Economic and Social Panorama of the
Community of Latin American and
Caribbean States, 2013
Alicia Bárcena
Executive Secretary
Antonio Prado
Deputy Executive Secretary
Ricardo Pérez
Chief, Publications and Web Services Division
This document was prepared by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) as a contribution to the second Summit of Heads of
State and Government of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC).
LC/L.3764 • January 2014
© United Nations • Printed in Santiago, Chile
2013-1080
Contents
Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................................................7
I. Economic panorama ...................................................................................................................................................11
A. Growth ....................................................................................................................................................................13
B. Employment ...........................................................................................................................................................15
C. Terms of trade ........................................................................................................................................................16
D. Central government expenditure ........................................................................................................................18
E. Fiscal revenue .........................................................................................................................................................19
II. Foreign direct investment .......................................................................................................................................21
A. Overview of foreign direct investment in Latin America and the Caribbean ..............................................23
B. Transnational company profits: repatriation and reinvestment .....................................................................25
C. Foreign direct investment in the agricultural and agro-industry sector in Latin America
and the Caribbean ..................................................................................................................................................26
III. Social panorama .......................................................................................................................................................27
A. Income poverty ......................................................................................................................................................29
B. Income distribution ...............................................................................................................................................30
C. Child poverty..........................................................................................................................................................31
D. Paid and unpaid work ..........................................................................................................................................32
IV. Population ..................................................................................................................................................................35
A. Demographic structure and dynamics ...............................................................................................................37
V. Gender equality ........................................................................................................................................................39
A. Women’s deaths at the hands of their intimate partner or former partner...................................................41
B. Reproductive health indicators............................................................................................................................42
3
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
C. Teenage mothers ....................................................................................................................................................44
D. Sexual and reproductive health of women.........................................................................................................45
E. Wage gap..................................................................................................................................................................46
F. Women over 60 without independent income...................................................................................................49
Figures
4
Figure I.1
Latin America and the Caribbean: GDP growth rates, 2013..................................................................13
Figure I.2
Real GDP growth by region and selected country groupings, 2010-2014...........................................13
Figure I.3
Latin America and the Caribbean: GDP growth projections, 2014.......................................................14
Figure I.4
Latin America and the Caribbean (15 countries): year-on-year variation in the participation,
employment and unemployment rates by sex, average for the first to third quarters
of 2013 compared with the same period of the previous year..............................................................15
Figure I.5
Latin America (selected countries): year-on-year variation in formal employment,
first quarter 2012 to third quarter 2013.....................................................................................................15
Figure I.6
Latin America: price indices for export commodities and manufactured goods, 2009-2013............16
Figure I.7
Latin America: estimated variation in the terms of trade, 2009-2013...................................................17
Figure I.8
Latin America and the Caribbean: central government spending, 2012- 2013...................................18
Figure I.9
Latin America (19 countries): central government fiscal indicators, 2000-2013..................................19
Figure I.10
Latin America and the Caribbean: total fiscal income and tax income of the central
government, by subregion and country grouping, 2012-2013..............................................................19
Figure II.1
Latin America and the Caribbean: foreign direct investment flows, 1990-2012.................................23
Figure II.2
Latin America and the Caribbean (selected countries): inward foreign
direct investment, 2011-2012......................................................................................................................24
Figure III.1
Latin America: poverty and indigence, 1980-2013..................................................................................29
Figure III.2
Latin America (15 countries): annual variation of Gini coefficient,
2002-2008 and 2008-2012.............................................................................................................................30
Figure III.3
Latin America (17 countries): rates of extreme and overall child poverty,
and percentage of children in indigent and poor households
(according to income method), around 2011...........................................................................................31
Figure III.4
Latin America (18 countries): working hours of the economically active population
aged 15 years and over, around 2002 and 2011.......................................................................................32
Figure III.5
Latin America (selected countries): time spent by the employed population in paid work,
unpaid work and free time.........................................................................................................................32
Figure III.6
Latin America (7 countries): time spent on total work, paid and unpaid,
by the unemployed population aged 15 and over, by sex, around 2010.............................................33
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
Figure III.7
Latin America (6 countries): time spent on unpaid domestic work, by sex and age group ............33
Figure IV.1
Selected regions: life expectancy at birth, both sexes, estimated and projected, 1950-2015 .............37
Figure IV.2
Latin America: infant mortality rate, 1950-2015 .....................................................................................38
Figure V.1
Latin America (11 countries) and Spain: deaths of women at the hands of an intimate
partner or former intimate partner, 2011 ................................................................................................41
Figure V.2
Latin America (20 countries) and the Caribbean (8 countries): maternal mortality
rates, 1990-2010 ...........................................................................................................................................42
Figure V.3
Latin America (20 countries), the Caribbean (8 countries), Portugal and Spain:
maternal mortality rates, 2005 and 2010..................................................................................................43
Figure V.4
Latin America (17 countries) and the Caribbean (2 countries): women between the ages
of 15 and 19 who are mothers, baseline and most recent figure available .........................................44
Figure V.5
Latin America (5 countries): women between the ages of 15 and 19 who are mothers
or are pregnant, by income quintiles, around 2010 ...............................................................................44
Figure V.6
Latin America (12 countries) and the Caribbean (3 countries): unmet demand
for family planning services ......................................................................................................................45
Figure V.7
Latin America (simple average for 16 countries): femininity index of poverty and indigence,
around 1994 to 2011 ....................................................................................................................................46
Figure V.8
Latin America (17 countries): women’s wages as a proportion of men’s wages,
around 2011 .................................................................................................................................................46
Figure V.9
Latin America (16 countries): population without incomes of their own, by sex,
urban areas, around 2010...........................................................................................................................47
Figure V.10
Latin America (15 countries): people without incomes of their own, by sex,
rural areas, around 2010 ............................................................................................................................47
Figure V.11
Latin America (simple average for 14 countries): women aged 15 and over without incomes
of their own, by poverty status, urban areas, 1994-2010 .......................................................................48
Figure V.12
Latin America (simple average for 14 countries): people without incomes of their own
by sex, age group and poverty status, urban areas, around 2010 .......................................................48
Figure V.13
Latin America (15 countries): persons aged 65 and over with no pension
or retirement benefit, by sex, around 2010 .............................................................................................49
5
Foreword
7
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
This issue of the Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
is a contribution by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) to the
second Summit of Heads of State and Government of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean
States (CELAC), to be held in Havana in January 2014.
This document is based on excerpts from some of the annual flagships published by the Commission
in 2013: Statistical Yearbook for Latin America and the Caribbean 2012 (LC/G.2554-P); Demographic
Observatory 2012 (LC/G.2569-P); Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean 2013 (LC/G.2574-P);
“Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean 2013. Briefing Paper”,
Foreign Direct Investment in Latin America and the Caribbean 2012 (LC/G.2571-P); “Social Panorama
Social of Latin America 2013. Briefing Paper”; and Gender Equality Observatory of Latin America and the
Caribbean. Annual Report 2012 (LC/G.2561/Rev.1).
ECLAC has been present since CELAC was first conceived, having attended the meetings in Costa
de Sauípe, Brazil; Montego Bay, Jamaica; and Riviera Maya, Mexico, where it took shape, as well as at its
inception in Caracas in 2011. Indeed, we view its creation as a historic event of the utmost importance
for the region. The Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
is expected to be published annually to coincide with each CELAC Summit and the different editions
will follow each other chronologically to form a continuous series.
We are committed to forging the development of Latin America and the Caribbean from within
the region itself, hence our enthusiasm for these efforts and the conviction we share with the Heads of
State and Government, gathered in Caracas, who declared “that the unity and political, economic, social
and cultural integration of Latin America and the Caribbean constitute both a fundamental aspiration
of the peoples […] and a requirement for the Region to successfully confront the challenges before us”.
CELAC is the most significant political achievement in the region in recent times and ECLAC, by
means of these contributions, renews its commitment to the consolidation and success of this Community.
Alicia Bárcena
Executive Secretary
Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
9
I. Economic panorama
11
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
A. Growth
■
■
The Latin American and Caribbean region recorded GDP
growth of 2.6% in 2013, down from 3.1% in 2012, testifying
to the continuation of the economic slowdown apparent in
the region since 2011. The countries’ growth rates differed
significantly, however.
Sluggish regional growth in 2013 partly reflects the lacklustre
performance of the two largest economies in Latin America
and the Caribbean: Brazil (2.4%) and Mexico (1.3%).1
Excluding these two countries, the region’s GDP rose
by 4.1%. Economic growth was most robust in Paraguay
(13%), followed by Panama (7.5%), the Plurinational State of
Bolivia (6.4%) and Peru (5.2%). The economies of Argentina,
Chile, Colombia, Guyana, Haiti, Nicaragua and Uruguay
grew at between 4% and 5%.
Figure I.1
Latin America and the Caribbean: GDP growth rates, 2013
-2
-0.5
-0.7
-1
0.1
0
1
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.1
2.1
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
4.2
4.0
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.4
3.2
3.2
3.0
3.0
2.6
2.6
2.4
5.2
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.5
6.4
13.0
7.5
(Percentages)
12
10.3
10
9.2
8
5.8
2
5.1
4.7
4.3
4.0
2.5
2.0
7.5
5.8
4.7
4
7.6
7.7
7.6
6
2.8
2.4
4.5
2.82.9
2.0
1.8
1.6
2.9
2.5
2.1
3.3
2.5
1.9
1.5
1.3
1.1
0
2010
2012 a
2011
-0.6
-0.7
-0.5
2013 b
2014 b
-2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) on the basis of
official figures.
1
■
The region’s modest performance is linked to a global
economic growth rate that stood at 2.1%, down from 2.4%
in 2012, although the outlook for next year is for economic
growth to pick up speed.
Forecasts for 2014 place the global economy’s growth rate
at 2.9%, with growth picking up in both developed and
developing countries. GDP growth in Latin America and
the Caribbean is expected to rally somewhat and the region
could post a rate of around 3.3%, on the assumption of
improving external conditions driving export growth. An
upturn in the regional growth rate will depend, in part, on
continued recovery in Mexico and better growth performance
in Brazil, both of whose growth rates lagged the regional
average in 2013.
Figure I.2
Real GDP growth by region and selected country
groupings, 2010-2014
(Percentages based on dollars at constant 2005 prices)
Paraguay
Panama
Bolivia (Plur. State of)
Peru
Guyana
Nicaragua
Argentina
Uruguay
Chile
Colombia
Haiti
Suriname
Ecuador
Central America (+3)
Guatemala
South America (10 countries)
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominican Rep.
Latin America and the Caribbean
Honduras
Brazil
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
El Salvador
Bahamas
Belize
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Trinidad and Tobago
Antigua and Barbuda
Grenada
Mexico
The Caribbean
Venezuela (Bol. Rep. of)
Saint Lucia
Jamaica
Dominica
Barbados
■
These two economies account for about 63% of the total GDP of Latin
America and the Caribbean.
World
Eurozone
United States
Developing countries
China
Latin America and the Caribbean
Japan
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of United Nations “World Economic Situation and Prospects. Monthly Briefing”, New York,
October 2013.
a
Estimates.
b
Projections.
13
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
Figure I.3
Latin America and the Caribbean: GDP growth projections, 2014
(Percentages, based on constant 2005 dollars)
B. The Caribbean
A. Latin America
Panama
Bolivia (Plur. State of)
Peru
Dominican Rep.
Nicaragua
Colombia
Haiti
Ecuador
Paraguay
Chile
Costa Rica
Uruguay
Guatemala
Mexico
Latin America and the Caribbean
Honduras
Cuba
Argentina
Brazil
El Salvador
The Caribbean
Venezuela (Bol. Rep. of)
7.0
5.5
5.5
2.9
2.8
Bahamas
2.5
Saint Lucia
2.3
The Caribbean
2.1
Trinidad and Tobago
2.1
Antigua and Barbuda
1.5
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.2
3.0
3.0
1.4
Grenada
1.3
Jamaica
1.2
Dominica
1.2
Barbados
2.6
2.6
2.6
1.0
0
2.1
1.0
4
6
8
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.
14
4.6
Belize
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.3
4.0
4.0
2
4.7
Guyana
Saint Kitts and Nevis
5.0
5.0
0
Suriname
1
2
3
4
5
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
B. Employment
■
■
■
Preliminary information shows that unemployment fell
once again in the region, albeit edging down very slightly
from 6.4% in 2012 to 6.3% in 2013. Contrasting with the
robust performance of the labour market in 2012, however,
in 2013 the dip in unemployment was not due to job creation
but rather to a reduction in the labour supply, expressed as
a lower overall participation rate.
Job creation lost momentum during 2013. After a steady
climb from 2002 (with a rate of 51.8%) to 2012 (55.9%),
interrupted only by the outbreak of the economic and
financial crisis in 2009, the rate tailed off, albeit by just 0.1
of a percentage point. This slight fall-off contrasts with
the 0.4 percentage-point rise recorded in 2012, despite a
similar economic growth rate in both years.
The economically active population expanded more slowly,
reflecting a lower labour market participation rate. Even
so, at the regional level, the long-term rise in the female
participation rate has clearly continued, whereas the male
Figure I.4
Latin America and the Caribbean (15 countries): year-on-year
variation in the participation, employment and unemployment
rates by sex, average for the first to third quarters of 2013
compared with the same period of the previous year
(Percentage points)
■
■
participation rate has diminished. The gaps between the
male and female employment and unemployment rates
have narrowed.
Slackening job creation seems to have impacted young people
the most, with the employment rate falling and unemployment
rising for young people practically throughout the region.
Conversely, the adult employment rate rose slightly and
the unemployment rate declined in most countries. In some
countries, including Brazil, Chile and Peru, the fall in the
employment rate also reflected lower participation by young
people in the labour market, contrasting with zero growth
in the adult participation rate in these countries.
The slowdown in job creation also reflects the trend in
formal employment. In 2013 growth rates for this type of
better-quality employment were down on the 2012 figure
in almost all countries. Moreover, formal employment
generation slowed noticeably in many countries throughout
the year.
Figure I.5
Latin America (selected countries): year-on-year variation
in formal employment, first quarter 2012
to third quarter 2013
(Percentages)
10
0.8
9
8
0.6
7
0.4
6
5
0.2
4
0.0
3
2
-0.2
1
0
-0.4
Male
Female
Participation rate
Male
Female
Employment rate
Weighted average
Male
Female
Unemployment rate
Simple average
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of official figures.
Argentina
I-2012
Brazil
II-2012
Chile
Costa Rica
III-2012
Mexico
IV-2012
Nicaragua
I-2013
Peru
II-2013
Uruguay
III-2013
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of official figures.
15
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
C. Terms of trade
Since mid-2011 the prices of several export commodities in the
region have trended downwards, which may be viewed as
part of a medium-term stagnation or even a gradual decline
in the prices of these goods, caused by, among other factors,
more moderate growth in China (the main destination for
several of the region’s primary products), sluggish growth
in the developed economies and an increase in global supply
of commodities.
Food prices fell by a year-on-year average of 7.8% in the
first 10 months of 2013, while the price of tropical beverages
dropped by 27.8%. The lower food prices were attributable
mainly to the sharp drop (19.0% year-on-year) in the price
of sugar (owing to overproduction and the withdrawal of
speculative funds) and, to a lesser extent, the price of bananas
■
■
Figure I.6
Latin America: price indices for export commodities a
and manufactured goods, 2009-2013
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
2010
Jul
Oct
Apr
Jan
Jul
2012
Oct
Apr
Jan
Jul
2011
Oct
Apr
Jan
Jul
Oct
Apr
Jan
Jul
Oct
Apr
Jan
80
Food
Tropical beverages
Forestry and agricultural raw materials
2013
Oil and oilseeds
Manufactures
Minerals and metals
Energy
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of figures from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the
Netherlands Bureau of Economic Policy Analysis (CPB).
a
The commodity groups are weighted by their share of Latin American exports.
16
■
■
(Index: 2005=100, three-month moving average)
2009
■
(down 6.6%) and maize (down 7.5%). A 30% fall in coffee
prices caused the decline in the price of tropical beverages.
Certain Central American countries and Colombia were
hardest hit by these price reductions.
Mineral and metal prices picked up initially in 2013, following
their fall in 2012, only to subsequently relapse. Year-on-year
price declines were recorded for copper (7.6%), a major
export product for Peru and Chile, and for gold (13.1%).
The price of iron, a key product for Brazil, recorded a small
1.1% increase.
The price of oil and oilseeds also started the year down
owing to the good harvest of 2012/2013, but picked up
subsequently, while prices of forestry and agricultural raw
materials and energy held steady during 2013. Oil prices also
remained relatively stable during 2013 (with some minor
fluctuations) despite certain geopolitical tensions and the
increasing use of gas in the United States.
The region as a whole is expected to see a 2.5% decline in
its terms of trade in 2013. That deterioration will be sharper
than average in South America (-2.8%) owing mainly to
the downward trend in the prices of minerals and metals,
which will cause the terms of trade for Chile and Peru to
fall by 4.6%. The exporters of agro-industrial products
(Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay) will see a 2.3% decline.
The hydrocarbon-exporting countries (Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Plurinational State of Bolivia
and Trinidad and Tobago) experienced a 2.8% deterioration
due to lower export prices. Brazil’s terms of trade worsened
only slightly (-0.7 %) as the moderate rise in the prices of
its imports was partially offset by the higher price of iron
(the country’s main export product).
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
Figure I.7
Latin America: estimated variation in the terms
of trade, 2009-2013 a
■
(Percentages)
25
20
15
10
5
0
Falling prices for food and fuel, of which the Caribbean
countries are net importers, should improve the terms of
trade for these countries and, in the case of the Central
American countries, will partially offset the effect of lower
export prices. Mexico is a case apart, because of its unique
export structure, largely based on manufactured goods, which
meant that falling prices for its main export commodities
(gold, copper, silver, steel products and oil) did not have a
major impact on its terms of trade.
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Latin America
and the
Caribbean
Exporters
of metals
and mineralsb
Exporters of Central America Hydrocarbon
agro-industrial
and the
exporters d
products c
Dominican Rep.
2009
2010
2011
2012
The Caribbean e
Brazil
Mexico
2013
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of official figures.
The figures for 2013 are projections.
a
17
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
D. Central government expenditure
In Latin America spending rose by almost one percentage
point of GDP on average, from 21.6% of GDP in 2012
to 22.4% in 2013. The largest rises occurred in Argentina,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru and the Plurinational State of
Bolivia. In the Caribbean, spending rose by over 3 percentage
points in Antigua and Barbuda, Guyana and Trinidad and
Tobago, financed by revenues from raw materials exports
and grants.
■
Figure I.8
Latin America and the Caribbean: central government
spending, 2012- 2013
(Percentages of GDP)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2012
2013
Latin America and
the Caribbean (33 countries)
2012
2013
Latin America
(19 countries)
Primary current spending
Capital spending
2012
2013
The Caribbean
(13 countries)
Interest
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
official figures and budgets and estimates.
a
18
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
E. Fiscal revenue
■
Overall, fiscal revenues in the region rose by 0.8% of
GDP in 2013. In Latin America, the rise was 0.5% of GDP,
driven by the performance of the hydrocarbon-exporting
economies, some Central American countries (Guatemala
Figure I.9
Latin America (19 countries): central government fiscal
indicators, 2000-2013 ª
Figure I.10
Latin America and the Caribbean: total fiscal income and tax
income of the central government, by subregion
and country grouping, 2012-2013 a
(Percentages of GDP)
24
10
8
22
6
20
4
18
16
0
-0.6
-0.4
0.0
0.6
2.2
2.2
1.1
-0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0.1
-0.6
-2.8
-1.8
-2
-1.6
-2.1
-2.4
-4
-2.7
-6
10
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
20
15
-0.5
-2.6
-2.9
25
0
-1.0
-1.7
-2.3
(Percentages of GDP)
30
2
-1.0
14
12
1.3
and Nicaragua) and the Dominican Republic. Tax income
edged up (0.2% of GDP) in the Caribbean, as well, but here
the 1 GDP point rise in fiscal revenues was due mainly to
a hefty rise in grants.
2009
2010
2011
2012
Overall balance (right scale)
Total revenues (left scale)
Total spending (left scale)
Primary balance (right scale)
2013
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
official figures and budgets and estimates.
a
Simple averages. The data for 2013 are estimates.
10
5
0
2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013
Latin America and Latin America
(19 countries)
the Caribbean
(33 countries)
The Caribbean Central America
(13 countries)
and the
Dominican
Republic
Tax income
Exporters of
hydrocarbons
Exporters of
metals and
minerals
Exporters
of food
Exporters of
services
Other income
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
official figures and budgets and estimates.
a
The data for 2013 are estimates. The country groupings are as follows: hydrocarbon exporters:
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Plurinational State of Bolivia, and Trinidad
and Tobago; exporters of minerals and metals: Chile and Peru; food exporters: Argentina,
Paraguay and Uruguay; services exporters: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,
Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Panama, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines.
19
II. Foreign direct investment
21
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
A. Overview of foreign direct investment in Latin America and the Caribbean
■
■
In 2012 FDI flowing into Latin America and the Caribbean
hit a new record high of US$ 174.546 billion. This is 5.7%
above the level posted in 2011 and confirms a consistent
uptrend that began in 2010. These figures were set in an
international context marked by uncertainty in which global
FDI flows were down by 13% on those of 2011 and reached
levels close to those recorded in 2009.
The economic crisis and uncertainty in the developed
economies have been displacing investment towards emerging
markets. Local conditions in Latin America have been
favourable and particularly attractive to global investors.
Natural resources, especially metals, are enjoying a long price
boom, while the region’s domestic markets have seen several
■
■
Figure II.1
Latin America and the Caribbean: foreign direct investment
flows, 1990-2012 a
(Millions of current dollars and percentages of GDP)
200 000
5.0
180 000
4.5
160 000
4.0
140 000
3.5
120 000
3.0
100 000
2.5
2011
Inward FDI flows (left scale)
Inward FDI flows as a percentage of GDP (right scale)
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
estimates and official figures as at 29 April 2013.
FDI figures indicate inflows of foreign direct investment, minus disinvestments (repatriation of
capital) by foreign investors. The FDI figures do not include flows into the main financial centres
of the Caribbean. These figures differ from those set out in the 2012 editions of the Economic
Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean and the Preliminary Overview of the Economies of
Latin America and the Caribbean because they show the net balance of foreign investment,
that is, direct investment in the reporting economy (FDI) minus outward FDI.
a
■
2012
2010
2009
2007
2008
2005
2006
2003
2004
2001
2002
1999
2000
1997
1998
1995
0.0
1996
0.5
0
1993
20 000
1994
1.0
1991
1.5
40 000
1992
2.0
1990
80 000
60 000
■
■
years of steady growth and offer business opportunities for
services development (telecommunications, commerce and
financial services).
Although the United States and the countries of the European
Union continue to be the largest investors in Latin America,
investments made by firms from Latin American countries
increased substantially in 2012, to 14% of all FDI entering
the region in that year.
FDI flows to South America and the Caribbean both climbed
(by 12% and 39%, respectively). Flows to Central America
were up as well, by a more modest 7%. The largest increases
were in Peru (49%) and Chile (32%). Inward FDI also rose
significantly in Colombia (up 18%) and Argentina (a 27%
increase). Mexico saw a marked 38% downturn in inward
FDI, to the lowest figure since 1999. Brazil again received
the largest share of FDI flowing into the region (38%), and
Chile became the second largest recipient in 2012.
The sectoral distribution of FDI for the region as a whole
was similar to the average for the past five years, although
the share going to services (the largest destination sector)
edged up to 44% of the total in 2012. Manufacturing slid
slightly but continues to represent 30% of the total. The
proportion going to sectors based on natural resources was
the same in 2012 (26%) as during 2007-2011.
In South America (excluding Brazil), the pattern has been
one of increasing concentration of FDI in natural-resourcebased sectors (in particular mining), which are the prime
FDI destination (51% in 2012), while manufacturing and
services accounted for 12% and 37%, respectively.
Natural resources account for a smaller share of FDI in
Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean and have tended
to hold steady: 10% in 2012 and over the previous five years.
Manufacturing, conversely, despite the decline in absolute
values in Mexico, was again the largest recipient of FDI
(48% of the total). As for services, their share dropped sharply
from 55% in 2007-2011 to 42% in 2012.
23
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
In 2012, the region captured flows equivalent to 3% of GDP
(slightly more than in 2011). Chile stands out with an FDIto-GDP ratio of 11.3% in 2012.
Transnational corporations have consolidated their presence
in Latin America and the Caribbean over the years, especially
in capital-intensive sectors, and have built up capital stocks
that generate large income flows.
The expansionary phase of the business cycle, along with
high prices for raw material exports, has boosted returns
on foreign direct investment. Insofar as a proportion of
those earnings are reinvested, they help to feed foreign
investment growth.
■
■
■
■
■
■
Figure II.2
Latin America and the Caribbean (selected countries):
inward foreign direct investment, 2011-2012
(Billions of dollars)
■
70
60
50
40
■
30
20
10
0
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Mexico
2011
Argentina
Peru
Central
America
The Caribbean
2012
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
preliminary figures and official estimates at 25 April March 2013.
24
Investments in expanding production capacity alone are
estimated to have created three jobs directly for every
US$ 1 million invested in Latin America and the Caribbean in
2003-2012 (no estimates are available on indirect job creation).
Mining (including oil) creates one job for every US$ 2 million.
Labour-intensive manufacturing creates seven jobs per
US$ 1 million invested; and engineering-intensive
manufacturing (including the automobile industry) creates
four, similarly to the food industry. Other natural-resourceintensive activities (excluding food) are less employmentintensive, creating two jobs per US$ 1 million invested.
The service sector is also quite heterogeneous. Tourismrelated activities (transport and personal services) have a
higher employment component than more modern ones such
as financial services and information and communications
technologies (ICTs).
Outward FDI by Latin American and Caribbean economies
expanded in 2012 (18%) to an all-time high of US$ 49.133
billion, following historically high figures for the three
preceding years. These investments have come mainly from
Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Mexico, but in 2012 came almost
exclusively from Mexico and Chile.
In 2012, amid shrinking global FDI flows, trans-Latin firms
expanded, some thanks to business opportunities that arose
as a result of asset divestments by European firms. In fact,
7 of the 10 largest acquisitions by trans-Latins in 2012 consisted
of assets bought from European companies.
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
B. Transnational company profits: repatriation and reinvestment
■
The profits made by transnational corporations operating in
Latin America and the Caribbean have increased by a factor
of 5.5 in nine years, swelling from US$ 20.425 billion in 2002
to US$ 113.587 billion in 2011. This surge in profits —also
known as FDI income— tends to cancel out the positive
impacts of FDI inflows on the balance of payments.
■
The evidence for Latin America and the Caribbean shows,
in fact, that in the past few years outflows registered as
FDI income were almost as high (92%) as inflows in the
form of FDI.
25
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
C. Foreign direct investment in the agricultural and agro-industry sector
in Latin America and the Caribbean
Agriculture and agro-industry are currently the focus of a
global debate on food security, energy security and climate
change. The world population is expected to reach 9 billion
by 2050; to meet the demand for food, agricultural production
will need to increase by 70% over 2006 levels. All of these
changes are creating challenges and opportunities in the
agricultural and agro-industry sector, particularly in the
case of grains, oilseeds, sugar cane and other flex-crops
that can be used for human consumption, animal feed or
making biofuels but compete for the same basic inputs:
land and water.
Although national statistics on FDI in the agricultural and
agro-industrial sectors of the region vary widely in terms
of availability, the information which it has been possible
■
■
26
to obtain for 10 countries of the region indicates that
US$ 9.255 billion in FDI entered the primary agricultural
sector between 2005 and 2010, which is 2% of this group’s
combined total inward FDI. The amount of agricultural FDI
varies greatly from one economy to another. In Uruguay
it accounted for nearly 22% of total inward FDI between
2005 and 2010. It also makes up a substantial proportion
in Guatemala (12.5%), Costa Rica (6.7%) and Ecuador
(7.3%). The data for FDI in agro-industry, referring to just
six countries, total US$ 48.4 billion for 2005-2011. Most of
these flows went to Brazil (37.9%), Mexico (35.9%) and
Argentina (15.5%). FDI targeting the agro-industry sector
in these six countries averaged 8.3% of total inward FDI
between 2005 and 2010.
III. Social panorama
27
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
A. Income poverty
■
Figure III.1
Latin America: poverty and indigence, 1980-2013 a
(Percentages and millions of people)
60
48.4
50
43.9
43.8
40.5
Percentages
■
Some 28.2% of the population of Latin America were
living in poverty in 2012, with 11.3% in extreme poverty
or indigence. In absolute numbers, 164 million people were
poor, of whom 66 million were extremely poor.
These figures represent a fall of about 1.4 percentage
points in the poverty rate with respect to 2011 (29.6%).
The extreme poverty rate varied little, with the 2012 figure
just 0.3 percentage points down on 2011 (11.6%). The
number of poor persons fell by approximately 6 million
in 2012, while the number of indigents remained
practically unchanged.
The changes reported in countries with larger populations
weigh heavily in the regional poverty rate. Poverty
reductions in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and
Brazil significantly influenced the 2012 results, as they
represented 6 million fewer poor. The poverty rise in
Mexico also carried significant weight, adding about 1
million additional individuals to the numbers of poor.
40
33.5
29.6
28.2
27.9
11.3
11.5
30
22.6
20
18.6
19.3
18.6
12.9
11.6
2008
2011
2012
2013
170
164
164
72
67
66
68
2008
2011
2012
2013
10
0
1980
1990
1999
2002
250
204
225
215
200
Millions of people
■
150
186
136
95
100
99
91
62
50
0
1980
1990
1999
2002
Indigent
Non-indigent poor
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
Estimate for 18 countries of the region plus Haiti. The figures above the bars are the percentages
and total numbers of poor (indigent plus non-indigent poor). The figures for 2013 are projections.
29
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
B. Income distribution
■
30
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
2002-2008
Costa Rica
Paraguay
Panama
Venezuela
(Bol. Rep. of)
Chile
Mexico
Brazil
Colombia
Peru
Dominican Rep.
Ecuador
Argentina b
-5
El Salvador
■
(Percentages)
Bolivia
(Plur. State of)
■
Figure III.2
Latin America (15 countries): annual variation of Gini coefficient,
2002-2008 and 2008-2012 a
Uruguay
Highly uneven income distribution is one of Latin America’s
hallmarks. The most recent available data indicated that
the poorest income quintile on average accounted for
of 5% of total income, with the figure varying between
under 4% (in the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Paraguay
and the Plurinational State of Bolivia) and 10% (in Uruguay).
Meanwhile, the wealthiest income quintile accounted
for an average of 47% of total income, ranging from 35%
(in Uruguay) to 55% (in Brazil).
Income distribution has tended to improve slowly over the
past 10 years. These changes have occurred gradually and
are barely noticeable from one year to the next; however
they are evident in comparisons over longer periods.
Of the 13 countries with information available in 2011 or
2012, 12 reported a fall in their Gini coefficient, the simple
average of which fell by 1% per year. Inequality narrowed by
more than 1% per year in Argentina, the Bolivarian Republic
of Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay, and by at
least 0.5% per year in Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Panama.
Inequality eased slightly more quickly in the last four years
of the period reviewed.
■
2008-2012
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
special tabulations of data from household surveys in the respective countries.
Includes only countries with data available for 2011 or 2012. Countries are ordered by variation
in the second subperiod (2008-2012).
b
Urban areas.
a
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
C. Child poverty
■
■
■
One aspect of concern relating to monetary poverty in Latin
America and the Caribbean is that it has a greater impact
on households with high dependency rates, which worsens
the situation of children and adolescents.
Thus, 40.5% of children and adolescents in Latin America
are either moderately or extremely poor. This means that
overall child poverty in the region affects 70.5 million
individuals under the age of 18. Of this total, 16.3% of children
and adolescents live in extreme poverty. The scourge of
extreme poverty thus affects one in six minors or more than
28.3 million minors.
The situation differs significantly between groups of
countries. In the countries with the highest overall child
poverty (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia), on average
72% of children were living in extreme poverty. In the
countries with the lowest overall child poverty (Argentina,
Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador and Uruguay) only 19.5% of
children were poor.
Figure III.3
Latin America (17 countries): rates of extreme and overall child
poverty, and percentage of children in indigent
and poor households (according to income
method), around 2011 a
(Percentages)
A. Multidimensional child poverty B. Income poverty of households
Latin America
79.9
78.9
78.6
71.4
100
63.7
56.5
70.4
39.1
51.1
28.8
75.2
50.4
37.4
9.3
60.9
37.0
52.6
27.1
47.0
19.3
47.4
19.3
46.6
15.9
34.9
10.2
42.2
18.1
10.0
3.0
11.2 27.9
2.2 12.8
5.0 17.5
36.1
47.8
22.0
28.1
42.7
46.9
22.0
63.1
30.9
62.6
10.3
54.0
7.0
47.8
15.1
40.7
13.7
37.6
15.0
36.1
11.7
33.8
14.7
31.8
24.3 7.6
19.5 6.9
18.6 3.9
15.7 4.0
80
60
41.7
16.4
16.3
40.5
Guatemala (2006)
El Salvador (2010)
Nicaragua (2005)
Bolivia (Plur. State of) (2009)
Honduras (2010)
Peru (2011)
Paraguay (2011)
Dominican Rep. (2011)
Ecuador (2011)
Mexico (2010)
Colombia (2011)
Brazil (2011)
Venezuela (Bol. Rep. of) (2011)
Argentina (2011) b
Costa Rica (2011)
Uruguay (2011)
Chile (2011)
40
20
Extremely poor children
Poor children
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Children in indigent households
Children in poor households
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
Uses the UNICEF definition, which encompasses the population aged 0 to 17 years. Figures
for poor children include extremely poor children, and figures for children in poor households
include children in indigent households. The figures shown may differ from those in the text,
which examine trends between 2000 and 2011 and only refer to 14 countries.
b
Urban areas.
31
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
D. Paid and unpaid work
Time spent in gainful employment, whose purpose is to
generate monetary resources to provide for a wide range of
needs, is an essential part of most people’s lives. The more
time people spend at work, the less they have for other
activities, such as family responsibilities and rest.
The length of the working day varies greatly according
to such factors as workers’ age and gender as well as the
type of employment. However, average working hours in
Latin America remain very long. Unlike in most European
■
■
Figure III.4
Latin America (18 countries): working hours of the economically
active population aged 15 years and over, around 2002 and 2011
countries, where workers spend an average of 37 hours per
week at work, weekly working hours in Latin American
remain well above 40, and show no signs of shortening.
Women spend many more hours a day performing
unpaid domestic work than men. Women’s increasing
incorporation into the labour force has not been offset by
greater participation by men in household work. Thus, in
Latin America the sexual division of labour has remained
partial and uneven.
■
Figure III.5
Latin America (selected countries): time spent by the employed
population in paid work, unpaid work and free time a
(Hours per week)
(Hours per week)
50
120
45
35
45
44
41
40
37
42
42
44
40
39
42
44
46
44
45
45
45
43
43
100
38
30
14
80
28
60
67
13
22
20 39
39
39
39
41
41
41
41
41
42
42
43
45
45
45
46
46
42
67
13
37
65
11
74
36
37
15
34
16
73
25
28
83
26
40
10
54
5
20
54
37
46
54
48
2011
European Union
(28 countries)
Latin America
(18 countries)
Mexico
Guatemala
Colombia
Nicaragua
Bolivia
(Plur. State of)
Paraguay
Chile
Costa Rica
Panama
Uruguay
Ecuador
El Salvador
Brazil
Dominican Rep.
Peru
Argentina
Honduras
Venezuela
(Bol. Rep. of)
0
2002
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
32
0
Men
Women
Peru (2010)
Men
Women
Mexico (2009)
Working and commuting time
Free time and socializing
Men
Women
Panama (2011)
Time in unpaid household work
Total working time
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
special tabulations of data from time-use surveys conducted in Mexico, (2009), Panama (2011)
and Peru, 2010.
a
Time-use surveys conducted in Latin America differ from country to country in terms of
design and implementation. What is more, there is no standardized indicator for comparisons
between surveys. Time-use surveys from Mexico, Panama and Peru have been selected as
they encompass a similar range of activities, including working hours, free time, and time spent
in unpaid household work, socializing, covering personal needs and volunteering.
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
The data show that women in employment shoulder a greater
total work burden than men. This excess burden seriously
affects the well-being of employed women, particularly
those living with a partner and who have preschool-aged
children. Women who are heads of households also carry
a high workload. All such women can be said to be “timepoor”, which means that they have scant time for rest,
leisure, recreation, family life and socializing.
■
Figure III.6
Latin America (7 countries): time spent on total work, paid
and unpaid, by the unemployed population aged 15
and over, by sex, around 2010 a
■
Comparison of the time that men and women of different
age groups spend on domestic work shows that in
all the countries girls aged under 18 carry a heavier
burden of domestic work than boys of the same age.
This shows that the sexual division of labour within
the household prevails over age differences and that,
regardless of their role or the place they occupy in the
family group, women shoulder the burden of unpaid
and care work.
Figure III.7
Latin America (6 countries): time spent on unpaid domestic work,
by sex and age group
(Hours per week)
(Hours per week)
50
46
50
45
43
45
45
40
41
36
40
33
35
29
29
30
29
28
30
35
35
33
23
25
23
22
25
20
17
20
14
13
15
15
10
10
7
10
5
6
6
8
11
9
15
17
0
0
Brazil
(2009)
Costa Rica
(2010)
Colombia
(2010)
Men
5
Ecuador
(2010)
Mexico
(2010)
Uruguay
(2007)
Peru
(2010)
Women
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of
special tabulations of data from time-use surveys or questions on time spent weekly on paid
and unpaid activities in seven countries: Brazil (2009), Colombia (2010), Costa Rica (2010),
Ecuador (2010), Mexico (2010), Peru (2010) and Uruguay (2007).
a
The countries do not use the same classification of activities to define unpaid work. In addition,
the data are not comparable owing to the type of questionnaire used and the methodologies
employed to capture information. The data are intended to be illustrative, rather than to compare
magnitudes, with a view to portraying similarities in the behaviours of men and women in the
variables analysed.
7 7
5
15
15
9
9
6
3
2
Brazil
15
Costa Rica
Ecuador
Men aged 18 and under
Men aged 18 and over
Honduras
Mexico
Peru
Women aged 18 and under
Women aged 18 and over
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from time-use surveys or modules on weekly time use in six
countries: Brazil (2009), Costa Rica (2010), Ecuador (2010), Honduras (2009), Mexico (2010)
and Peru (2010).
33
IV. Population
35
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
A. Demographic structure and dynamics
■
■
■
■
According to population estimates and projections produced
by ECLAC, Latin America and the Caribbean had 609 million
inhabitants in 2013.
The region’s population growth rate for the period 2010-2015
is 1.10, meaning that the total population is expected to rise
to 622 million in 2015. It is projected that Latin America and
the Caribbean will be home to 700 million people in 2030.
Over the past 60 years, the average lifespan of the population
of Latin America has risen by 22.5 years, reaching 74.3
years in the five-year period from 2010 to 2015. This means
that the life expectancy is closer to that observed in more
developed regions and further from that of the less developed
regions and it remains higher than the global average
(see figure IV.1). This change has been widespread and for
2012 the life expectancy at birth was estimated at over 75 years
for both sexes in several countries in the region (Argentina,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Mexico and Uruguay). Although
the differences between countries in life expectancy at birth
are tending to narrow, there are still significant inequalities.
In the five-year period 1950-1955, the maximum difference
was 28.5 years between life expectancies in Uruguay
(66.3 years) and Haiti (37.6 years), while in the period
2010–2015 the maximum difference was 17 years between
Cuba (79.2 years) and Haiti (62.1 years).
The Latin American and Caribbean region has an ageing
population. In 2010, 27.9% of the population was aged
between 0 and 14, and this age group will account
for 21.2% of the population in 2030. Meanwhile, the
proportion of those aged 50 to 64 will rise from 11.9%
in 2010 to 16.2% in 2030.
The demographic dependency ratio, i.e. the older adult
population (aged over 65 years), divided by the number of
people aged 15 to 64, is expected to rise from 10.6% in 2010
to 23.7% in 2040. The ratio is set to stand at 18.2% in 2030.
Figure IV.1
Selected regions: life expectancy at birth, both sexes,
estimated and projected, 1950-2015
(Years)
90
85
80
75
Life expectancy in years
■
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
1950 1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Periods
World
Europe
Africa
Asia
Latin America
Oceania
North America
Source: United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision [CD-ROM], New York,
Population Division, 2011 and Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) Population Division of ECLAC, population estimates and projections, 2012 revision.
■
■
In 2010, the urban population accounted for 78.8% of the
total, and is projected to rise to 83.4% in 2030.
In all the countries of Latin America, female mortality is
lower than male, which is expressed in the growing difference
between the life expectancy at birth for women and men.
This difference is associated with the sex-based differential
in the prevalence of diseases or circumstances that cause
deaths. In addition to biological differences between the sexes,
there are diseases specific to women, such as complications
in pregnancy and childbirth, which have been controlled
more successfully than those that mostly affect men, such
as those related to cardiovascular problems, external causes
such as violence, and certain types of malignant tumours.
37
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
The infant mortality rate in Latin America has been reduced
from an average of 128.4 deaths in infants under the age
of one per 1,000 live births in 1950–1955, to 18.6 deaths
in 2010–2015, which represents an 85.5% fall in 60 years.
The rate of decline varied within the region.
During the periods 1950-1955 and 2010-2015, the steepest
relative declines (by over 90%) were observed in Chile, Costa
Rica and Cuba. Those countries currently have the lowest
infant mortality rates in the region. Haiti and the Plurinational
State of Bolivia have the highest infant mortality rates and,
together with Paraguay, show the lowest relative decline
in these rates (70%). In 1950-1955, the highest rate observed
(Haiti’s) was four times the lowest rate (Uruguay’s), and the
highest rate at present (again Haiti’s) is 12 times as high as
the lowest (Cuba’s), which shows that the relative differences
have increased considerably. This also shows that the decline
in infant mortality is taking place at different rates in the
countries of the region.
■
■
38
Figure IV.2
Latin America: infant mortality rate, 1950-2015 a
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1950
1960
1970
Lowest rate observed
1980
1990
Latin America
2000
2010
2015
Highest rate observed
Source: Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) - Population Division of
ECLAC, population estimates and projections, 2012 revision.
a
Deaths of infants under the age of one per 1,000 live births.
V. Gender equality
39
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
A. Women’s deaths at the hands of their intimate partner or former partner
■
■
■
Violence against women continues to be a serious problem
in the region. In 2011, 466 women were killed by their
intimate partner or former intimate partner in 10 nations
of the region (Chile, Costa Rica, Colombia, Dominican
Republic, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Puerto Rico,
Peru and Uruguay).
During that same year, 1,139 gender-based homicides were
committed in eight countries of the region (Chile, Costa Rica,
Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru
and Uruguay), and 29.4% of all gender-based murders of
women in those countries were committed by those women’s
boyfriends or former boyfriends, husbands or former
husbands, or live-in partners or former live-in partners.
Although gender-based violence cannot be said to have
increased in the region because the data are not fully
comparable and information is not available for all of
the countries, intimate-partner violence is clearly a
persistent problem.
Figure V.1
Latin America (11 countries) and Spain: deaths of women at the
hands of an intimate partner or former intimate partner, 2011
(Absolute numbers and rates)
140
1.4
120
1.27
1.2
100
1
80
0.8
0.69
60
0.59
0.56
0.6
105
0.45
40
20
127
0.38
0.18
11
18
0.4
0.38
20
25
40
26
33
34
39
0.23
61
0.21
,0.22
0.2
0.08
0
0
El Salvador Costa
Rica
Uruguay Paraguay
Puerto Nicaragua Honduras a Spain
Rico
Number
Chile
Peru
Colombia Dominican
Rep.
Rate (per 100 000 inhabitants)
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender Equality
Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of data provided by national
machineries for the advancement of women.
a
Data for 2010.
41
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
B. Reproductive health indicators
Of the 28 Latin American and Caribbean countries for which
information is available, 15 have a maternal mortality rate
that is above the regional mean (81 deaths per 100,000 live
births in 2010) and, although the rate decreased, to varying
extents, in more than half of the countries, it rose in another
six of them. The persistence of high rates in some countries
(which do not show up in the regional average) reflects a
lack of access to health services and problems in terms of
the quality of medical care provided during childbirth,
in emergency obstetrical cases and in pre- and post-natal
monitoring.
The positive effect of increases in the percentage of deliveries
attended by specialized personnel is reflected in maternal
mortality rates. Peru, for example, which had an aboveaverage maternal mortality rate in 2005, had reduced that
rate to 67 deaths per 100,000 live births by 2010 – 14 points
below the regional average. During that same period, the
percentage of births attended by specialized personnel
rose by 15 points. A similar situation can be found in the
Plurinational State of Bolivia, where an increase in the
percentage of births attended by specialized personnel has
brought about a steep drop in the maternal mortality rate,
which —although it is still above the regional average— fell
by 50 points in five years (from 240 deaths per 100,000 live
births in 2005 to 190 in 2010).
■
■
42
In the Dominican Republic, on the other hand, 97% of all
births are attended by qualified personnel and yet the
maternal mortality rate remains fairly high (150 deaths
per 100,000 live births in 2010). This can be attributed to
improved record-keeping.
■
Figure V.2
Latin America (20 countries) and the Caribbean (8 countries):
maternal mortality rates, 1990-2010
(Per 100,000 live births)
160
140
120
100
80
140
120
100
60
88
40
81
20
0
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender Equality
Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of World Health Organization
(WHO), Trends in Maternal Mortality: 1990 to 2010. Estimates developed by WHO, UNICEF,
UNFPA and the World Bank [online] http:// www.childinfo.org/files/Trends_in_Maternal_
Mortality _1990_to_2010.pdf.
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
Figure V.3
Latin America (20 countries), the Caribbean (8 countries), Portugal and Spain: maternal mortality rates, 2005 and 2010
(Per 100,000 live births)
450
400
350
350
300
280
250
190
150
120
240
100
100
130
130
120
50
130
110
95
110
99
92
92
92
81
77
67
110
110
110
110
100
100
94
94
90
89
77
73
56
53
69
67
46
67
59
50
54
40
50
47
51
29
47
41
31
20
26
22
25
2005
Uruguay
Barbados
Bahamas
Costa Rica
Mexico
Cuba
Trinidad and
Tobago
Brazil
Argentina
Belize
Jamaica
Peru
El Salvador
Panama
Venezuela
(Bol. Rep. of)
Colombia
Suriname
Paraguay
Nicaragua
Ecuador
Guatemala
Honduras
Dominican
Rep.
Bolivia
(Plur. State of)
Guyana
Haiti
0
8 8
6 6
Spain
280
Portugal
150
Puerto Rico
410
Chile
200
2010
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender Equality Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of World Health Organization
(WHO), Trends in Maternal Mortality:1990 to 2010. Estimates developed by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA and the World Bank [online] http:// www.childinfo.org/files/Trends_in_Maternal_Mortality
_1990_to_2010.pdf.
43
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
C. Teenage mothers
The fertility rate among adolescent women points to an
area of sexual and reproductive rights in which a great deal
remains to be done. This rate attests to the fact that younger
women are at a disadvantage in terms of their access and
use of sexual and reproductive health resources.
Nicaragua has the highest figure for this indicator (20% of
women between 15 and 19 years of age are mothers). The
figure is also high in Honduras (18%), Ecuador (17%) and
Belize and Guatemala (16% in both cases). The trend has
levelled off somewhat in four countries that had witnessed
moderate increases in the preceding decade: Brazil and
Panama recorded slight declines (of 3 and 2 percentage
points, respectively), Mexico’s 12% rate remained unchanged,
and Ecuador registered a moderate increase.
■
■
■
■
Latin America and the Caribbean, the region that has the
greatest income inequality in the world, also displays a
sharp differential between the fertility rates of adolescents
in the poorest and richest income quintiles (and between the
rates for the least-educated young women and their more
educated counterparts).
An analysis of the distribution by income quintile of adolescents
between the ages of 15 and 19 who are mothers or pregnant
shows that in most countries this segment of the population is
concentrated in the poorest sectors. In the Dominican Republic,
37% of the young women in this age group who are mothers or are
pregnant belong to the bottom income quintile. In Honduras and
the Plurinational State of Bolivia, 31% of them are in that quintile,
while the corresponding figures for Colombia and Peru are 30%
and 22%, respectively.
Figure V.4
Latin America (17 countries) and the Caribbean (2 countries):
women between the ages of 15 and 19 who are mothers,
baseline and most recent figure available
Figure V.5
Latin America (5 countries): women between the ages
of 15 and 19 who are mothers a or are pregnant, b
by income quintiles, around 2010
30
40
(Percentages)
Decrease
Unchanged
(Percentages)
37
Increase
25
35
31
20
30
20
16
15
12
10
12
12
12
13
12
17
14
16
14
12
15
14
15
27
27
18
15
24
25
9
20
23
15
15
17
17
24
11
12
12
12
13
14
16
16
8
12
8
14
14
17
15
22
19
20
19
18
5
20
16
14
14
Baseline figure
Honduras (1988-2001)
El Salvador (1992-2007)
Uruguay (1985-1995)
Venezuela (Bol. Rep. of)
(1990-2000)
Trinidad and Tobago
(1990-2000)
Bolivia (Plur. State of)
(1992-2001)
Ecuador (2001-2010)
Guatemala (1994-2002)
Colombia (1993-2004)
Costa Rica (1984-2000)
Mexico (2000-2010)
Argentina (1991-2001)
Peru (1993-2007)
Chile (1992-2002)
Belize (1990-2000)
Nicaragua (1995-2005)
Panama (2001-2010)
Brazil (2000-2010)
12
Paraguay (1992-2002)
0
31
29
30
Most recent figure available
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender
Equality Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of official figures.
44
10
10
8
4
5
0
10
8
7
Colombia
(2010)
Bolivia (Plur. State of)
(2008)
Lowest
Low
Peru
(2010)
Intermediate
Dominican Rep.
(2007)
High
Honduras
(2005-2006)
Highest
Source: Demographic and Health Surveys [online] http://www.measuredhs.com/. Final report
for each country.
a
Women who have given birth to a live-born child.
b
Women who are pregnant with their first child.
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
D. Sexual and reproductive health of women
■
(Percentages)
40
35
30
25
20
37.3
15
8
Nicaragua (2007)
Colombia (2010)
El Salvador (2003)
11.1
20.1
27.6
Haiti (2006)
7.5
Honduras (2006)
7.4
Mexico (2006)
6.9
Jamaica (2003)
6
8.9
4.7
Ecuador (2004)
0
Peru (2010)
5
12
Dominican Rep.
(2007)
16.8
11.7
Guyana (2009)
10
Guatemala (2002)
28.5
Bolivia (Plur. State of)
(2008)
■
Figure V.6
Latin America (12 countries) and the Caribbean (3 countries):
unmet demand for family planning services
Brazil (2006)
■
Haiti heads up the list of countries with the greatest unmet
demand for family planning services, with an indicator
of 37.3%, which means that nearly 4 out of every 10 women
who would like to use family planning services have no
access to them. High levels of unmet demand are also
found in Guyana (28.5%), Guatemala (a steady ratio over
time of 27.6%), the Plurinational State of Bolivia (20.1%)
and Honduras (16.8%).
These figures notwithstanding, the level of unmet demand
for family planning services has declined in most of the
countries. In both Haiti and the Plurinational State of Bolivia,
the indicators of access to family planning methods have
improved in recent years; now, one out of every five adult
Bolivian women do not have access to family planning
methods, whereas one out of every four women who were
married or in a consensual union lacked such access in 2004.
Other countries have witnessed a slight decrease in the
level of unmet demand for family planning services, but the
unmet demand for contraceptives has risen in Honduras
and Mexico, while in Brazil unmet demand decreased
sharply between 1996 and 2006. Unmet demand has been
falling steadily in Paraguay, where a steep drop between
1998 and 2004 (20%) was followed by another decrease of
nearly 2 points (from 6.6% to 4.7%) in 2008.
The reasons why a portion of the demand for family
planning services has not been met include the expansion
of the overall demand for such services, supply shortfalls,
a lack of support for the use of family planning methods
on the part of some spouses, and the cost and difficulty of
obtaining contraceptives in some countries.
Paraguay (2008)
■
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender Equality
Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of the United Nations database
of indicators for the Millennium Development Goals [online] http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/
Default.aspx.
45
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
E. Wage gap
From 31.8% of women without their own incomes in 2008,
the proportion has edged down to 30.4%. There are still large
differences between countries, as well. Disparities are also
evident in the availability of independent income to women
by age group: 57% of women aged 15 to 24 had no income of
their own, falling to 33% in the 35-44 age group. One piece
of good news, however, is that between 1990 and 2010 the
proportion of women without an independent income has
fallen faster among the poorest than among the non-poor.
The wage gap persists in Latin America and varies widely:
for Peruvian women, wages are lower than those of men
by 25.1%; for Venezuelan women, the gap is just 2%. This
is in addition to growing time poverty, as a result of the
difficulty in stretching women’s work to cover both the
need for monetary income and the care and reproductive
needs of households.
The proportion of urban women lacking independent
income has persisted in the region in the past few years.
Figure V.7
Latin America (simple average for 16 countries):a femininity index
of poverty and indigence, around 1994 to 2011
(Percentages)
135
Figure V.8
Latin America (17 countries): women’s wages as a proportion
of men’s wages, around 2011 a
(Percentages)
100
94
114
82
84
90
90
Colombia
110
110
110
80
90
Nicaragua
113
115
80
Brazil
120
79
Chile
80
117
Mexico
129
Bolivia (Plur. State of)
120
89
Dominican Rep.
90
125
89
Argentina b
130
Panama
129
95
95
96
Ecuador
■
El Salvador
■
98
86
75
70
110
107
60
105
1999
Poverty
2004
2009
2011
Indigence
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Plurinational
State of Bolivia and Uruguay.
46
Honduras
Venezuela (Bol. Rep. of) c
1994
Costa Rica
85
80
Paraguay
40
Uruguay
95
90
Peru
50
100
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
Corresponds to the average wage of female urban wage earners aged 20 to 49 years, working
35 hours or more per week, as a proportion of the wages of men in the same situation. The
data refer to 2011, except in the cases of El Salvador, Honduras and Mexico, where they refer
to 2010, and Nicaragua and the Plurinational State of Bolivia, where they refer to 2009. No
recent data are available for Guatemala.
b
Refers to 31 conurbations.
c
National total.
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
■
Around 2010, 30.4% of women in Latin American urban
areas had no income of their own, whereas only 12.3% of
men were in this situation. The disparities between countries
are considerable: in Nicaragua 50% of women lack their
own income, while the figure is 32% for Honduras, 32.6%
for Paraguay, and 30.6% for the Plurinational State of
Bolivia, compared with a much lower 15.5% for Uruguay.
In rural areas, in 2010 the proportion of women lacking
independent income was 41.4%, compared with 14.9% for
men. Here, the differences between countries were even
larger. In Nicaragua 72.9% of rural women have no income
of their own, and in the Plurinational State of Bolivia the
Figure V.9
Latin America (16 countries): population without incomes
of their own, by sex,a urban areas, around 2010 b
figure is 52.2%. These two critical cases contrast with
Uruguay, where the proportion is just 21.2%, which is partly
attributable to the fact that Uruguay is the country with
the broadest pension system coverage for women aged 65
and over (85.1% in 2007).
One positive aspect is that the percentage of women lacking
independent income fell more quickly among the poor than
among the non-poor between 1994 and 2010. Throughout
this period, the proportion of indigent women without
independent income came down from 64% to 45% (i.e. 19
percentage points), contrasting with a drop from 35.7%
to 25.7% (10 percentage points) among non-poor women.
■
Figure V.10
Latin America (15 countries): people without incomes
of their own,a by sex, rural areas, around 2010 b
(Percentages)
(Percentages)
80
60
70
50
50
60
73
40
50
40
10
08
14
15
13
09
10
25
12
Women
Latin Americad
Nicaragua
Mexico
Ecuador
Paraguay
Honduras
El Salvador
Bolivia
(Plur. State of)
Brazil
Costa Rica
Colombia
Chile
Peru
Dominican Rep.
Panama
Uruguay
Argentina c
00
Men
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender Equality
Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of special tabulations of data
from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
People aged 15 and above who are not studying and have no monetary income of their own.
b
Census round of 2010. The data correspond to household surveys conducted in 2010, except
for Brazil and Chile, where they refer to surveys conducted in 2009.
c
Refers to 31 conurbations.
d
Simple average of the data for the closest year available in each country.
0
21
04
11
11
14
20
08
16
14
Women
19
21
12
49
52
41
12
17
17
29
15
Latin America c
16
47
Nicaragua
13
45
Honduras
13
44
Bolivia (Plur.
State of)
14
44
Colombia
14
36
Peru
07
35
Panama
10
33
Brazil
10
06
Chile
16
Uruguay
10
32
Ecuador
31
20
Mexico
24
20
41
37
Costa Rica
30
Paraguay
30
El Salvador
35
34
33
32
31
31
30
30
30
29
29
28
27
Dominican Rep.
30
Men
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Gender Equality
Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean, on the basis of special tabulations of data
from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
People aged 15 and over who are not studying and have no monetary income of their own.
b
Census round of 2010. The data correspond to household surveys conducted in 2010, except
for Brazil and Chile, where they refer to surveys conducted in 2009.
c
Simple average of the data for the closest year available in each country.
47
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC)
The decrease in the proportion of women without an
independent income between 1994 and 2010 may be
attributed to the growing incorporation of women into
paid work in both urban and rural areas, and to changes
in the social security systems in some countries, such as
Chile, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Uruguay. In
2008, urban female labour market participation averaged
52%, 10 percentage points higher than the rate in 1990.
Labour-market participation also increased among rural
women between 1990 and 2005.
■
Around 2010, the gap between the poor and non-poor women
without independent income was 20 percentage points in the
15-24 age group, and 18 percentage points in the 25-34 age
group, falling sharply to 10 percentage points, approximately,
in the following age groups. The fact that 57% of women
aged 15 to 24 lack their own income shows how hard it is
for younger women to enter the labour market and reflects
the persistent and growing rate of youth unemployment,
which is twice the rate for the rest of the population and is
highest among low-income youth.
■
Figure V.11
Latin America (simple average for 14 countries): women aged
15 and over without incomes of their own, by poverty status,
urban areas, 1994-2010 a
Figure V.12
Latin America (simple average for 14 countries): people without
incomes of their own by sex, age group and poverty status,
urban areas, around 2010 a
70
70
(Percentages of the total in each category)
60
(Percentages of the total in each category)
64
58
56
60
55
51
49
48
50
46
45
50
45
43
40
36
33
45
29
28
26
36
30
24
19
20
20
37
37
33
32
30
41
39
39
40
57
25
18
1994
1999
4
2002
2005
2008
2010
15 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 59 60 years
years
years
years years and over
Total
9
4
15 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 59 60 years
years
years
years
years and over
Poor
Indigent
Non-indigent poor
Non-poor
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
Not including students. The countries included in the average are: Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay.
48
7
7
0
0
a
26
25
22
21
14
10
10
26
24
Total
Non-poor
Men
Women
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
a
Not including students. The countries included in the average are: Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay.
Economic and Social Panorama of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, 2013
F. Women over 60 without independent income
Figure V.13
Latin America (15 countries): persons aged 65 and over with
no pension or retirement benefit, by sex, around 2010 a
(Percentages)
100
92
90
82
86
89
87
83
81
82
80
70
64
61
60
50
40
43
87
86
79
76
77
73
72
30
64
52
20
49
17
28
10
18
18
14
8
11
12
12
Men
Argentina
Uruguay
Brazil
Chile
Costa Rica
Panama
Venezuela
(Bol. Rep. of)
Mexico
Colombia
Ecuador
Bolivia
(Plur. State of)
Dominican Rep.
El Salvador
0
Paraguay
■
A large proportion of women aged over 60 have no
independent income. This is because the working trajectory
of many women takes place in the sphere of care work or
unpaid work, because many women’s labour trajectories
are associated with non-contributory labour systems, which
generate very small pensions or deliver benefits for only a
limited period and are not guaranteed throughout old age,
or because they have worked in the informal sector and
have not contributed to a pension fund.
Around 2010, among women aged over 60, 27% in urban
areas, and 30% in rural areas had no income of their own.
The crudest situation was in Nicaragua, where 78% of
older women in urban areas had no independent income,
and a worrisome proportion of older women were in this
situation in Paraguay (39%), Mexico (35%), Colombia (34.5%),
Ecuador (32.6%), the Dominican Republic (30%), Honduras
(26.2%) and Peru (24.3%). In other countries of the region
the figures for older women with no independent income
are lower, but it is nevertheless necessary to address large
gender differences, such as in Chile, (17.9%), Brazil (15.8%),
Panama (15.8%), Uruguay (12.1%) and Argentina (7.7%).
Guatemala
■
Women
Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis
of special tabulations of data from household surveys conducted in the respective countries.
The data refer to 2010, except for the Plurinational State of Bolivia, where they refer to 2007,
and Brazil and Chile, where they refer to 2009.
a
49