et al. [43] simulated a sorption process based on
the use of strontium bromide, which is adapted to solar
thermal systems. In some other cases, a hydrate of Sodium
sulphide for example its nonahydrate or its pentahydrate [44]
gives a high thermal power density combined with a high
energy storage density. However, Boer et al. [45] measured
this material storage density and revealed sodium sulphide is
very corrosive and operates under high vacuum.
110 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116
ES density of C, GJ/m3
Turnover temperature, 8C
2.8
37.9
2.6
2.2
1.4
2.8
0.22
2.2
122
4065
180
150
89
110
43
25
Figure 7. Adsorption and desorption process of water vapour on solids [13].
2.4 Sorption storage systems
Chemisorption processes can be realized by utilizing reversible
chemical reaction. The sorption storage systems can be
explained for solid adsorbents and the results can be transferred to liquid absorbents [13]. The process of adsorption and
desorption on solid materials is shown in Figure 7. Adsorption
refers to the binding of a gaseous or liquid phase of component onto the inner surface of a porous material. Basically,
sorption TES can be divided into open and closed systems.
Soutullo et al. [46] presented a comparative study of the performance of absorption cooling systems with internal storage
and also external storage, and the results show that the conventional system has a greater room requirement than an internal
absorption system. In 2011, Liu et al. [47] evaluated a seasonal
storage system for house heating and revealed that the storage
capacity of the absorption process increases with the evaporator temperature and the storage temperature before
the absorption phase, and decreases with the absorber temperature. Generally, sorption storage systems can be divided
into open and closed systems.
2.4.1 Closed thermochemical ES
A closed sorption system is based on the same physical effect
as the open storage, but the engineering is quite different from
Thermochemical energy storage technologies for building applications
Figure 8. Operation principle of closed thermochemical TES [13, 18].
Figure 9. Operation principle of open thermochemical TES [13, 18, 67].
open sorption systems. In closed systems, the components
cannot be exposed to the atmosphere and sorption process can
use water vapour as adsorptive and the operation pressure of
the working fluid can be adjusted, see Figure 8. The heat
energy from the system needs to be transferred to and from
the adsorbent using a heat exchanger. Comparing with open
storage, the expected energy density of closed systems is
reduced. The main reason for this is that the adsorbent (water
vapour) is the part of the storage system and has to be stored
as well [13]. Abedin and Rosen [42] used energy and exergy
methods to assess closed thermochemical ES. Exergy analysis
can be used to identify the locations and reasons of
thermodynamic losses and evaluate efficiencies for the various
processes of closed storage systems. In 2008, Hauer [48] has
given a comparison on sorption storage systems, which means
that internal substances of a closed system are separate from
the heat transport stream and can provide higher output temperatures than open storage. Meanwhile, closed systems can be
used to supply low temperatures for building cooling. A closed
storage system usually requires higher temperatures during the
charging process than open systems [49]. Furthermore, a combined solar ES system with a closed loop chemical heat pipe
was investigated by Levy et al. [50]. The overall performance
of the closed loop was found to be satisfactory.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116 111
Y. Ding and S.B. Riffat
2.4.2 Open thermochemical ES
In an open sorption storage system, air is carrying water
vapour and heat energy in and out of the packed bed of solid
adsorbents or a reactor where the air is in contact with a liquid
desiccant (Figure 9) [13]. An open sorption system is composed of a working fluid and a TCM. Gaseous working fluid of
open system is directly released to the environment and operates at atmospheric pressure [27]. Therefore, normally only
water is a possible candidate as the working fluid. Also, materials are required to be non-toxic and non-flammable in open
systems. In open storage systems, separate desorption step
(charging process) and adsorption step (discharging process)
are used to store thermal energy without any thermal energy
loss. Closed and open thermochemical ES systems were investigated by Abedin and Rosen [15] based on energy and exergy
methods. The results for closed storage (SrBr.6H2O as thermal
materials) show that the overall energy and exergy efficiencies
are 50 and 9%, respectively. For open storage (Zeolite 13X as
thermal material), the overall energy and exergy efficiencies are
69 and 23%, respectively. Particularly, the exergy method
enhances assessments of energy method and there is a significant margin for loss reduction and efficiency improvement for
open storage systems [15, 27]. Wu et al. [51] were evaluated
and numerically analysed an open thermal storage system
using composite sorbents. The computational results were validated with the experimental measurements on open TES and
the specific TES capacity increased noticeably while the coefficient of performance (COP) of the TES system decreased.
2.5 CHP storage systems
CHPs are a representative of chemical thermal energy conversion and storage systems [52]. Basically, a CHP makes use of
transformation between thermal power and potential energy
[53]. Specifically, CHPs utilize the reversible chemical reaction
and sorption to change the temperature level of the thermal
energy stored by chemical substances [25, 54]. These chemical
materials play a significant role in absorbing and releasing heat
[55]. According to the characteristic of the chemical reaction,
various chemical materials could be involved in CHPs. A CHP
system can be sorted as a mono-variant system and a
di-variant system [53, 54]. The general classification of CHPs is
illustrated in Figure 10.
In general, CHPs could be categorized into two types: solid
to gas and liquid to gas in terms of the phase of working pairs.
Solid – gas systems normally comprise a reactor, condenser and
evaporator. Liquid –gas CHPs are consisted of not less than
two reactors (endothermic and exothermic), a condenser and
an evaporator [53] (see Figure 11).
Today, there are many published papers on various types
CHPs and their applications. In early 1995, Tahat et al. [56]
investigated the thermal performance of a thermochemical heat
pump as an energy storage system. They have shown a general
relationship between the equilibrium pressure and the temperature of the system. Kawasaki [25] provided a proposal of a
112 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116
CHP for cooling using paraldehyde/acetaldehyde (Pa/A) and
indicated that the COP of the Pa/A system is the same as the
COP of a vapour-compression heat pump. A basic numerical
model to analyse CHPs was developed by Mbaye et al. [57], in
which the source-based method (which is a fixed grid enthalpy
approach) was employed. Kato et al. [58] examined experimentally a packed bed reactor of magnesium oxide/water CHP
system to evaluate the contribution of the CHP to decentralized cogeneration. This type of CHP enhanced the energy utilization efficiency of the cogeneration system by storing and
utilizing surplus exhausted heat from the cogeneration system.
In, 2002, Fujimoto et al. [59] published their work on dynamic
simulation of an experimental prototype Cao/Ca(OH)2 CHP
system. Sharonov and Aristo [60] found that the Carnot
efficiency can be obtained for a CHP that results from monovariant equilibrium of a gas – solid reaction, which was
confirmed for various chemical reactions between salts and
ammonia (or water). Fadhel et al. [61, 62] investigated the performance of solar-assisted CHP, and found that any reduction
in energy at condenser will decrease the COP of the CHP as
well as decrease the efficiency of drying. Kim et al. [63] evaluated a CHP with reactivity enhancement of chemical materials
(EMCs), which is a mixed material comprising expanded
graphite, Mg(OH)2 and calcium chloride (CaCl2). An EMC
was concluded to have higher dehydration rate and hydration
reactivity at temperatures of up to 2008C when compared with
the other materials.
3 STUDIES ON THE PERFORMANCE
OF THERMOCHEMICAL STORAGE
Thermochemical ES systems utilize renewable energy sources
and waste energy recovery over a wide range of temperatures.
Table 3 provides a list of some recent analytical, numerical and
experimental studies for different solution methods employed
in investigating the thermochemical ES. From these recent
surveys, the main advantages of the analytical model are
simplicity and short computation times.
Thermochemical ES could be investigated using analytical,
numerical and experimental methods in terms of one-, two- or
three-dimensional models. An up-to-date three-dimensional
hydrogen absorption model is developed by Nam et al. [64]. This
three-dimensional model is first experimentally validated
against the temperature evolution data available in the literature.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Studies of thermochemical ES systems have over the past
several decades investigated design fundamentals, components
and process optimization, materials selection, transient and
long-term behaviour and field performance. A review on the
state of the art of thermochemical storage technologies has
Thermochemical energy storage technologies for building applications
Figure 10. Classification of CHPs [53, 54].
Figure 11. Solid-gas CHPs (left) and liquid– gas CHPs (right) [53].
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116 113
Y. Ding and S.B. Riffat
Table 3. Summary of numerical, experimental and analytical studies on thermochemical ES.
References
Nature
Working pairs
Applications and solution/validation/results
Abedin and Rosen
[15, 42]
Liu et al. [47]
Analytical
SrBr2.6H2O
Energy and exergy methods, closed and open thermochemical ES
Analytical
CaCl2/H2O, etc.
Sharonov et al. [60]
Analytical
MgCl2.2H2O, etc
Nam et al. [64]
Numerical
LaNi5H6
Ghommem et al. [69]
Numerical
MgSO4.7H2O
Balasubramanian et al.,
2010 [39]
Darkwa et al. [31]
Numerical
MgSO4.7H2O
Numerical
Na2B4O2.10H2O, etc.
Sapienza et al. [73]
Experimental
LiNO3
Stitou et al. [74]
Experimental
BaCl2.8NH3
Aristov et al. [75]
Experimental
LiNO3
Posern and Kaps [76]
Experimental
MgSO4 and MgCl2
Fadhel et al. [61, 62]
Experimental and
numerical
Experimental and
Analytical
CaCl2.8NH3
Seasonal storage of solar energy for house heating, the storage capacity changing with
evaporator and absorber temperature
Chemical and adsorption heat pumps, the second law efficiency, degradation of the
efficiency due to the thermal entropy production
3D hydrogen absorption model, heat and mass transport phenomena in metal hydride
hydrogen storage vessels
Modelling the heat release during a thermochemical hydration reaction, dimensionless
parameters have influence on heat release process
Mathematical model to investigate the capability of salt hydrates to store
thermochemical energy, employing a finite difference scheme
Agitated fluidized bed thermochemical reactor system, enhanced adsorption capacities
and heat transfer rates
Low regeneration temperature (,708C), the cycle performance dependents on the
cycle time, duration of the isobaric adsorption and desorption
Solar air-conditioning pilot plant for housing, collectors operating at 708C, solar COP
of thermochemical sorption process is around 18%
Intermittent cooling cycle with adsorption and desorption, the duration of desorption
phase has efficient on the cycle COP and SCP
Isothermal heat of sorption and thermogravimetry, reduced the deliquescence relative
humidity and increased the capacity of condensation
Solar-assisted chemical heat-pump dryer, reduction in energy at condenser will
decrease the COP and the efficiency of drying
Reactivity enhancement of chemical materials, EMC (mixed material containing
expanded graphite (EG), Mg(OH)2, and CaCl2) have potential in MgO/H2O CHP
Kim et al. [63]
Mg(OH)2
SCP: Specific Cooling Power; COP: Coefficient Of Performance.
been carried out. Consequently, thermochemical ES has provided with some advantages over TES, which can be summarized as following:
†
†
†
†
higher energy density compared with physical change
long-term storage as reactants with small thermal loss
easily transmitted to generate heat at another location
wide temperature range and characteristics.
Numerous research methods (theoretical, experimental and
numerical) have been conducted on the thermochemical
storage materials and systems. Currently, there are some
challenges and barriers needed to be addressed so that thermochemical ES can be widely used. Chemical ES is still at an experimental stage and, although many patents have been filed,
the technologies have not been applied in practice. Both technical and economical questions about thermochemical ES
systems have yet to be answered. More research and development work as well as large-scale demonstration projects are
required to prove the viability and long-term performance of
thermochemical ES systems.
REFERENCES
[1] Garg HP, Mullick SC, Bhargava AK. Solar Thermal Energy Storage. Reidel
Publishing Company, 1985.
114 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116
[2] Wettermark G, Carlsson B, Stymne H. Storage of Heat: A Survey of Efforts
and Possibilities. Swedish Council for Building Research, 1979.
[3] Taube M. Opportunities and limitations for the use of ammoniated salts
as a carrier for thermochemical energy storage. In: International Seminar
on Thermochemical Energy Storage, Stockholm, 1980, 349 – 69.
[4] Hanneman RE, Vakil H, Wentorf RH. Closed loop chemical systems for
energy transmission, conversion and storage. In Proceedings of 9th
Intersociety Energy Conversation Engineering Conference. ASME, 1974,
435 – 41.
[5] NEDO (the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development
Organization). Final report for the project of super heat pump and energy
integrated system. 1993.
[6] Ogura H, Miyazaki M, Matsuda H, et al. Thermal conductivity analysis of
packed bed reactor with heat transfer fin for Ca(OH)2/CaO chemical heat
pump. Kagaku Kogaku Ronbun 1991;17:916– 23.
[7] Fujioka K, Kato S, Hirata Y. Measurement of effective thermal conductivity of CaCl2 reactor beds used for driving chemical heat pumps. J Chem
Eng Jpn 1998;31:266– 72.
[8] Crozat G, Spinner B, Amouroux M. Systems de gestion de L’energie thermique bases sur des reaction solid-gaz. Pompes Chaleur Chimiques de
Hautes Performances 1988;2:310 – 9.
[9] Tamainot-Telto Z, Critoph RE. Monolithic carbon for sorption refrigeration and heat pump applications. Appl Therm Eng 2001;21:37– 52.
[10] Jason M, Jeff A. Energy storage, the missing link in the electricity value
chain. Energy Storage Council, 2002, 3– 8, 13– 16.
[11] Dincer I, Rosen MA. Thermal Energy Storage, Systems and Applications,
2nd edn. Wiley, 2010;483 – 570.
[12] Dincer I. Thermal energy storage as a key technology in energy conservation. Int J Energy Res 2002;26:567 – 88.
Thermochemical energy storage technologies for building applications
[13] Paksoy HÖ. Thermal Energy Storage for Sustainable Energy Consumption—
Fundamentals, Case Studies and Design. Springer, 2007, 234.
[14] Harald M, Cabeza LF. Heat and Cold Storage with PCM—an Up-to-date
Introduction into Basics and Applications. Springer, 2008, 1 – 8, 13 – 52,
105 – 204, 217 – 256.
[15] Abedin AH, Rosen MA. Closed and open thermochemical energy storage:
energy-and exergy-based comparisons. Energy 2011; doi:10.1016/
j.energy.2011.06.034. In Press.
[16] Atul S, Tyagi VV, Chen CR, et al. Review on thermal energy storage with
phase change materials and applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2009;13:318 – 45.
[17] Bales Chris. Thermal Properties of Materials for Thermo-chemical Storage of
Solar Heat. Solar Heating and Cooling Programme. International Energy
Agency, 2005.
[18] Edem N’Tsoukpoe K, Liu H, Le Pierre’s N, et al. A review on long-term
sorption solar energy storage. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:2385– 96.
[19] Hauer A. Sorption theory for thermal energy storage. In: Paksoy H (ed.)
Thermal Energy Storage for Sustainable Energy Consumption. Springer,
2007, 393– 408.
[20] Inglezakis VJ, Poulopoulos S. Adsorption on Exchange and Catalysis:
Design of Operations and Environmental Applications. Elsevier, 2006.
[21] Wang LW, Wang RZ, Oliveira RG. A review on adsorption working pairs
for refrigeration. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:518– 34.
[22] Aveyard R, Haydon DA. An Introduction to the Principles of Surface
Chemistry. CUP Archive, 1973.
[23] Srivastava NC, Eames IW. A review of adsorbents and adsorbates in
solid vapour adsorption heat pump systems. Appl Therm Eng
1998;18:707 – 14.
[24] Mandelis A, Christofides C. Physics and Chemistry and Technology of
Solid State Gas Sensor Devices. Illustrated ed. Wiley-InterscienceNew York,
1993.
[25] Kawasaki H, Watanabe T, Kanzawa A. Proposal of a chemical heat pump
with paraldehyde depolymerization for cooling system. Appl Therm Eng
1999;19:133 – 43.
[26] Kato Y. Chemical energy conversion technologies for efficient energy use.
In: Paksoy H (ed.) Thermal Energy Storage for Sustainable Energy
Consumption. Springer, 2007, 377 – 91.
[27] Abedin AH. Thermochemical energy storage systems: modelling, analysis
and design. Master’s Thesis. University of Ontario, Institute of
Technology 2010.
[28] Hastings R, Wall M. Sustainable Solar Housing: Exemplary Buildings and
Technologies. IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings & Community
Systems Programme. Earthscan, 2007.
[29] Bales C. Solar Energy Research Center (SERC). Chemical and sorption
heat storage. In: Proceedings of DANVAK Seminar, DANVAK Seminar
(Solar Heating Systems – Combisystems – Heat Storage), 2006.
[30] Hadorn J-C (ed). Thermal Energy Storage for Solar and Low Energy
Buildings—State of the Art. Servei de Publicacions de la Universitat de
Lleida, 2005.
[31] Darkwa K, Ianakiev A, O’Callaghan PW. Modelling and simulation of adsorption process in a fluidised bed thermochemical energy reactor. Appl
Therm Eng 2006;26:838– 45.
[32] Perry RH, Green DW. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8nd edn.
McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 1984.
[33] Kato Y, Takahashi R, Sekiguchi T, et al. Study on medium-temperature
chemical heat storage using mixed hydroxides. Int J Refrigeration
2009;32:661 – 6.
[34] Visscher K, Veldhuis JBJ, Oonk HAJ, et al. Compacte chemische seizoensopslag van zonnewarmte ECN-C-04-074, 2004.
[35] Visscher K, Veldhuis JBJ. Comparison of candidate materials for seasonal
storage of solar heat through dynamic simulation of building and renewable energy system. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Building
Performance Simulation Association, 2005.
[36] van Essen VM, Zondag HA, Gores JC, et al. Characterization of MgSO4
hydrate for thermochemical seasonal heat storage. J Solar Energy Eng
Trans ASME 2009;131:041014.
[37] Posern K, Kaps C. Humidity controlled calorimetric investigation of the
hydration of MgSO4 hydrates. J Therm Anal Calorim 2008;92:905 – 9.
[38] Stach H, Mugele J, Janchen J, et al. Influence of cycle temperatures on the
thermochemical heat storage densities in the systems water/microporous
and water/mesoporous adsorbents. Adsorp J Int Adsorp Soc
2005;11:393 –404.
[39] Balasubramanian G, Ghommem M, Hajj MR, et al. Modeling of thermochemical energy storage by salt hydrates. Int J Heat Mass Transfer
2010;53:5700– 6.
[40] Essen Van M, Zondag AH, Schuitema R, et al. Materials for thermochemical storage: characterization of magnesium sulfate. In: Proceedings of the
Eurosun 2008. 1st International Conference on Solar Heating, Cooling and
Buildings, 2008.
[41] Hongois S, Stevens P, Coince A-S, et al. Thermochemical storage using
composite materials. In: Proceedings of the Eurosun 2008. 1st International
Conference on Solar Heating, Cooling and Buildings, 2008.
[42] Abedin AH, Rosen MA. Assessment of a closed thermochemical energy
storage using energy and exergy methods. Appl Energy 2011; doi:10.1016/
j.apenergy.2011.05.041. In Press.
[43] Lahmidi H, Mauran S, Goetz V. Definition, test and simulation of a
thermochemical storage process adapted to solar thermal systems. Solar
Energy 2006;80:883 –93.
[44] Iammak K, Wongsuwan W, Kiatsiriroj T. Investigation of modular chemical energy storage performance. In: The Joint International Conference on
Sustainable Energy and Environment (SEE). 2004.
[45] Boer RD, Haije W, Veldhuis J, et al. Solid sorption cooling with integrated
storage: the SWEAT prototype. In: 3rd International Heat Powered Cycles
Conference—HPC, 2004.
[46] Soutullo S, San JC, Heras MR. Comparative study of internal storage
and external storage absorption cooling systems. Renew Energy
2011;36:1645– 51.
[47] Liu H, Edem N’Tsoukpoe K, Le Pierres N, et al. Evaluation of a seasonal
storage system of solar energy for house heating using different absorption
couples. Energ Convers Manage 2011;52:2427– 36.
[48] Hauer A. Sorption storage for solar thermal energy—possibilities and
limits. In: Proceedings of Eurosun 2008: 1st International Conference on
Solar Heating, Cooling and Buildings, Lisbon, Portugal, 2008.
[49] Hauer A, Lavemann E. Open absorption systems for air conditioning and
thermal energy consumption. In: Thermal Energy Storage for Sustainable
Energy Consumption. H. O. Paksoy (ed), Springer, 2007, 429 – 44.
[50] Levy M, Levitan R, Rosin H, et al. Solar energy storage via a closed-loop
chemical heat pipe. Solar Energy 1993;50:179– 89.
[51] Wu H, Wang S, Zhu D, et al. Numerical analysis and evaluation of an
open-type thermal storage system using composite sorbents. Int J Heat
Mass Transfer 2009;52:5262– 5.
[52] Kato Y. Chemical energy conversion technologies for efficient energy use.
In: Paksoy H (ed.) Thermal Energy Storage for Sustainable Energy
Consumption. NATO Science Series, 234, PART VI, Springer, 2007,
377 – 91.
[53] Wang C, Zhang P, Wang R. Review of Recent Patents on Chemical Heat
Pump. Recent Patents on Engineering, vol. 2. Bentham Science Publishers
Ltd., 2008, 208 – 16.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116 115
Y. Ding and S.B. Riffat
[54] Wongsuwan W, Kumar S, Neveu P, et al. A review of chemical heat pump
technology and applications. Appl Therm Eng 2001;21:1489 –519.
[55] Kato Y, Yamashita N, Kobayashi K, et al. Kinetic study of the hydration of
magnesium oxide for a chemical heat pump. Appl Therm Eng
1996;16:853 – 62.
[56] Tahat MA, Babus’Haq RF, O’Callaghan PW, et al. Performance of an integrated thermochemical heat pump/energy store. Thermochim Acta
1995;255:39– 47.
[57] Mbaye M, Aidoun Z, Valkov V, et al. Analysis of chemical heat pumps
CHPs basic concepts and numerical model description. Appl Therm Eng
1998;18:131 – 46.
[58] Kato Y, Takahashi FU, Watanabe A, et al. Thermal analysis of a magnesium
oxide/water chemical heat pump for cogeneration. Appl Therm Eng
2001;21:1067 –81.
[59] Fujimoto S, Bilgen E, Ogura H. CaO/Ca(OH)2 chemical heat pump
system. Energ Convers Manage 2002;43:947– 60.
[60] Sharonov VE, Aristov YI. Chemical and adsorption heat pumps: comments on the second law efficiency. Chem Eng J 2008;136:419 –24.
[61] Fadhel MI, Sopian K, Daud WRW. Performance analysis of solar-assisted
chemical heat-pump dryer. Solar Energy 2010;84:1920 –8.
[62] Fadhel MI, Sopian K, Daud WRW, et al. Review on advanced of solar
assisted chemical heat pump dryer for agriculture produce. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2011;15:1152 – 68.
[63] Kim Tae S, Ryub Junichi, Katob Yukitaka. Reactivity enhancement of
chemical materials used in packed bed reactor of chemical heat pump.
Progress Nuclear Energy 2011;53:1027 – 1033.
[64] Nam J, Ko J, Ju H. Three-dimensional modelling and simulation of hydrogen absorption in metal hydride hydrogen storage vessels. Appl Energy
2011;89:164 – 175.
[65] Baylin F. Low Temperature Thermal Energy Storage: a State of the Art
Survey. Solar Energy Research Institute, 1979, SERI/RR/-54-164.
116 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2013, 8, 106– 116
[66] Office de la Langue Française (OLF). Grand Dictionnaire Terminologique.
www.olf.gouv.qc.ca.
[67] Hauer A. Thermal energy storage with zeolite for heating and cooling
applications. In: Proceedings of 3rd Workshop of Annex 17 ECES IA/IEA,
1 – 2 October, Tokyo, Japan, 2002.
[68] Van de Voort IM. Characterization of a thermochemical storage material.
Master’s Thesis. Eindhoven University of Technology, 2007.
[69] Ghommem M, Balasubramanian G, Hajj MR, et al. Release of stored thermochemical energy from dehydrated salts. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 2011;
54:4856–63.
[70] Mauran S, Lahmidi H, Goetz V. Solar heating and cooling by a thermochemical process. First experiments of a prototype storing 60 kW h by a
solid/gas reaction. Solar Energy 2008;82:623 –36.
[71] Darkwa K. Thermochemical energy storage in inorganic oxides: an experimental evaluation. Appl Therm Eng 2000;18:387 –400.
[72] Ogura H, Yamamoto T, Kage H. Efficiencies of CaO/H2O/Ca(OH)2
chemical heat pump for heat storing and heating/cooling. Energy
2003;28:1479– 93.
[73] Sapienza A, Glaznev IS, Santamaria S, et al. Adsorption chilling driven by
low temperature heat: new adsorbent and cycle optimization. Appl Therm
Eng 2012;32:141 –6.
[74] Stitou D, Mazet N, Mauran S. Experimental investigation of a solid/gas
thermochemical storage process for solar air conditioning. Energy 2011;
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2011.07.029. In Press.
[75] Aristov YI, Sapienza A, Ovoshchnikov DS, et al. Reallocation of
adsorption and desorption times for optimisation of cooling cycles,
International
Journal
of
Refrigeration.
2010;
doi:10.1016/
j.ijrefrig.2010.07.019. In Press.
[76] Posern K, Kaps Ch. Calorimetric studies of thermochemical heat storage
materials based on mixtures of MgSO4 and MgCl2. Thermochim Acta
2010;502:73– 6.