First Lecture
The Present Tense indicates that an action is present, now, relative to
the speaker or writer. Generally, it is used to describe actions that are
factual or habitual -- things that occur in the present but that are not
necessarily happening right now: "It rains a lot in Portland" is a kind of
timeless statement. Compare that to the present progressive -- "It is
raining in Portland" -- which means that something is, in fact, going on
right now. "I use my bike to get around town." is in the present, but I'm
not actually on my bike right now. An instantaneous sense of the present
can be conveyed with either the simple present or the progressive:
"Watch him now: he holds [is holding] down the control key at the same
time that he presses [is pressing] the letter d."
The present tense is used to describe events that are scheduled (by nature
or by people): "High tide is at 3:15 p.m. The Super Bowl starts at 6:15
p.m."
The present tense can be used to suggest the past with what is sometimes
called the fictional (or historic) present: "We were watching the back
door when, all of a sudden, in walks Dierdre." With verbs of
communicating, the present tense can also suggest a past action: "Dierdre
tells me that she took her brother to the dentist." Most oddly, the present
tense can convey a sense of the future, especially with verbs such as
arrive, come, and leave that suggest a kind of plan or schedule: "The train
from Boston arrives this afternoon at two o'clock."
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The Present Tense uses the verb's base form (write, work), or, for thirdperson singular subjects, the base form plus an -s ending (he writes, she
works).
Singular
Plural
I walk
we walk
you walk
you walk
he/she/it walks
they walk
Singular
Plural
I sleep
we sleep
you sleep
you sleep
he/she/it sleeps
they sleep
Singular
Plural
I am
we are
you are
you are
he/she/it is
they are
Present tense habitual activities are frequently signaled by time expressions such
as the following:
all the time
always
every class
every day
every
holiday
every hour
every
month
every
semester
every week
every year
most of the
time
never
often
rarely
sometimes
usually
-I walk to work every day.
-The
-Dr.
Chicago Bulls sometimes practice in this gymnasium.
Espinoza operates according to her own schedule.
|Page2
-Coach
Calhoun recruits from countries outside the U.S.A.
-Tashonda
-We
tells me she has committed to UConn.
work really hard to make this a success, and then look what
happens.
-Every
time that kid finishes a sandcastle, the waves come in and wash it
away.
--The
shipment arrives tomorrow at 2 p.m.
The Present Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something
going on now. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the
present tense, plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):
"I am buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year. She is
working through the holiday break. Dierdre is being a really good girl in
these days before Christmas".
The present progressive can suggest that an action is going to happen in
the future, especially with verbs that convey the idea of a plan or of
movement from one place or condition to another: "The team is arriving
in two hours. He's moving to Portland this summer." Because the present
progressive can suggest either the present or the future, it is usually
modified by adverbs of time.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic
verbs and not with stative verbs.
The progressive forms of a verb indicate that something is happening or
was happening or will be happening. When used with the past, the
progressive form shows the limited duration of an event: "While I was
doing my homework, my brother came into my room." The past
progressive also suggests that an action in the past was not entirely
finished. (Compare "I did my homework." to "I was doing my
homework.") This is even more evident in the passive progressive
|Page3
construction: "He was being strangled in the alley" suggests an action that
was not finished, perhaps because the act was interrupted by a good
citizen, whereas the simple past "He was strangled in the alley" suggests
an action that was finished, unfortunately.
A neat categorization of the uses of the progressive can be found on the
page describing the "To Be" Verb.
The progressive forms occur only with dynamic verbs, that is, with verbs
that show qualities capable of change as opposed to stative verbs, which
show qualities not capable of change.* For instance, we do not say, "He
is being tall" or "He is resembling his mother" or "I am wanting spaghetti
for dinner" or "It is belonging to me." (We would say, instead: "He is
tall," "He resembles his mother," "I want spaghetti," and "It belongs to
me.") The best way to understand the difference between stative and
dynamic verbs is to look at a table that lists them and breaks them into
categories and then to build some sentences with them, trying out the
progressive forms to see if they work or not.
|Page4
Second Lecture
DYNAMIC VERBS
Activity Verbs
I am begging you. I was learning French. They will
be playing upstairs..
Virtually identical in meaning to simple tense forms:
I beg you. I learned French. They will play upstairs.
abandon
ask
beg
call
drink
eat
help
learn
listen
look at
play
rain
read
say
slice
throw
whisper
work
write
Process Verbs
The corn is growing rapidly. Traffic is slowing down.
Virtually identical in meaning to simple present tense
forms:
The corn grows rapidly. Traffic slows down.
change
deteriorate
grow
mature
slow down
widen
Verbs of Bodily Sensation
"I feel bad" and "I am feeling bad" are virtually
identical in meaning.
Ache
feel
hurt
itch
Transitional Events Verbs
Progressive forms indicate the beginning of an event,
as opposed to the simple present tense.
"She was falling out of bed [when I caught her]" as
opposed to
"She falls out of bed every night."
arrive
die
fall
land
leave
lose
Momentary Verbs
Progressive forms indicate little duration and suggest
repetition.
She is hitting her brother.
|Page5
He is jumping around the house.
hit
jump
kick
knock
nod
tap
STATIVE VERBS
Verbs of Inert Perception and Cognition*
I detest rudabaga, but not I am detesting rudabaga.
I prefer cinnamon toast, but not I am preferring
cinnamon toast
abhor
adore
astonish
believe
desire
detest
dislike
doubt
feel
forgive
guess
hate
hear
imagine
impress
intend
know
like
love
mean
mind
perceive
please
prefer
presuppose
realize
recall
recognize
regard
remember
satisfy
see
smell
suppose
taste
think
understand
want
wish
Relational Verbs
I am sick, but not I am being sick.
I own ten acres of land, but not I am owning ten
acres.
My brother owes me ten dollars" but not
My brother is owing me ten dollars.
be*
belong to
concern
consist of
contain
cost
depend on
deserve
equal
fit
have
include
involve
lack
matter
need
owe
own
possess
require
require
resemble
seem
sound
*Kolln suggests that we think of the difference between stative and
dynamic in terms of "willed" and "nonwilled" qualities. Consider the
difference
between
a
so-called
dynamic
adjective
(or
subject
complement) and a stative adjective (or subject complement): "I am silly"
|Page6
OR "I am being silly" versus "I am tall." I have chosen to be silly; I have
no choice about being tall. Thus "tall" is said to be a stative (or an "inert")
quality, and we cannot say "I am being tall"; "silly," on the other hand, is
dynamic so we can use progressive verb forms in conjunction with that
quality.
The same applies to verbs. Two plus two equals four. Equals is
inert, stative, and cannot take the progressive; there is no choice,
no volition in the matter. (We would not say, "Two plus two is
equalling four.") In the same way, nouns and pronouns can be
said to exhibit willed and unwilled characteristics. Thus, "She is
being a good worker" (because she chooses to be so), but we
would say "She is (not is being) an Olympic athlete" (because
once she becomes an athlete she no longer "wills it").
|Page7
Third Lecture
The Forms of “To Be”
The Greek sea god, Proteus, was (like the sea) capable of changing form
in an instant. In order to get any decent information out of him, you had
to grab him and hold on tight while he went through his various forms —
lion, wild boar, snake, tree, running stream — it wasn't easy. The verb
―To be‖ is said to be the most protean of the English language, constantly
changing form, sometimes without much of a discernible pattern.
Considering that we use it so often, it is really too bad that the verb ―To
be‖ has to be the most irregular, slippery verb in the language.
Present Tense
I am
We are
You are
You are
He/She/It is They are
Past Tense
I was
We were
You were
You were
He/She/It was They were
Perfect Form (past
participle)
Progressive Form (present
participle)
|Page8
I have been, etc.
I am being, etc.
We must choose carefully among these various forms when selecting the
proper verb to go with our subject. Singular subjects require singular
verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs. That's usually an easy matter.
We wouldn't write ―The troops was moving to the border.‖ But some
sentences require closer attention. Do we write ―The majority of students
is (or are) voting against the referendum"? Review carefully the material
in our section on Subject-Verb Agreement, and notice how often the
choices we make require a familiarity with these forms of the ―To be‖
verb.
Simple Questions
We create simple yes/no questions by inverting the order of subject and
the ―To be‖ verb.

Is your brother taller than you?

Am I bothering you?

Were they embarrassed by the comedian?
The same inversion takes place when ―To be‖ is combined with verbs in
the progressive:

Am I working with you today?

Is it snowing in the mountains?

Were your children driving home this weekend?
The Linking and Existential 'To Be'
|Page9
The verb ―To be‖ most frequently works in conjunction with another
verb: ―He is playing the piano,‖ ―She will be arriving this afternoon.‖
Occasionally, though, the verb will stand by itself, alone, in a sentence.
This is especially true in simple, brief answers to questions.
―Who's going to the movies with me?‖
―I am‖
―Who's responsible for this mess in the bathroom?‖
―She is.‖
In sentences such as these, the subject usually receives the intonation
stress and the voice falls off on the verb.
An auxiliary can be combined with the base form of ―To be‖ to provide
simple answers to questions that use forms of ―to be.‖
―Is Heitor in class this morning?‖
―Well, he might be.‖
―Is anyone helping Heitor with his homework?‖
―I'm not sure. Suzanne could be.‖
The verb ―To be‖ also acts as a linking verb, joining the sentence subject
with a subject complement or adjective complement. A linking verb
provides no action to a sentence: the subject complement re-identifies the
subject; the adjective complement modifies it. (For further information
and additional vocabulary in dealing with linking verbs, visit the
hyperlinks in this paragraph.)

Professor Moriber is the Director of Online Learning.

Our trip to Yellowstone was fantastic!
In Passive Constructions
| P a g e 11
A form of the verb ―To be‖ is combined with a past participle to form the
passive. Passive verb constructions are useful when the subject of an
action is not as important as what the subject did (the action of the
sentence) or when the subject is unknown. For instance, the police might
report that ―The professor was assaulted in the hallways‖ because they do
not know the perpetrator of this heinous crime. In technical writing,
where the process is more important than who is doing the activity, we
might report that ―Three liters of fluid is filtered through porous glass
beads.‖ Regardless of the verb's purpose, only the auxiliary form of ―To
be‖ changes; the participle stays the same. The ―To be‖ will change form
to indicate whether the subject is singular or plural:

The foundation is supported by enormous floating caissons that
keep it from sinking into the swamp.

They were constructed by workers half submerged in the murky
waters.
Notice how the information about who did the action is frequently found
in a prepositional phrase beginning with ―by.‖ Passive constructions do
not always include this information:

Wooden caissons were used until fiberglass structures were
developed in the 1950s.

Caissons were also designed to function under water in the
construction of bridges.
The ―To be‖ will also change to indicate the time of the action and the
aspect of the verb (simple, progressive, perfect).

Water is pumped out of the caisson to create an underwater work
chamber. (simple present)
| P a g e 11

Some caissons were moved to other construction sites. (simple
past)

While the water was being pumped out, workers would enter the
top of the waterproof chamber. (past progressive)

Many other uses of caisson construction have been explored.
(present perfect)

Caissons had been used by the ancient Romans. (past perfect)

Other uses will be found. (future)
The ―To be‖ verb can be combined with other modal forms (along with
the past participle of the main verb) to convey other kinds of information.
See the section on modals for the various kinds of information conveyed
by modals (advisability, predictability, guessing, necessity, possibility,
etc.).

The wall joints may be weakened if the caissons can't be rebuilt.

Perhaps the caissons should be replaced; I think they ought to be.

These ancient, sturdy structures might have been rotted by constant
exposure to water.
Visit our section on the passive for advice on when to use the passive and
when to substitute more active verb forms.
When ―To be‖ verbs are combined with modal forms in this manner, the
construction is called a phrasal modal. Here are some more examples:

Rosario was able to finish her degree by taking online courses.

She wasn't supposed to graduate until next year.

She will be allowed to participate in commencement, though.

She is about to apply to several graduate programs.

She is going to attend the state university next fall.
| P a g e 12
Sometimes it is difficult to say whether a ―To be‖ verb is linking a subject
to a participle or if the verb and participle are part of a passive
construction. In ―Certain behaviors are allowed,‖ is "are‖ linking
―behaviors‖ to "allowed" (a participle acting as a predicate adjective) or is
―are allowed‖ a passive verb? In the final analysis, it probably doesn't
matter, but the distinction leads to some interesting variations. Consider
the difference between

The jurists were welcomed.
and

The jurists were welcome.
In the first sentence, the participle ―welcomed‖ (in this passive
construction) emphasizes the action of welcoming: the smiles, the hearty
greetings, the slaps on the back. In the second sentence, the predicate
adjective ―welcome‖ describes the feeling that the jurists must have had
upon being so welcomed.
Progressive Forms
Progressive forms include a form of ―To be‖ plus a present participle (an
-ing ending). Frodesen and Eyring** categorize progressive verbs
according to the following functions:

to describe actions already in progress at the moment "in focus"
within the sentence, as in ―I was doing my homework when my
brother broke into my room, crying.‖ or ―I will be graduating from
college about the same time that you enter high school.‖

to describe actions at the moment of focus in contrast to habitual
actions, as in ―We usually buy the most inexpensive car we can
find, but this time we're buying a luxury sedan.‖
| P a g e 13

to express repeated actions, as in ―My grandfather is forever
retelling the same story about his adventures in Rangoon.‖

to describe temporary situations in contrast to permanent states, as
in ―Jeffrey goes to the University of Connecticut, but this summer
he is taking courses at the community college.‖

to express uncompleted actions, as in ―Harvey and Mark are
working on their deck.‖
Fourth Lecture
Tag Questions with “To Be”
It is a device by which a statement is turned into a question. When we use
―To be‖ verbs in a tag question, the basic formula follows: the verb is
combined with a pronoun and sometimes with not (usually in a contracted
form). Positive statements are followed by negative tags; negative
statements by positive tags.

Robert Frost was America's favorite poet, wasn't he?

He wasn't widely accepted in this country at first, was he?

You were going to skip this poem, weren't you?

There were several typographical errors in this anthology, weren't
there? (Be careful here. It's not ―weren't they.‖)

I am not a very good reader, am I?

I'm a better reader than you, aren't I?
| P a g e 14
(Don't try to make sense of this last construction. It is acceptable. In very
formal text, you might write ―am I not‖ instead. ―Ain't‖ is not regarded as
acceptable except in text attempting to duplicate substandard speech.)
Order with Adverbs
Notice that adverbs of frequency normally appear after forms of the verb
―To be‖:

As a student, he was seldom happy.

Arturo is always first in line.

They were never on time.
Notice that the adverb still appears after ―To be‖ verbs but before other
main verbs:

My brother-in-law still works for the bank.

He is still a teller after twenty years.
An adverb can be interposed between the infinitive ―To be‖ and a
participle, as in the following sentences. The fear of splitting an infinitive
is without grounds in this construction.

This medicine has to be carefully administered.

She turned out to be secretly married to her childhood sweetheart.
Unnecessary Uses of “To Be”
Even a casual review of your writing can reveal uses of the verb ―To be‖
that are unnecessary and that can be removed to good effect. In a way, the
―To be‖ verb doesn't do much for you — it just sits there — and text that
is too heavily sprinkled with ―To be‖ verbs can feel sodden, static. This is
especially true of ―To be‖ verbs tucked into dependent clauses
(particularly dependent clauses using a passive construction) and
| P a g e 15
expletive constructions (―There is,‖ ―There were,‖ ―it is,‖ etc.). Note that
the relative pronoun frequently disappears as well when we revise these
sentences.

He wanted a medication that was prescribed by a physician.

She recognized the officer who was chasing the crook.

Anyone who is willing to work hard will succeed in this program.

It was Alberto who told the principal about the students' prank.
(Notice that the ―it was‖ brought special emphasis to ―Alberto,‖ an
emphasis that is somewhat lost by this change.)

A customer who is pleased is sure to return. A pleased customer is
sure to return. (When we eliminate the ―To be‖ and the relative
pronoun, we will also have to reposition the predicate adjective to a
pre-noun position.)
An expletive construction, along with its attendant ―To be‖ verb, can
often be eliminated to good effect. Simply omit the construction, find the
real subject of the sentence, and allow it to do some real work with a real
verb.

There were some excellent results to this experiment in social
work. (Change to . . . .) This experiment in social work resulted in .
...

There is one explanation for this story's ending in Faulkner's diary.
(Change to . . . .) Faulkner's diary gives us one explanation for this
story's ending.
On the other hand, expletive constructions do give us an interesting
means of setting out or organizing the work of a subsequent paragraph:

There were four underlying causes of World War I. First, . . . .
Fuzzy Verb Phrases with "Be"
| P a g e 16
Verb phrases containing "be" verbs are often merely roundabout ways of
saying something better said with a simple verb. Thus "be supportive of"
for "support" is verbose.
The following circumlocutory uses of "be" verbs are common in stuffy
writing. The simple verb (in parentheses) is usually better:
be abusive of (abuse)
be in existence (exist)
be applicable to (apply to)
be influential on (influence)
be benefited by (benefit from)
be in possession of (possess)
be derived from (derive from)
be in receipt of (have received)
be desirous of (desire or want)
be in violation of (violate)
be determinative of (determine) be operative (operate)
be in agreement (agree)
be productive of (produce)
be in attendance (attend)
be promotive of (promote)
be indicative of (indicate)
be supportive of (support)
be in error (err)
Many such wordy constructions are more naturally phrased in the
present-tense singular: "is able to" ("can"), "is authorized to" ("may"), "is
binding upon" ("binds"), "is empowered to" ("may"), "is unable to"
("cannot").
Stative and Dynamic Forms
Martha Kolln* suggests that we think of the difference between stative
and dynamic in terms of ―willed‖ and ―nonwilled‖ qualities. Consider the
difference
between
a
so-called
dynamic
adjective
(or
subject
complement) and a stative adjective (or subject complement): ―I am silly‖
OR ―I am being silly‖ versus ―I am tall.‖ I have chosen to be silly; I have
no choice about being tall. Thus ―Tall‖ is said to be a stative (or an
―inert‖) quality, and we cannot say ―I am being tall‖; ―silly,‖ on the other
| P a g e 17
hand, is dynamic so we can use progressive verb forms in conjunction
with that quality.
Two plus two equals four. Equals is inert, stative, and cannot take the
progressive; there is no choice, no volition in the matter. (We would not
say, ―Two plus two is equaling four.‖) In the same way, nouns and
pronouns can be said to exhibit willed and unwilled characteristics. Thus,
―She is being a good worker‖ (because she chooses to be so), but we
would say ―She is (not is being) an Olympic athlete‖ (because once she
becomes an athlete she no longer ―wills it‖).
Singular
Plural
I am walking
we are walking
you are walking
you are walking
he/she/it is walking
they are walking
Singular
Plural
I am sleeping
we are sleeping
you are sleeping
you are sleeping
he/she/it is sleeping
they are sleeping
Singular
Plural
I am being
we are being
you are being
you are being
he/she/it is being
they are being
-The summer is passing too quickly.
-Raoul is acting like his father.
-Some football players are not being good role models for youngsters.
-Is he being good to you?
| P a g e 18
Fifth Lecture
The Present Perfect Tense is formed with a present tense form of "to
have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or
irregular in form). This tense indicates either that an action was
completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past or that the
action extends to the present:
-I have walked two miles already [but I'm still walking].
-I have run the Boston Marathon [but that was some time ago].
-The critics have praised the film Saving Private Ryan since it
came out [and they continue to do so].
The choice between Present Perfect and Simple Past is often determined
by the adverbial accompanying the verb. With adverbs referring to a
period gone by, we would use the simple past:
-I studied all night/yesterday/on Wednesday.
| P a g e 19
With adverbs beginning in the past and going up to present, we would use
the present perfect:
-I have studied up to now/lately/already.
Singular
Plural
I have walked
we have walked
you have walked
you have walked
he/she/it has walked
they have walked
Singular
Plural
I have slept
we have slept
you have slept
you have slept
he/she/it has slept
they have slept
Singular
Plural
I have been
we have been
you have been
you have been
he/she/it has been
they have been
-For five generations, members of my family have been doctors.
-Vaughan has batted clean-up since he came to the Redsox.
-She has swum the English Channel every summer.
-How long has it been since the last time we met?
The Present Perfect Progressive Tense indicates a continuous action
that has been finished at some point in the past or that was initiated in the
past and continues to happen. The action is usually of limited duration
and has some current relevance: "She has been running and her heart is
still beating fast." The present perfect progressive frequently is used to
describe an event of the recent past; it is often accompanied by just in this
usage: "It has just been raining."
| P a g e 21
This tense is formed with the modal "HAVE" or "HAS" (for third-person
singular subjects) plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb
(with an -ing ending): "I have been working in the garden all morning.
George has been painting that house for as long as I can remember."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic
verbs and not with stative verbs.
-Maria has been writing her dissertation for the last six years[, but she
finished yesterday].
-The Redsox have been losing games since the All-Star break [and they
continue to do so].
-Have we been telling the truth to consumers about tobacco?
-Haven't we been lying to teenagers about smoking?
Sixth Lecture
The Past Tense indicates that an action is in the past relative to the
speaker or writer.
-when the time period has finished: "We went to Chicago last
Christmas."
-when the time period is definite: "We visited Mom last week."
-with for, when the action is finished: "I worked with the FBI for
two months."
Regular verbs use the verb's base form (scream, work) plus the -ed ending
(screamed, worked). Irregular verbs alter their form in some other way
(slept, drank, drove).
| P a g e 21
Singular
Plural
I walked
we walked
you walked
you walked
he/she/it walked
they walked
Singular
Plural
I slept
we slept
you slept
you slept
he/she/it slept
they slept
Singular
Plural
I was
we were
you were
you were
he/she/it was
they were
-When I was a girl, I walked five miles to school every day.
-Carmelita slept through the entire class.
-We worked really hard to make this a success, but then Chuck ruined it
with his carelessness.
-Every time I finished a sandcastle, the waves came in and washed it
away.
-Tarzan dove into the swamp and swam toward the alligator.
The Past Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something that
was happening, going on, at some point in the past. This tense is formed
with the helping "to be" verb, in the past tense, plus the present participle
of the verb (with an -ing ending):
| P a g e 22

I was riding my bike all day yesterday.

Joel was being a terrible role model for his younger brother.
The past progressive indicates a limited duration of time and is thus a
convenient way to indicate that something took place (in the simple past)
while something else was happening:

Carlos lost his watch while he was running.
The past progressive can express incomplete action.

I was sleeping on the couch when Bertie smashed through the door.
(as opposed to the simple past, which suggests a completed action:

I slept on the couch last night.
The past progressive is also used to poke fun at or criticize an action that
is sporadic but habitual in nature:

Tashonda was always handing in late papers.

My father was always lecturing my brother.
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic
verbs and not with stative verbs.
Singular
Plural
I was walking
we were walking
you were walking
you were walking
he/she/it was walking
they were walking
Singular
Plural
I was sleeping
we were sleeping
| P a g e 23
you were sleeping
you were sleeping
he/she/it was sleeping
they were sleeping
Singular
Plural
I was being
we were being
you were being
you were being
he/she/it was being
they were being
-Dad was working in his garden all morning.
-During the mid-50s, real estate speculators were buying all the
swampland in Central Florida, and innocent people were investing all
their money in bogus development projects.
-Was he being good to you?
Seventh Lecture
The Past Perfect Tense indicates that an action was completed (finished
or "perfected") at some point in the past before something else happened.
This tense is formed with the past tense form of "to have" (HAD) plus the
past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in
form):
-I had walked two miles by lunchtime.
-I had run three other marathons before entering the Boston
Marathon.
Singular
Plural
| P a g e 24
I had walked
we had walked
you had walked
you had walked
he/she/it had walked
they had walked
Singular
Plural
I had slept
we had slept
you had slept
you had slept
he/she/it had slept
they had slept
Singular
Plural
I had been
we had been
you had been
you had been
he/she/it had been
they had been
-Prior to the Revolutionary War, Washington had been a surveyor and
land speculator.
-Aunt Glad had invested heavily in the air-conditioning industry before
the Great Crash of 1988.
-She had swum the English Channel every summer until 1997.
-How long had it been since you saw each other?
The Past Perfect Progressive Tense indicates a continuous action that
was completed at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the
modal "HAD" plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb (with
an -ing ending): "I had been working in the garden all morning. George
had been painting his house for weeks, but he finally gave up."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic
verbs and not with stative verbs.
| P a g e 25
Singular
Plural
I had been walking
we had been walking
you had been walking
you had been walking
he/she/it had been walking
they had been walking
Singular
Plural
I had been sleeping
we had been sleeping
you had been sleeping
you had been sleeping
he/she/it had been sleeping
they had been sleeping
Singular
Plural
There is no past perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Had been being" is
expressed simply as "had been": "We had been being successful before, but we
somehow lost our knack.
-Hemingway had been losing his self-confidence for years before the
publication of Old Man and the Sea.
-Had they been cheating on the exams before the school put monitors in
the classroom?
Eighth Lecture
The Future Tense indicates that an action is in the future relative to the
speaker or writer. There are no inflected forms for the future in English
(nothing like those -ed or -s endings in the other tenses). Instead, the
future tense employs the helping verbs will or shall with the base form of
the verb:

She will leave soon.

We shall overcome.
| P a g e 26
The future is also formed with the use of a form of "go" plus the infinitive
of the verb:

He is going to faint.
English can even use the present to suggest the future tense:

I am leaving later today."
Note that the auxiliary will can be combined with "be" and a progressive
form of the main verb to create a sense of the future that does not harbor
any hint of insistence (which is possible with the auxiliary alone). For
instance, if stress is placed on the word will in "When will you arrive?",
the sentence can sound impatient, insistent. In "When will you be
arriving?" there is less of that emotional overtone.
The construction form of to be + infinitive is used to convey a sense of
planning for the future, command, or contingency.

There is to be an investigation into the mayor's business affairs.

You are to be back on the base by midnight.

If he is to pass this exam, he'll have to study harder.
To create a sense of imminent fulfillment, the word about can be
combined with the infinitive.

He is about to die.
Other adverbs can be used in similar constructions with various effects:

He is liable to get in trouble.

She is certain to do well in college.
| P a g e 27

Singular
Plural
I will walk
we will walk
you will walk
you will walk
he/she/it will walk
they will walk
Singular
Plural
I will sleep
we will sleep
you will sleep
you will sleep
he/she/it will sleep
they will sleep
Singular
Plural
I will be
we will be
you will be
you will be
he/she/it will be
they will be
-We will be victorious!
-We shall overcome.
-We are going to win this race.
-The bus arrives at three this afternoon.
-The boss is announcing his retirement at today's meeting.
The Future Progressive Tense indicates continuing action, something
that will be happening, going on, at some point in the future. This tense is
formed with the modal "will" plus "be," plus the present participle of the
verb (with an -ing ending): "I will be running in next year's Boston
Marathon. Our campaign plans suggest that the President will be winning
the southern vote by November. "
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic
verbs and not with stative verbs.
| P a g e 28
Singular
Plural
I will be walking
we will be walking
you will be walking
you will be walking
he/she/it will be walking
they will be walking
Singular
Plural
I will be sleeping
we will be sleeping
you will be sleeping
you will be sleeping
he/she/it will be sleeping
they will be sleeping
Singular
Plural
There is no future progressive for the "to be" verb. "Will be being" is expressed
simply as "will be": "We will be being happy."
-By this time tomorrow night, I will be sleeping in my own bed.
-Next fall, we will be enjoying all the vegetables we planted last spring.
-Will we be spending too much money if we buy that big-screen TV?
Ninth Lecture
The Future Perfect Tense indicates that an action will have been
completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the future. This tense
is formed with "will" plus "have" plus the past participle of the verb
(which can be either regular or irregular in form): "I will have spent all my
money by this time next year. I will have run successfully in three
marathons if I can finish this one."
| P a g e 29
Singular
Plural
I will have walked
we will have walked
you will have walked
you will have walked
he/she/it will have walked
they will have walked
Singular
Plural
I will have slept
we will have slept
you will have slept
you will have slept
he/she/it will have slept
they will have slept
Singular
Plural
I will have been
we will have been
you will have been
you will have been
he/she/it will have been
they will have been
-By this time next week, I will have worked on this project for twenty
days.
-Before he sees his publisher, Charles will have finished four chapters in
his new novel.
-A Democratic president will have been in the White House for nearly half
of the twentieth century.
-How long will it have been since we were together?
The Future Perfect Progressive Tense indicates a continuous action
that will be completed at some point in the future. This tense is formed
with the modal "WILL" plus the modal "HAVE" plus "BEEN" plus the
present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "Next Thursday, I
will have been working on this project for three years."
Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic
verbs and not with stative verbs.
| P a g e 31
Singular
Plural
I will have been walking
we will have been walking
you will have been walking
you will have been walking
he/she/it will have been walking
they will have been walking
Singular
Plural
I will have been sleeping
we will have been sleeping
you will have been sleeping
you will have been sleeping
he/she/it will have been sleeping
they will have been sleeping
Singular
Plural
There is no future perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Will have been being"
is expressed simply as "will have been": "By this time next year we will have
been being on this committee for a decade."
-By the time he finishes this semester, Gesualdo will have been studying
nothing but parasites for four years.
-Will they have been testing these materials in the lab before we even
get there?
Tenth Lecture
Sequence of Tenses
The tense of a verb in the subordinate clause changes in accordance with
the tense of the verb in the main clause.
The basic rules are as follows:
| P a g e 31
Rule 1
If the verb in the principal clause is in the present or the future tense,
the verb in the subordinate clause may be in any tense, depending upon
the sense to be expressed.
He says that he is fine.
He says that he was fine.
He says that he will be fine.
He will say that he is fine.
He will say that he was fine.
He will say that he will be fine.
Rule 2
If the tense in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tense in the
subordinate clause will be in the corresponding past tense.
He said that he would come.
He told me that he had been ill.
I knew that he would not pass.
We noticed that the fan had stopped.
There are, nevertheless, a few exceptions to this rule.
A past tense in the main clause may be followed by a present tense in
the subordinate clause when the subordinate clause expresses some
universal truth.
Copernicus proved that the earth moves round the sun.
The teacher told us that honesty is the best policy.
He told me that the Hindus burn their dead.
| P a g e 32
A subordinate clause expressing place, reason or comparison may be in
any tense, according to the sense to be expressed.
He didn‘t get the job because his English isn‘t good.
A fishing village once existed where now lies the city of Mumbai.
If the subordinate clause is an adjective clause, it may be in any tense as
is required by the sense.
Yesterday I met a man who sells balloons.
Yesterday I met a man who sold me a balloon.
Eleventh Lecture
Rule 3
Note that when the subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction
of purpose that, the following rules are observed.
| P a g e 33
We use may in the subordinate clause when the main clause is in the
present tense. We use might in the subordinate clause when the main
clause is in the past tense.
I study that I may pass.
I will study that I may pass.
I studied that I might pass.
We eat that we may live.
He ate that he might not die.
Rule 4
If the principal clause is in the future tense, we do not use future tense in
subordinating clauses beginning with when, until, before, after etc.
I will call you when dinner is ready. (NOT I will call you when dinner
will be ready.)
I shall wait until you return. (NOT I shall wait until you will return.)
Twelfth Lecture
Rule 5
Expressions such as as if, if only, it is time and wish that are usually
followed by past tenses.
| P a g e 34
I wish I was a bit taller.
It is time we started working.
He talks as if he knew everything.
Using the correct sequence of tenses
Sometimes you combine parts of a sentence that are in different tenses - one part may
be in the present tense and the other part may be in the future tense; for instance, like
this one:
This sentence is fine - there‘s a logical progression of tenses. The first part says what I
am doing right now, the next part tells what I will be doing in the future. But there are
tenses that you can‘t combine. For instance:
I was running in the park, although it is snowing.
Whoa! Doesn‘t quite sound right when you read it aloud. This is because there‘s an
error with the tenses - the main clause is in the past progressive tense - ‗was running‘,
but the dependent clause that comes after it is in the simple present tense - ‗it is
snowing‘.
Here are some tree diagrams that show you what tense combinations are acceptable.
The tense on the left of the diagram is the tense of the main independent clause, and
the tense options on the right are what you can use for the subordinate or dependent
clauses in the sentence. An example sentence is given with each one.
| P a g e 35
| P a g e 36
One of the tricky tense things I‘ve always had problems with is combining the simple
past or progressive past with the present tense, like in this sentence.
You can do this when the present tense clause is saying something that is a general
belief about something. Of course, you may disagree, but as long as it‘s something
that could be a general belief, it‘s fine. Usually the ‗something‘ that you‘re describing
is from the first part of the sentence and hasn‘t changed significantly from the past
until now. This sort of tense combination often comes up when you‘re writing
historical essays, and you‘re talking about what the people of the time believed:
A few hundred years ago, people believed the world was flat, even though it is round.
| P a g e 37
Thirteenth Lecture
We must keep in mind the sequence of tenses. This is a principle according to which,
the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause, follows the tense of the verb in the
principal clause, as per the following rules
Rule no. 1:
A Past Tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate
clause e.g.
There are however three exceptions to this rule:
Exception 1:
The principal clause in the past tense may be followed by a present tense in the subordinate clause when it expresses a habitual or universal fact.
Newton discovered that the force of gravity makes apples fall
He said honesty is always the best policy.
Exception 2:
When subordinate clause is followed by ‗then‘. In this case even if the principal
clause is in the past tense, it may be followed by any tense i.e. Present, Future or Past
as required by the sense of the subordinate clause.
He liked you better than he likes me.
He valued his friendship more than he values mine.
Exception 3:
When the subordinate clause denotes place, reason or comparison, it may be in any
tense, even if there is a past tense in the principal clause
He succeeded because he is hardworking.
Ram was smart but his brother is smarter.
Q1:Complete the following sentences using an appropriate form of the verb.
| P a g e 38
1. Suddenly she gave a loud scream and ………………………… to the ground. (fell /
had fallen / has fallen)
2. After questioning he …………………………… to go home. (allowed / was
allowed / had allowed)
3. They would have won if they ……………………………. a bit harder. (played /
had played / play)
4. She …………………….. to say that she disagreed. (heard / was heard / had heard)
5. Although they …………………………. defeated, they did not lose heart. (were /
are / have been)
6. Our teacher taught us that virtue …………………………. its own reward. (is / are
/ will be)
7. The teacher asked the boys whether they …………………………. the problems.
(had solved / have solved / will solve)
8. He declared that he would not believe it even if he ………………………… it with
his own eyes. (see / saw / would see)
9. The room ………………………… but the police failed to find anything
suspicious. (searched / was searched / had searched)
10. The government has announced that taxes …………………………….. (would be
raised / will be raised / will raise)
Q2: Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. I knew that she
Madrid before, so I asked her to recommend a good hotel.
has visited
has been visiting
2. She promised to help me if I
haven't found
know
tries
wouldn't find
knew
had known
to hold back her tears.
is trying
5. He knew that she
is crying
won't find
each other for many years.
have known
4. I saw that she
had visited
the answer myself.
didn't find
3. He said that they
visited
has been trying
was trying
as her eyes were red.
has been crying
was crying
had been crying
| P a g e 39
6. I asked her whether she
goes
is going
there with me, but she said no.
will go
7. She said that the robber
attacked
would go
her when she was opening the door to her apartment.
has attacked
was attacking
8. I wanted to see her but I didn't know if she
is
was
were
in town.
had been
9. He told me that he would visit them when he
has returned
had attacked
returned
will return
from Spain.
would return
10. My younger daughter learned in class yesterday that the Earth
revolves
is revolving
revolved
around the Sun.
was revolving
Q3:Complete the following sentences using appropriate verb forms.
1. You will find Coca-Cola wherever you …………………………….
a) Go
b) Will go
c) Would go
2. He would never do anything that ……………………….. against his conscience.
a) Goes
b) Will go
c) Went
3. I will lend it to you on condition that you ………………………… it back
tomorrow.
a) Bring
b) Will bring
c) Would bring
4. I ……………………….. a good time whether I win or lose.
a) Will have
b) Had
c) Have
5. One day the government will ask people what they …………………………..
| P a g e 41
a) Want
b) Will want
c) Wanted
6. I don‘t know where she ……………………………. tomorrow.
a) Will be
b) Is
c) Was
7. If I had lots of money, I would give some to anybody who ………………………..
for it.
a) Ask
b) Asked
c) Had asked
8. I have brought my tennis things, just in case we …………………………… time
for a game tomorrow.
a) Have
b) Will have
c) Had
9. I will go where you ……………………………
a) Go
b) Will go
c) Would go
10. I will tell you when I ……………………………
a) Finished
b) Have finished
c) Will finish
Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. Who
cooks
food in your family when your Mom is away?
is cooking
2. Where is John? – He
repairs
cooked
his car in the garage.
is repairing
3. I love this film. I
has been cooking
has repaired
repaired
it four or five times already.
| P a g e 41
see
have seen
had seen
4. Have you visited any European countries? – Yes. I
ago.
visited
5. She
have visited
Spain and Italy two years
had visited
the living room when she heard a strange noise in the kitchen.
has cleaned
has been cleaning
6. I envy you. At five tomorrow you
will get
will be getting
was cleaning
some tan on the beach at the seaside.
will have gotten
will have been getting
7. You arrived two days ago. You are going to leave next Sunday. By the time you
leave, you
nine days here.
spend
have spent
8. Where is he? I
am waiting
are spending
will have spent
for him since three o'clock!
have been waiting
9. I went to Belgium last month. I
have never been
was waiting
there before. It's a beautiful country.
had never been
never was
10. He said that his mother would be very upset when she
learns
learned
had been waiting
had learned
never been
that he had lost his job.
would learn
| P a g e 42
Fourteenth Lecture
Rule no. 2:
If principal clause is in Present or Future tense, the tense of the verb in the
subordinate clause can be Past, Present or Future depending on the sense conveyed.
She says that she went home.
She will say that her friends have deserted her.
There is however one exception.
When a subordinate clause expresses a purpose, condition or time, its verb is always
in the present tense, even if the verb in principal clause is in present or future tense.
I shall nurse him so that he can live.
We shall leave when the meeting is over.
I eat that I can live.
Rule no. 3:
When the subordinate clause is introduced by a conjunction ‗lest‘. It is always
followed by ‗should‘.
Ram studies lest he should fail.
Run fast lest you should miss the train.
Q1:Fill in the blanks using appropriate verb forms. Observe the rule of the
sequence of tenses.
1. I found that my son …………………… awake.
2. The pickpocket confessed that he …………………………. (pick) my pocket.
3. He was so tired that he ……………………….. scarcely stand.
4. He said that I …………………………… a lazy good-for-nothing boy.
5. No one could explain how the prisoner ………………………….. (escape) from the
prison.
| P a g e 43
6. Euclid proved that the three angles of a triangle ………………………… equal to
two right angles.
7. Italy went to war that she ……………………….. (extend) her empire.
8. The passage is so difficult that I ……………………… not comprehend it.
9. The boy was so indolent that he ……………………….. not pass.
10. In my perplexity I requested my guide to tell me what I ……………………….. to
Q2:Fill in the blanks with appropriate verb forms.
1. The teacher asked the boys if they ——————– the sums.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Solved
Had solved
Solve
Have solved
2. Although they ———————, they did not lose heart.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Defeated
Were defeated
Had defeated
Have defeated
3. Our teacher taught us that virtue ——————— its own reward.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Is
Was
Were
Has
4. Our holy books tell us that man ——————- mortal.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Is
Was
Were
Has
5. He spoke so fast that I ———————- understand anything.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Could
Could not
Cannot
Had not
6. This is the house where John ———————-
| P a g e 44
a) Lives
b) Living
c) Is lived
d) Would lived
7. He kept quiet that he ——————— please me.
a)
b)
c)
d)
May
Might
Will
Can
8. Just as I ——————– the room, the bell rang.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Entered
Enter
Will enter
Would enter
9. Who told you that cows ——————- on grass?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Feed
Was feeding
Feeds
Has fed
10. His health has improved since he ——————– from the hills.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Return
Returned
Would return
Returning
11. He declared that he ———————- it even if he saw it with his own eyes.
a)
b)
c)
d)
12.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Would not believe
Believe
Did not believe
Had not believed
If that man smoked less he ——————— develop cancer.
Would not
Had not
Has not
Will not
Q3: Insert the correct form of the verb in the following sentences.
1. Our Holy Books tell us that man ------------------ mortal.
| P a g e 45
a) Is
b) Was
c) Will be
2. The teacher asked the boys whether they ------------------ the problems.
a) Solve
b) Have solved
c) Had solved
3. He spoke so fast that I ------------------- not follow him.
a) Can
b) Could
4. His health has improved since he -------------------- from the hills.
a) Return
b) Returned
c) Would return
5. He kept quite that he --------------------- please me.
a) May
b) Might
c) Will
6. Who told you that goats ----------------- on grass?
a) Live
b) Lived
c) Had lived
7. He said that he -------------------- not believe it even if he saw it with his own eyes.
a) Will
b) Would
c) Might
| P a g e 46
Fifteenth Lecture
Rule no. 4:
When the subordinate clause is introduced by ‗as though‘ or ‗as if. The present tense
is generally used to indicate present time and the past perfect to denote past time; as
He pretends as if he were mad.
They laughed as though they were crazy.
Rule no. 5:
In conditional sentences the tense of the verb in the principal clause is future and the
verb in the subordinate clause is present.
Unless Shyam apologizes, he will be punished.
Q1: Insert the correct tense of the verb (given in bracket) in the
following blanks.
1. Let me see whoever he………….(may) be.
2. I am so tired that I …………..(can) not walk now.
3. He walked fast lest he………..(shall) miss the bus.
4. He ran away when he………….(see) me.
5. Strong though he is, he……… (be) not so bold.
6. It is now a week since the factory ……..(break) up.
| P a g e 47
7. I shall leave the place only when you…….(come) back.
8. I never understood why he ………(behave) like this.
9. The stars will shine in the sky as long as the world ………(last).
10. He walked as if he …………….(be) lame.
Q2: Insert the correct tense of the verb (given in bracket) in the following blanks.
1. Poor though he is, he ………(be) not dishonest.
2. As far as I found out, his statement…….(be) not true.
3.We had hardly reached the office when the boss ……..(leave)for Delhi.
4. A man will reap as he ……..(sow).
5. Make haste lest you……..(shall)miss the chance.
6. Virtue ennobles but vice……….(degrade)
7. You must follow me whether you………(like) it or not.
8. His mother says that he……..(be) much better now.
| P a g e 48
9. He ordered his secretary to note down what he……..(dictate).
10. He remained cheerful though he ……..(has) been ill for some days.
| P a g e 49