Paper
For EURA-EUROCITIES Conference
European Urban development, research and policy
The future of European Cohesion Policy
Author:
Gyöngyvér Szabó Hervai is the professor for the Kodolanyi János University College, director
for the European Integration Research and Development Institute in Siófok, dean of research.
Main field of research: non-state actors, non-central governments and international relations,
regionalisation process with multilevel governance regimes as sustainable development and
local governments, local governments in international development policy regimes, local
governments and information society projects, local governments in European regional public
policy processes.
Address: Hervainé Dr. Szabó Gyöngyvér,
Kodolanyi János Főiskola
Székesfehérvár,
Szabadságharcos u. 59.
Tel: 06 22 543 392
Fax: 06 22 543 391
Mobile: 06 309 025 328
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Topic: 1. Analysis of European City Development- unique features of European Cities
Title:
Rooted in Academia - knowledge based city governance
and universities as hubs of local excellence networks
1. Social role of cities and universities in transition processes of societies
European identity is inconceivable without its cities and universities. As A. Bagnasco
and P.L.Galés explained ” Ever since Venetian and Genoese merchants established east-west
trade routes to do business with German and Flamish cloth merchants, since the bankers of
Amsterdam, Frankfurt, London and Florence invested large sums in business ventures and
expeditions and in loans to the nobility and sovereigns of their time, since the corporations
and gilds of master craftsmen and merchants acquired or purchased charters, since boroughs
were formed throughout Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, cities have been
melting pot of Europe.”
In the City, max Weber portrays the medieval city of Western Europe with the
following features: a fortress, a market, a court of justice, and the ability to ordain a set of
rules and laws, a structure based on associations (of guilds) and a degree of political
autonomy materialised in the existence of administrative body, along with the participation of
bourgeoisie in local government and less frequently the existence of an army and a genuine
policy of foreign conquest, alongside with rules applying to landed propriety, and legal status
of citizens associated with affiliation to a guild and with relative freedom.
In the medieval era the city was a special social structure and a collective actor. In all
of them, in fact, the burghers formed corps, a universitas, a communitas, a communio, all of
members of which, conjointly answerable to one another, constituted the inseparable parts.
I think traditions in European cities are well known in everyday language and
discurses: centres for guilds, for freedom, for autonomy, for universities and a special civic
life style. The main question is: there were different city-systems, or the European Area led to
the development a single model? Hungarian development is twofold: the traditional model
similar the European one and it is the core element of Hungarian urban system: but there was
a new type or line of city-development: the so called „peasant city”, emergence of which was
based on peasant capital accumulation processes. (I think, this special Hungarian urbanisation
process is less studied, and this tradition has led to the development of rural enterprises during
the Kadar era and political transition processes of 90’s in thousands of Hungarian local
communities and governments.
Mumford conceptualized cities as special bowl for gathering, collecting, processing
and sending datas messages and information, as a centre for communication, adding, that
particular and professionalized jobs formed a special way of life, lifestyle for people.
But what parallel features can be found comparing European great transition periods?
The Greek city was a special form of communication in which the academy were
functioned as a centre for knowledge creation, exchange and dissemination ideas about
political management and methods for decision making, for transferring knowledge into
practice, with never-ending political debate about processes for improving institutions, a
multilayer pattern for social structure, and a special form for developing competitive milieu
for economic development.
Comparing this city-state with posthellen cities, we can state, that the place of
academy had won academism, which had accent not for knowledge, but collecting, selecting,
data processing knowledge in museums and libraries. The so called “ alexandrism” means an
academic dead knowledge, where accent was on giving knowledge by papers and not in
discussions. The alexandrine-type of knowledge were connected to go through large amount
of papers, to get theoretical knowledge without thinking and gathering experience. This
academism had a great influence in forming new communities, mainly in Christian orders,
and gave pace forming intellectual social strata.
The next phase of social transition connected with city-development which had started
from the 11th century and lasted until the 15th -16th century. The medieval city was formed as
a union of different communities: mainly based on guilds of merchants and guilds of
craftsmen. These guilds similarly to monash orders worked as communities of lifestyles.
During the 12th century the universitas was the common title of all guilds, it functioned as a
professional/ vocational union, a place for education, a regulation force shaping activity,
working patterns of their members. In this context the universities were special kind of
vocational school, were the law, science and theology based a framework for the education as
a science centric humanistic way of life.
The universities of 11-13th centuries (Bologna, Coimbre, Salamanca, Paris,
Cambridge) became interregional communication centres, their students came from different
parts of Europe and different strata, developed new knowledge centres, and their masters
teachers were sent to teach into different cities and communities of Europe. The early
universities were similar to Greek academy: as science, political knowledge and
communication centres. Later they took a lot functions from monk's orders: they developed a
science classification system, had accent on knowledge accumulation, dissemination. They
had independent civic functions.
During these centuries a new institution system had developed: colleges for education
the children of king’s and notability. So, the education system had dual origin: the universities
as places for mastering for different professions and vocational knowledge and colleges
educating for ruling and “management”.
During the 15-16th centuries universities became strongly specialized and reduced in
functions as institutes and formed a knowledge-system frozen in subject similar to those
alexandrine academism. During this era the cities from forces of freedom and autonomy
became forces for strengthening the king’s political power. Universities became clients and
institutions for absolutism and absolutistic rulers. From the absolutist era political union of the
universities and the states became a powerful force: science served as innovation resource for
wars, intellectuals served as burocrats in state and army officials.
The university system with fragmented knowledge centres, with faculties, based a
resource for industrial era. The sharp distance between the needs of the society and the needs
of elites had caused a lot of tensions. The debates about the character and content of
knowledge emerged in late 60’s and led to student demonstrations as well as strong
conservative attacks on universities. In early 70’s as a new service system had emerged, a new
sector was formed parallel to state universities: the practise based, mainly local community
founded higher education sector.
This sector was practice centred, vocational and holistic oriented instead of particular
academic knowledge. The new element was its community orientation, its close relationship
with firms. Impact and influence of these new communities on localities was evident. The
new wave of higher education development reached all European countries: the so called
second world’s countries and the third world’s countries as well as. Its activity was strongly
connected to local sector of economy and served as a human resource element for local
endogenous development. Their weakness was in absence of research activities; their
strengthening was in tacit knowledge.
The former university sector has closed its ranks with new practices, with accreditation
and other processes, but in a lot of countries the new “colleges” could get a university status,
or could maintain their new role.
In transition processes of Central and Eastern Europe the universities had a much outlined
role in forming political processes. Hungarian intellectuals and universities were institutes in
dismantling the former regime. (Their teachers and students were sent to study to liberal
democracies and get founds from different multinational NGO-s like Soros). In Hungary the
universities were centres forming new civil organisations against monolithical party-state
system: as greens, and different local groups, university teachers became resources recruiting
new elite groups, and became a conservative force in renewing society. I think two important
impact of universities is well known: their activity in forming the new basic law (transforming
the old without a convent), and the monetarist lobby dominance in every new Hungarian
government.
The conservative character of universities has lad to blocking transforming processes
in higher education sector, strengthening the role of the state in every aspect of life, forming
so burocratic state administrations in higher education sector which couldn’t be imaginable
during the autocratic state socialism.
Privatisation processes in higher education sector in Hungary were connected with
establishment some 30 church maintained and 10 local governments and private firms
founded universities. On the influence of the World Bank the state sector was forced to merge
into 25 -30 universities and colleges, while a lot of new branches and filials were formed on
pushes of local governments. Becoming the state’s main partners, they tended to get a new
role becoming regional or local growth centres.
Political union of the universities and the state remained strong both in CEEC
countries, both in western Europe-. The emergence a private and multinational corporate
higher education service sector on global level had led to forming new international ngo-s for
protecting their state based rights and rules. In a lot of countries they became the main
partners of multinationals. Nowadays the merger of the university and college sector is
common in most of countries of Europe.
What was the role of the cities and universities at the end of 20th century?
1. They served as hubs of functional economic growth poles:
The majority of European cities came into being and were developed during the first
wave of urbanisation in Europe (11-15th century). The industrial revolution triggered a second
major wave of urbanisation across Europe, but the classical model of the medieval European
city remained alive and well. The larger medieval cities were frequently best able to absorb
technological innovation, economic development and new forms of political organisation,
based on their intellectual hinterland.
During the last decade European epistemic communities were engaged in explaining
regionalism, regionalisation, regional development in renewing the economy and society. The
focus of much of this work was on international comparisons of innovation processes.
Considerable amounts of work was devoted to the regional development with respect those
city regions in which the universities and research communities were located. European cities
in the past had proved the most innovative in Europe. Cities take on an essential conglomerate
role for infrastructure-linked industries. In France, Britain, Portugal, Poland and Hungary and
certain regions of Scandinavia, there appears to be a discrepancy between a region in relative
or total economic decline and the relative prosperity of a city- a regional capital for instancewhere development continues. From the 1970s new forms of company organisation
(deverticalisation, automation, spatial expansion of the network of suppliers, flexible
specialisation) made possible by technological innovations in the fields of IT,
telecommunications, logistics and high-speed transport has produced the current phase of
urban transition. This urban transition was characterized by changes in the urban economic
base, employment, demographic and social composition, in the forms of representation, in the
spatial forms of urbanisation. Studies of functional hierarchies are the most numerous.
Soldatos (1991) introduced the distinction between city-place and city actor. The former
limits itself to receiving and offering passive support for institutions and international flows,
regulated externally. The latter has an active social milieu which supports and organises
locally international activities (even if external origin) and produces and exports quality goods
and services. Studying most innovative cities we can state, in all of them the university and
college sector based knowledge workers had played vital role in milieu economies. It is
important to understand, not only the researchers but the specialisation profile of the scientific
system and diversified quality production by the highly qualified professional workforce, the
so called dual training system (as in Germany), the technology oriented knowledge can be
take a region-specific profile for innovation.
2. Development political institution system
The academic debate about European political landscape, about rescaling the state has
gained in a momentum over the last few years. It is the regional tier that seems to be the main
area of rescaling as government regulation moves upwards or downwards. The new interest in
regions can be seen as the confluence of processes of functional and institutional restructuring
with political mobilisation in the regions themselves. It is not just regions challenging the
nation state. Urban politics has rivalled regional politics in many parts of Europe. New
institutional and policy capacity to act on international arena emphasizes the new role of cities
in European governance, and progressive politics in formulation new agendas, and the revival
of city networks.
The newly competitive, boosterist cities explained new forms of city and regional
politics similar to the US model of the city as a growth machine. Keating proposed a similar
theory: “a development coalition”. The new style of management (strategic networks,
leadership, vision and strategy, political and societal support) is necessary to create and
maintain organising capacity to dealing with challenges that face cities today.
The governance concept applied at both city and regional levels, as a concept about governing
hierarchies, formal decision making, and horizontal networks of influence, intergovernmental
cooperation, public and private cooperation, new private management practices in public
bodies, building the capacity. In this processes the role of universities is evident. The
university is a key factor in building development coalitions, forming an institutional capitalhistorical, legal, structural, developmental, civic, political-, capacity builder for public goods,
local services, a factor becoming regional capital through effective governance.
Debate about new regionalism is coming from regional geography regional economics,
but separated from political studies. While political theory engaged in studying theory about
the theory and practice of the state, it has missed studying the subnational level. The theories
about the new regionalism and governance regimes are coming from above, from
supranational and international level and from subnational, regional and local university
circles. The regionalist and nation-centred cleavage is vital in Hungarian epistemic
communities, and similar tendencies can be drawn in all European countries.
3. Places for socialisation and recruiting political elite
From the early seventies, European local societies had witnessed major changes in
decentralizing research institutes, founding local branches of universities, emerging new
locally founded or private higher education systems. These institutes highly contributed to the
development of local civil society, to the development local middle strata interest groups. In
European cities, which are middle class university cities the university remained an
institution: a pillar of the city’s social and political structure. Many modestly sized European
cities commonly have about 20 000- 50 000 students among their population. In these cities
the university trains large numbers, including members of political and intellectual elites,
many of whom will stay on in the city. These people constitute a reservoir for associations,
for political parties, and special interests and the making of urban social and cultural
networks. These university cities have also become privileged location, with flourishing
information and communication technologies employing the middle classes in a mix of
private sector and public sector bodies. The prosperity of these cities is the result of
pioneering work in the universities, scientific movements, business and local groups, which
have combined their forces to develop organisations gradually “in the spirit of place” .
4. Institutes for framing social structure (pluralistic vision)
Universities in European cities were reservoirs for associations and social movements. It is
important that not only the student’s movement but the new urban social movements were
connected with universities: Urban social movements have generally been defined as
collective mobilisations of urban middle strata, directed to changing policies and defending
their interest. These movements related especially to issues of collective consumption and
public services, quality of life in the neighbourhood, opposition to planned physical changes,
demand for transparency and for democratic participation in urban government, and
challenges to elected representatives and parties. They contributed to develop concepts for
supporting self-help groups, while universities played a vital role in the third sector
development, generating social policy associations and not for profit organisations.
5. Cultural role: processing and dissemination of ideas, critical function
and vocational function
In university towns culture and identity are at heart of the development projects to revive the
cities as green places, forming strategic plans. Universities became the human resource centre
in forming associations, became members of local development coalitions, gave consultants
forming image, ideas, adopted the language and modes of action of European city
competition: carried out benchmarking, published indicators, mobilized to get into the
vanguard of the knowledge society. They worked out the programme for life long learning,
developed a complex structure for education.
2. Changing global environment and its impact on cities and
universities
1. Global changes in international relations
Changing global environment, ending the Cold War, emergence of regional
international societies, emergence of supranational integrations and free trade areas has led
the development of the theories of international relations. New theories about the state, about
the content of the suvereignity, were connected with rethinking the so called Westphalian
basic international system. In new theories about international relations the cities, and citystates have got a strong accent and led to new studies comparing the city states of medieval
era and metropolitan development, the Italian city states and city states of Far East region,
comparing merchant-diplomats of Italian city –states with diaspora merchant networks of
post-cold war China.
The other theoretical line- the world-system centred- has built the role of cities into the
core of theories. So, at the dawn of the new century theories of international relations couldn’t
miss the new urban theme from conceptualizing the new global world order.
In this new situation urbanisation processes has got accent in studies of global
intergovernmental organisations. The World Bank’s Development Report 2000 analysed the
global urbanisation processes.
Debates in WTO about liberalisation services, among them the higher education
sector, has made a new challenge for universities. Their privileged place, as providers public
goods as state founded institutions has deepened the crisis of old universities. The
liberalisation and commercialisation of higher education services can strengthen new forms of
higher education: distant education, corporate forms of universities and so on. The old state
universities and cities interest are different: there is a new set of universities which became
regionalized and are agreed to cooperate with multinationals.
The transnationalised universities, transnationalised student and teacher structure,
transnationalised programmes for education and research are good source for information and
can serve for the local and regional economies.
2. Global changes in economic environment
The regionalisation of global economy, the development of the New Economy can led
new urbanisation processes. The concept of the learning region, learning city in Europe, the
concept of regional excellence networks in American regional studies, the new development
plans for higher education services sector in Australian, American, Canadian national
programmes are connected with higher education as a strategic sector of economy. Australian
federal government decided to extend the third level of education for the 80 % of the young
generations. They decided to develop Australia the higher education sector for world leading
role. In this new environment the universities could be major agents in clustering city and
regional economy and developing new professional structure, new jobs, and new development
strategies.
3. Global changes in political environment
The fragmented suverenity of states, the emergence of supranational institutions and
emergence of multilevel governance regimes –in Europe, in Americas and Asia – had led for
altering the political environment. The European charters of regional and local governments,
new public policy programmes ( Interreg, urban), international activity of cities, their regional
offices in Brussels and other towns, development of special epistemic communities in major
international political centres, deconcentrated development programmes for third world
countries can bring a new phase in international activity of cities and universities connecting
their interest.
4. Global changes in social environment
Social environment in different regions of the globe can bring a great impact on
European city development. The university-city status in aging European cities (both in
Western and Central Europe) can cause a lot of problems. European cities had developed
large higher education service system, and there is a surplus in different universities
(Norwegian, Finnish, Swiss universities) which are open for foreign country origin students,
among them for Asians, Latin Americans. These middle university towns are facing similar
immigration processes as industrial towns in 70’s in Western countries. These towns are
interested in inviting foreign students because the local labour force is depends on state
salaries and finances. In Hungary such university towns as Pécs, Szeged, Debrecen had a
large number of state financed work places. Budget of these universities is far exceeding
budget of its local governments. Their importance as employers is a key factor to vitality of
these urban communities.
The emerging economies of the Third World needs great number of new generation
students to place in higher education services so the development of distance education
systems and global migration of students is likely. It is a new possibility for development
education services in Central European countries too, where the standards of educations are
highly developed.
3. Emergence a new local governance model in cities
1. Learning communities: science parks and urban knowledge parks
The cities are increasingly becoming critical agents of economic development in the
context of globalisation. Cities everywhere are highly and increasingly tied into a system of
global competition. In reacting to competition among cities, strategies such as city marketing,
large scale projects, international airports, modern transport system (metro or tram), are
pursued by many of the city authorities around the world. Such strategies are termed by some
scholars as New Economic Policy, or New Urban Politics. Science or Technology Park can be
seen as a kind of large-scale urban development project, as part of the “cocktail package” of
New Economic Policy. (15.521)
The science parks are a new phenomena and theirs role is very important to understand
regional and urban development processes. I think it is unnecessary to explain the history and
the typology of science parks, but it is evident that the growth regimes of different regions are
connected with higher education sector and science parks. Universities and research institutes
based science parks in last two decades formed a suburban area of cities and were built as
green-field investment.
The new economy, the information society technologies needs inclusion of
technopoles, science parks, universities, research centres into the cities.
New concept of educational cities, doesn’t rely only on the higher education sector
(number and academic qualification of universities, public and private expenditure in
undergraduate and graduate education, number of postgraduate thesis, publication of papers,
number of graduate student), but in primary and secondary education, series of interactions,
media, interactive museums, the whole local relationship system, citizen’s capacity for an
education, the number of schools connected to the Internet, number and quality of ICT
courses, given to teachers, existence of interactive urban services, such as science museums.
Among new indicators for urban centralities are collective and individual consumption
of ICT-intensive goods and services, implementation of e-government in urban areas, the
emergence of new ICT-supported social organisations, degree of the population’s access to
information society tools. (11.52-53)
Science park development and technopolisation process is similar to development of
guilds in medieval era. The science park, the technopole is essentially an image, representing
the perceived framework of economic forces, and thus forms the productive space of the
twenty first century .The technopole is location of a new economic organisation, a new socioproductive order. The theoretical and functional organisation of technopoles can be described
by inputs (banks and venture capital, business services, training, human resources, companies
and industries, research institutes) , flows ( organisation, animation, communications,
marketing, the technopolitan culture –architecture, environment, wage level, training,
technological services) and outputs (direct: new products, processes, services, new companies
and jobs, new technologies and forms of employment, a dynamic image, technological
stimulation, new social organisations; indirect: new economic and social regulation, regional
and urban development, regional and industrial growth, urban growth, change in the local
culture and training. (12.64-65)
The New Economy is about the speed, quality, flexibility, knowledge and networks. In
the era of the New Economy the nature of workplace, the nature of workforce and the living
are has changed: we can see new vital centres in former inner cities, in downtown
environment, places for X and Y generation, campuses and media centres. The downtowns
are places of 21st century; places to create and incubate new knowledge, its main consumers
are knowledge workers, university teachers, information service groups and firms, artists. Key
amenities of downtowns are cultural diversity, night life, networks, fibre optics, mixed use,
compactness and density. Downtown leaders compete for talent, soft technology firms, and
their success in new start ups, level of higher education and 24/7 access. (13.343-344)
Urban knowledge parks are a multi-purpose instrument of knowledge creation and
application, its primary focus is urban development, services. It has a strong local dimension.
In urban parks the knowledge institutions dominate the consortium, all participants are
independent, and there is no central administration. The city may retain ownership of the land
and lease it directly to developers. (14.15-16)
The new urban hierarchy is an emerging framework of global hubs and peripheries, or
control and dependency, between cities and nations. The city-region is a special phenomenon
in this urban hierarchy. Its industrial base booming with hi-tech and tertiary activities, it is a
major hub to a peripheral region or neighbourhood.
The city-region is not only an element of urban hierarchy, but a model for sustainable
development. In this model the traditional industrial economic base likely to be dissolving, a
new hi-tech service sector is emerging; a new knowledge sector serves as main bridgebuilding media.
European city-regions faces different demographic patterns, changing age structure,
gender balances, family structures, household organisations. Cities faces new cultural trends:
differentiation, self-identity, alternative cultural trends, empowerment and alternative states of
consciousness: physic, digital, chemical and bioengineered. New communities can be
developed (transnational business class, transnational epistemic communities, tourist, fitness,
cyber, body-builder, new settlements as life-style communities. In new era of identities and
communities, symptoms of stress, depression and alienation are lessening.
2. City region as a governance model for 21st century
A city, a region or a city region, can take a positive lead as a coherent unit with its vision,
responsibilities, and services. Comparing the city region is the best level to motivate and
organize sustainable development-large enough for critical mass, and small enough to be
manageable. Former structures of representation and decision making are shifting to new and
more complex patterns.
Most urban regimes have shifted from their traditional power-bases towards corporate publicprivate alliances, has established partnership with regional development agencies. PostFordist urban government is an enabler through partnership alliances, maintaining new
agenda for economic development, social welfare, has an administrative body with
management by objective, performance monitoring and is in a race for EU subsidy and global
investment.
The sustainable governance urban regimes translate needs into outcomes by processes
of collective negotiations; represent new modes of communication and decision making, new
patterns of institutions, networks and representation, engage groups and communities on the
periphery maintain alliances and integration of public, private and civic sectors. The cityregion governance model is enabling and entrepreneurial, and selling images. New images
revolve around communications functions of cities by ICT, reinforcing the hierarchy of
central hubs, diffusing power and influence across electronic space. (7.252-254)
Sustainable governance is a key factor for development in new accession countries. In
CEEC countries there are more initiatives for information society projects than for sustainable
local governance models. The LA 21 is an unknown model in sub region.
Summary
European history deeply rooted in city development and connected with old university towns.
The universities had broken former privilege of religious knowledge, were centres of
merchants, bankers and university professor's knowledge networks. They functioned as
centres for new economic knowledge (accountancy, finances ), new political ideas and
practises of democracy, politics and international order. The city-states were places for new
autonomies of localities as well as autonomies of universities.
Today, the new theories of IRs are linking the new era and it's characteristics with the
Renaissance, arguing the Westphalian type of IRs based on nation states isn't the true nature
of capitalism. The city and city-region is the place, where the wealth and profit is generated
forming a competitive environment for growth. In 90s more than 30 000 local governments
were formed in Central and Eastern Europe, and probably 300 000 in the world. The 90s were
the years for renewing universities: old university towns were revitalised by growing number
of students, new faculties, research institutes, spin off firms, science parks. During last ten
years these towns renewed by development of heritage and culture based tourism with
thousand of congresses. The cultural industry services, the knowledge and hi-tech economy
with soft infrastructure is in the heart of the city-region: new regimes based on these networks
(software and content engineers of firms, researchers, professors, and local political elite)
became the key factor for the new fast-growth firms. The process is accompanied with
localisation of universities: from universities of a nation they became the universities of the
cities. The management of the universities developed dense networks with city-managers,
local politicians, business communities as well as built new services for social and
technological knowledge transfer, for new employment policy.
Campuses were central places for young creative workers, gave pace for physical
rehabilitation of town centres with their heritage programmes.
The New Millennia is the triumph era for Trinity of local community development with
• autonomous and competent city-governance,
• locally embedded autonomous universities, knowledge centres, and
• competitive local and localised firms and it's business communities.
The so called "Digital Renaissance" is the era of competitive city-regions, a new governance
system: rooted in regional and local economy, adapted to highly competitive international
environment formed by highly professional political-knowledge-business governance
community networks. The knowledge based city governance is the future for the West and
Central Europe, with experts in European matters, programme development and
communication culture.
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