The relationships between envy and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes and work
Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen
The relationships between envy and
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes at
work
Geir Thompson1*, Lars Glasø2, Øyvind Martinsen2
1
Associate Professor at BI Norwegian Business School
2
Professor at BI Norwegian Business School
*Geir Thompson, Department of Leadership and Organization Management
BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, 0484 Oslo, Norway – email: [email protected]
Key words: envy, distress, cohesion, OCB, work group outcomes
Abstract
The present study analyzes behavioral and emotional reactions to envy
in work groups. A multivariate model of the effect of envy on distress,
cohesion and outcomes was tested. The study sample was drawn from
385 respondents in 81 working groups in 25 business organizations. The
results showed that envy was directly associated with group performance,
distress, and cohesion. Envy was indirectly related to job satisfaction
via distress and via cohesion, and indirectly associated to organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB) via cohesion. The implications of these
findings are discussed, and suggestions for future research are outlined.
Introduction
2007). However, studies specifically focused
on the role of envy in groups are few,
and we are aware of only one empirical
study examining the dynamics of envy and
outcomes in groups (Duffy and Shaw, 2000).
We know little about the ability of envy to
sabotage relationships, damage intragroup
relations, redirect energy away from group
activities, or contribute to diminishment
of group performance and other positive
group outcomes. Furthermore, the Duffy and
Shaw (2000) study uses self-reported data
from a laboratory study of undergraduate
students, thus calling into question the
generalizability of their results to other
populations. They themselves suggest future
research should assess group processes
and outcomes in different contexts. Hence,
the aim of the present study is to examine
how envy influences the dynamics of work
Envy has traditionally been recognized
as a negative emotion with the capacity
to profoundly affect human relationships.
Aristotle (350BC/1954) defined envy as
the pain caused by the good fortune of
others. Bertrand Russell recognized envy as
“one of the most universal and deep-seated
of human passions” (Russell, 1930), and
Vecchio (1995), confirms it is pervasive and
present in all cultures.
Recent research explores how aspects of
the workplace, such as reward systems or
managerial style, may foster envy among
co-workers. There is also interest in how
envy affects outcomes in organizations, such
as performance and propensity to resign
(Schaubroeck and Lam, 2004; Vecchio,
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Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, June 2015
Volume 7, Issue 1
Studies on work-related consequences
of envy on an individual level indicate
that envy is negatively associated with job
satisfaction, organizational commitment,
positive work affect and organization-based
self-esteem (Duffy & Shaw, 2000; Kim et al.,
2010; Schaubroeck & Lam, 2004; Vecchio,
2005, 2007), but positively associated
with lack of control and propensity to quit
(Vecchio, 2000). Vecchio (2005) found in a
sample of 222 respondents in the U.S. that
competition for reward among co-workers
increases the likelihood of experiencing
envy, which in turn fosters increased social
comparison. While these authors certainly
have contributed greatly to the field,
additional empirical research is still needed
focusing on envy at a group level. We assume
that group work settings are sufficiently
unique to warrant separate treatment, and
question the assumptions that envy is much
the same regardless of social context.
groups in business settings by using two
data sources (group leader and group
members). In addition, we test the research
model suggested by Duffy and Shaw (2000),
but also include a new mediator variable
(distress), and two new output variables
(organizational citizenship behavior and job
satisfaction) to see how envy may motivate
dysfunctional behavior and foster negative
emotion in work groups.
Smith and Kim (2007) defined envy
as an unpleasant and often painful blend
of emotions manifesting as feelings of
inferiority, hostility, or resentment of one’s
circumstances. A further development
of this concept is presented by CohenCharash (2009), who states that envy
comprises two components. First is a
feeling component, such as depression,
self-criticism, dissatisfaction or hatred.
Second is a cognitive appraisal component,
which involves an unfavorable comparison
between the envious and the envied. In
order for this comparison to evolve into
envy, the one envied should be perceived
as similar in some important respects, and
must possess some attribute central to
the envious person’s self-concept (CohenCharash & Mueller, 2007). As such, envy
is a combination of a negative emotional
state and a negative social comparison. Core
ingredients of envy include some form of
ill will toward the envied person, such as
schadenfreude, a malicious pleasure taken
when others experience misfortune (Fiske,
2010); aggressive behavior and conflict
in groups (Cohen-Charash & Mueller,
2007; Duffy, Scott, Shaw et al., 2012);
or denigrating the other, which reflects
envy’s tendency to threat-orientated action
(Tai, Narayanan & McAllister, 2012).
Furthermore, envy can motivate actions
that reduce or remove the envied person’s
perceived advantage, for example when the
protagonist withdraws from the relationship,
or sacrifices personal gain in order to
diminish the other (Parks, Rumble & Posey,
2002). Some studies discriminate between
“malicious envy” and “benign envy” (Van de
Ven, Zellenberg & Pieters, 2009). According
to Cohen-Charash (2011), however, these
terms are vague and their scientific basis
seems unclear, so accordingly here we regard
envy as an unpleasant emotion as described
above.
Effect of envy in work groups
An extension of research on envy can
be made by entering into the area of group
dynamics. Although we already know
that work groups can become a breeding
ground for envious hostility (Smith & Kim,
2007), we still need to better understand
how envy is related to group effectiveness
and outcomes. Vecchio (1995) argues that
members of larger work groups report less
envy because they feel less possessive, and
are not as sensitive to competition with
its potential for loss. Despite the potential
usefulness of studying envy in connection
to group dynamics, we are aware of only
one empirical study examining the dynamics
of envy and outcomes in groups. Duffy
and Shaw (2000) conducted a pioneering
laboratory study on the effect of envy
in groups by collecting data from 566
undergraduate student groups at a southern
U.S. university. Students participated
in the study to simulate different work
environments, and the groups ranged in
size from three to seven members. The
results showed that envy diminishes group
effectiveness. Envy was positively associated
with “social loafing” (people exerting less
effort to achieve a goal when they work
in a group than if they work alone) and
negatively correlated with group cohesion
and “group potency” (belief in the ability of
6
The relationships between envy and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes and work
Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen
assumption is consistent with findings from
Duffy and Shaw (2000), where envy was
found to interfere negatively with the ability
to perform. Envy may decrease self-efficacy
due to low self-esteem and depression.
Furthermore, envy is also suggested to be
negatively associated with organizational
citizenship behavior. Studies by CohenCharash (2000) and Kim et al. (2010)
indicate that employees experiencing envy
withhold helping behaviors from envied coworkers, and Cohen-Charash and Mueller
(2007) have shown that envious people
engage in counterproductive interpersonal
work-related behaviors due to their
perception of unfair situations. Hence,
the research model suggests that envy is
negatively associated with job satisfaction,
which is expected to decrease with higher
levels of envy directed toward others
(Vecchio, 2005). Envy is also assumed to
be associated with distress, consistent with
the findings of Cohen-Charash (2009), who
found envy to be related to depression.
one’s group to be effective). Furthermore,
reduced group performance, aggregated
dissatisfaction with the group, and increased
absenteeism within the group were directly
related to envy. Envy indirectly affected
group performance, absenteeism, and
group satisfaction through (a) increased
social loafing and (b) reduced cohesion
and potency. The study presents some
limitations, such as the use of self-reporting,
which may inflate the results through
common method bias, and the use of an
undergraduate student sample, which is
associated with a threat to external validity
or the generalizability of results to other
populations of interest. Student samples
differ from other populations in significant
ways (Bello et al., 2009). Duffy and Shaw
(2000) suggest similar studies should be
conducted in other group contexts, and
future research should examine whether
the association found in their study still
holds. They also suggest testing alternative
mediators between envy and group
outcomes.
Furthermore, envy is expected to be
associated indirectly with group outcomes
via cohesiveness and distress. More
specifically, increased levels of envy are
associated with a lower level of cohesiveness,
which in turn negatively affects group
outcomes. Cohesiveness, which contains
factors of interpersonal attraction and
group commitment, is expected to be
harmed by the hostility, anxiety, and backstabbing associated with envy, and create a
negative work environment characterized
by distanced coworkers, lack of trust, and
disrespect. A decreased ‘we’-feeling among
group members is expected to reduce their
overall job satisfaction. It is also expected
to negatively influence organizational
citizenship behaviors (OCB) such as
voluntarily helping other coworkers with
their problems, providing the target with
necessary information, or listening to the
target’s problems and giving advice. Finally,
the research model suggests that envy is
indirectly associated to group outcomes
through distress. Drawing on research from
Vecchio (1995, 1999, 2005), responses
to workplace envy include fear, a sense
of rejection, and depression. The greater
the magnitude of envy experienced, the
greater the affective response in the form
of tension, unease and depression. This
Based on the above limitations and
recommendations, the aim of the present
study is threefold: First, to test empirically
the relationships between envy, distress,
cohesion, and outcomes, by applying data
from work groups in business settings. In
selecting profit-oriented firms, the present
data sites have the potential to increase our
knowledge of whether the research model
is valid in a for-profit setting. Second, we
use two data sources (group leader and
group members) to reduce the possibility of
common-method bias resulting from the use
of only self-reported measures (Podsakoff,
MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012). Third, we
add a new mediator variable (distress), and
two new output variables (organizational
citizenship behavior and job satisfaction)
to the model suggested by Duffy and Shaw
(2000). Due to the negative effect of envy,
we expect its occurrence in groups to be
associated with distress (feelings of sadness,
loneliness and depression), decreased
organizational citizenship behavior
(decreased voluntary helping behaviors), and
decreased job satisfaction (increased overall
or general dissatisfaction).
Envy is expected to be negatively
associated with performance. This
7
Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, June 2015
may hurt performance and relationships
with others. Cohen-Charash (2009) found
that making negative social comparisons
and desiring what others have are not
sufficient in themselves to adversely affect
job satisfaction. A negative emotional
component is necessary, as shown in the
research model for this study presented in
figure 1, which outlines the effect of envy on
distress, cohesion, and outcomes.
Volume 7, Issue 1
Promotion and competition for status
and resources are an on-going dynamic in
work groups, where the authors wished
to study the undermining effect of envy.
Medium to large organizations were
approached through the authors’ contacts.
Data were collected electronically, and
every respondent was given a unique link
to the questionnaires. The covering letter
for the survey indicated that the study was
being conducted for academic research
purposes to better understand issues that
affect employees at work. Participants
were assured of the confidentiality of
their responses and were not compensated
for their participation in the study.
Questionnaires were distributed to the
respondents while at work.
It can be argued that envy only
negatively relates to performance, OCB
and job satisfaction when an emotional
component such as distress as involved.
Stated differently, distress may moderate the
relationships between envy and performance,
OCB, and job satisfaction. Furthermore, it
is also possible that the effect of envy on
performance, OCB, and job satisfaction
depends on the level of cohesion within
the group. That is, cohesion may buffer the
negative impact of envy on performance,
OCB, and job satisfaction. Alternative
analyses will therefore be conducted.
The response rate was nearly 81% of 475
individuals contacted. The supervisors and
their followers were predominantly male,
74 % and 67.1 %, respectively. The average
age of the leaders was 41.6 years, with an
average education of 14.8 years. Follower
average age and education was 44 and 13.6
years, respectively.
Method
Group setting
Setting and sample
Duffy and Shaw (2000) used
undergraduate students to simulate the
work environment, with participants having
substantial interaction with group members
over a 4-month period in a simulated work
group environment. The present study
surveyed work groups from for-profit
business organizations in a real world
Data were collected from 81supervisors
and 304 followers in 25 organizations
across various industries, professions, and
geographic regions of eastern and western
Norway. Supervisors and their direct reports
at top, middle, and operational levels
contributed data on their work groups.
Distress
Group
performance
OCB
Job satisfaction
Envy
Cohesion
Figure 1: The research model
8
The relationships between envy and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes and work
setting, where participants reported working
with their group members for an average
of 3 years. This was felt sufficient time to
support the study of envy in groups, and
how it may sabotage and damage intragroup
relations and thereby diminish group
performance.
Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen
problems and worries,” using the same
5-point response scale for each item. Finally,
a twelve-item measure was applied to assess
distress (Gatz & Hurwicz, 1990). Sample
items: “I felt depressed”; “I had trouble
keeping my mind on what I was doing”;
anchors: 1 = Rarely or not at all, 2 = Some
or a little of the time, 3 = Occasionally or a
moderate amount of time, 4 = Often or all
the time.
Measures Supervisor assessments: Each supervisor
provided their ratings on the following
scale: seven-item performance rating scale
developed by Williams and Anderson (1991).
Sample items: “Adequately completes
assigned duties”; “Performs tasks that are
expected”; anchors: 1 = Never, 2 = Seldom,
3 = Occasionally, 4 = Often, 5 = Always).
Subordinate assessments: Each subordinate
completed the following scale: five-item
measure of envy (Vecchio, 2005), with
sample items: “My supervisor values the
efforts of others more than he/she values my
efforts”; “Most of the other employees have
it better than I do”; anchors: 1 = Never, 2
= Rarely, 3 = Seldom, 4 = Occasionally, 5 =
Often. The items were developed to reflect
feelings of envy of other group members.
This instrument has also been used by
Cohen-Charash (2009). Job satisfaction
was measured with a three-item scale
adopted from Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins
and Klesh (1983), with sample items: “All
in all, I am satisfied with my job”; “In
general, I like working here;” anchors: 1 =
Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree somewhat,
3 = Slightly disagree, 4 = Neither agree
nor disagree, 5 = Slightly agree, 6 = Agree
somewhat, 7 = Strongly agree. The index
was used to measure overall job satisfaction.
Cohesiveness was measured with a nineitem scale (Vecchio & Brazil, 2007), with
sample items: “Among the members of my
work group, there are feelings of unity and
togetherness”; “The members of my work
group freely share information”; anchors:
1 = Never, 2 = Seldom, 3 = Occasionally,
4 = Often, 5 = Always. The measures
examine the extent to which an individual
experiences interpersonal attraction, liking,
or positive attitudes among group members.
Organizational citizenship behavior was
measured with a five-item scale (Williams
& Anderson, 1991). Sample items: “I help
others who have heavy workloads”; “I
take time to listen to other group members’
Translation and pilot test
All questionnaires were originally
developed in English. Even though
Norwegian respondents are expected to
know English well, the questionnaires
were put through a translation-back
conversion process to avoid the risk of
misunderstanding or misconception, and
to ensure equivalence of item meaning
(Brislin et al., 1973; Cavusgil & Das,
1997). In addition, pilot testing of the
questionnaires with a focus group of five
supervisors indicated the instruments were
relevant in a for-profit setting, and did not
detect any shortcomings in the design and
administration of the questionnaire.
Results
Table 1 provides descriptive statistics and
intercorrelations among the independent
and the dependent variables. The coefficient
alpha estimates for the multi-item scales
are listed on the primary diagonal of
the intercorrelation matrix. The alpha
coefficients were in an acceptable range for
all the variables of interest. As hypothesized,
envy was significantly and negatively
correlated with the output variables group
performance and job satisfaction (rs = -.26,
and -.41, respectively, both p<.01), and
OCB (r = -.11, p = <.05). Envy was also,
as expected, significantly correlated with
cohesion and distress (rs = -.37, and .46,
respectively, all p<.01). Furthermore, distress
was correlated to group performance
and job satisfaction (rs = -.20, and -.45,
respectively, all p<.01). Cohesion was
correlated to OCB and job satisfaction (rs =
.28, and .45, respectively, both p<.01).
Because the variables under study are
inherently attitudinal, confirmatory factor
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Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, June 2015
Volume 7, Issue 1
satisfaction (β = -.39, p = <.01). Lastly, as
hypothesized, group cohesion was positively
related to OCB and job satisfaction (β = .33,
and .23, respectively, both p = <.01), but not
significantly to group performance.
analysis (CFA) was performed to determine
whether a multi-factor representation of
the data (five-factor model) was superior
to a single-factor representation. Thus, we
specified a model with 41 items loading on
6 latent variables without cross loadings.
The results of CFA revealed acceptable fit
(Hair et al., 2010): χ2 [687] = 1021.86, p
< 0.01; RMSEA = 0.04; CFI = 0.98; NNFI/
TLI = 0.98; SRMR = .09. According to
Chin (1998, p. xiii) “Most of the loadings
should be at least 0.60 and ideally at 0.70
or above, indicating that each measure
is accounting for 50 percent or more of
the variance of the underlying LV.” In this
respect, all factor loadings were statistically
Bivariate analysis showed that envy was
negatively related to job satisfaction (r =
-.41, p = <.01), but no significant direct
effect was obtained in the path analysis.
However, the path analysis showed that
the relationship between envy and job
satisfaction was found to be mediated by
distress, which is in accordance with figure
2 predictions. The indirect effect of envy
on job satisfaction via distress was -.25.
Furthermore, path analysis found that group
Table 1. Means, standard deviations, reliabilities and intercorrelations
M
SD
1
2
3
4
5
1.
Envy
1.68
.70
(.78)
2.
Cohesion
4.03
.50
-.37**
(.81)
3.
Distress
1.53
.43
.46**
-.34**
(.77)
4.
Performance
5.50
.99
-.26**
.08
-.20**
(.92)
5.
OCB
3.60
.59
-.11*
.28**
-.05
.06
(.75)
6.
Job satisfaction
6.29
1.03
-.41**
.45**
-.45**
.23**
.26**
6
(.90)
N ≤ 357. Cronbach alphas on primary diagonal; * p < .05; ** p < .01.
cohesion served as a mediator between envy
and job satisfaction. The indirect effect of
envy on job satisfaction via group cohesion
was -.11.
significant with a mean standardized loading
of .69. Accordingly, convergent validity was
supported.
To test our theoretical model, which
consisted of 6 latent variables (figure 1),
we required statistical methods designed to
test a conceptual model which links latent
variables together. Hence we performed
structural equation model (SEM) analysis
using MPlus. The SEM model we estimated
provided a good fit with the data (χ2 [691]
= 1041.32, p < 0.01; RMSEA = 0.042;
CFI = 0.98; NNFI/TLI = 0.98; SRMR =
.09) (Hair et al., 2010). Figure 2 shows the
results of the path analysis regression for
each of the three group outcomes and these
relationships in context. As hypothesized,
envy was found to be negatively related to
group cohesion and group performance (β
= -.48, and -.29, respectively, all p = <.01),
and positively related to distress (β = .63,
p = <.01). Furthermore, figure 2 shows
that distress was negatively related to job
The association between envy and OCB
was found to be negative in the bivariate
analyses (r = -.11, p = <.05). The path
analyses showed no significant association
between the two variables. However, path
estimates demonstrated that the relation
between envy and OCB was found to be
mediated by cohesion as hypothesized. The
indirect effect was -.16.
Furthermore, in figure 2, the path analyses
found that envy was negatively related to
group performance (β = -.29, p = <.01).
However, contrary to our predictions, path
analyses did not find that cohesion and
distress mediated the relationship between
envy and group performance as suggested in
the research model, as cohesion and distress
was not significantly related to performance.
10
The relationships between envy and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes and work
Finally, to test for the potential
moderating effects of distress and cohesion
on the relationships between envy and
performance, OCB, and job satisfaction,
we performed supplemental hierarchical
moderated regression analyses (Cohen &
Cohen, 1983). The results demonstrated
that none of the moderating effects were
significant except the moderating effect of
cohesion on the relationship between envy
and job satisfaction. Specifically, the results
suggested a stronger negative relationship
between envy and job satisfaction for
employees with lower levels of cohesion (see
Figure 3).
Because our data is hierarchical in nature
(i.e. individuals nested within groups), we
performed supplemental analyses to test
whether the nested nature of our data may
have influenced our results. In these analyses
we estimated fully unconditional models
(null models) for all the dependent variables.
The results of these unconditional models
did not indicate significant between-group
variability in distress (τ00 = .01, p > .05), in
cohesion (τ00 = .02, p > .05), job satisfaction
(τ00 = .11, p > .05), or in OCB (τ00 =
.03, p > .05). However, the results of the
unconditional models revealed statistically
significant between-group variability in
ratings of performance (τ00 = .16, p < .05).
Discussion
In addition, we calculated the ICC
(intraclass correlation coefficients)
(Hofmann, Griffin, & Gavin et al., 2000)
The effect of envy can be classified by
-.29***
Group
performance
-.05
-.06
Distress
.63***
.14
-.15
Envy
Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen
.04
OCB
.16*
.33***
-.48***
Cohesion
.23***
.15*
-.39***
Job
satisfaction
-.20
Figure 2: Path diagram
Figure 2: Path diagram
* p < .05;
p <**.01;
p <p.001.
* p**
< .05;
p < ***
.01; ***
< .001.
focus and type (Cohen-Charash, 2009).
Reactions to envy can be directed at the
self, the envied, the work group, or the
organization (focus), and the reactions can
be emotional, cognitive, and/or behavioral
(type). The present study attempts
to demonstrate how envy motivates
dysfunctional behavior and fosters negative
emotion in work groups. It is assumed
that envy plays an important role in these
groups, motivating various kinds of reaction
that may diminish group effectiveness
and performance through withholding
of information, giving bad advice, or
misleading others. Our assumption is
grounded in equity theory, which focuses
on comparisons between a protagonist and
of performance (ICC = .16), which
suggested that a significant proportion of
the variability in performance (16 %) was
attributable to between-group variability in
ratings of performance.
To control for the between-group
variability in performance, we used
hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). This
procedure allowed us to partial-out the
variance in the dependent variables resulting
from group membership, to examine only
the individual-level variance which was
unexplained by group membership. The
results of these HLM analyses did not differ
substantially from the results reported in the
SEM analyses.
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Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, June 2015
Volume 7, Issue 1
Figure 3: The moderating effect of cohesion on the relationship between envy and
job satisfaction
social bonds, which reflect the fundamental
human need to belong, is threatened by the
dysfunctional influence of envy and hinders
the establishment and maintenance of
positive working relationships, work-related
success, and favorable reputation.
a referent other. In particular, equity theory
assumes that employees seek to maintain
an equitable ratio between the inputs they
bring to the relationship and the outcomes
they receive from it (Adams, 1965). Equity
theory in business, however, introduces
the concept of social comparison, whereby
employees evaluate their own input/output
ratios based on their comparison with the
input/outcome ratios of other employees
(Carrell & Dittrich, 1978). Employees who
perceive inequity will seek to reduce it, either
by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their
own minds (“cognitive distortion”), directly
altering inputs and/or outcomes, or leaving
the organization (Carrell & Dittrich, 1978).
However, equity theory does not explicitly
recognize all of the coping strategies that
relate to the experience of envy (Vecchio,
1995). The present paper expands the
theory by including outcomes that relate to
preferential treatment from a supervisor.
Bivariate analysis showed that envy was
negatively associated with job satisfaction,
which is consistent with studies by Vecchio
(1999, 2005). However, the SEM analysis
showed no significant relationship between
envy and job satisfaction, but an indirect
negative association in that cohesion
mediated the relationship between envy and
job satisfaction. Envy’s negative influence
on interpersonal attraction and commitment
in groups affects group members’ overall
job satisfaction. It appears that envy
to some extent creates a negative work
environment characterized by distance
among the coworkers, conversation only
about necessary business affairs, lack of
trust, and disrespect. Members of such
groups experience job dissatisfaction to
a much greater degree. Still, additional
moderation analyses suggest that envy
and cohesion may interact to influence job
satisfaction. Specifically, we also found
that the relationship between envy and job
satisfaction was weaker for employees who
experienced higher levels of cohesion.
Envy was found to be associated
negatively with cohesion. Envy’s hostile
nature seems to diminish the group
tendency to “stick together and remain
united” (Høigaard et al., 2006, p. 219).
Envy may serve as a disintegrative force
that undermines personal attraction to the
group, and in particular attraction to the
social life of the group. The formation of
12
The relationships between envy and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes and work
Kim et al. (2010) found that envy was
negatively associated to OCB, implying
that envious employees withdraw helping
behaviors from envied coworkers. This
finding contradicts the present study, where
no significant association was obtained
between envy and OCB. However, an
indirect and negative association was indeed
found, as cohesion mediated the relationship
between envy and OCB. It seems envy may
reduce the feeling of unity and togetherness
and thereby interpersonal attraction among
coworkers, and can easily develop into
tension and negative emotions. This in turn
may negatively influence voluntarily helping
other coworkers with their problems, such
as providing the target with necessary
information, or listening to the target’s
problems and giving advice.
Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen
Reports of envy and distress other than by
the subject themself may be mistaken and
invalid (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007).
Moreover, here we are focused on perceived
cohesion, OCB and job satisfaction, which
are all measured via self-reporting. Even so
there is still a possibility of common-method
bias. To address this, an exploratory factor
analysis was conducted to see whether the
self-reported measures loaded on a single
factor, which would indicate an extreme
amount of common-method bias. The result
of the test showed that common-method
variance did not account for the associations
between our variables.
We have shown how envy may damage
intragroup relations and redirect energy
away from group activities, thereby
diminishing group performance and other
positive group outcomes. A limitation in the
present study is that we addressed envy at a
group level (e.g. group performance) using
data from the individual level. However, the
rWG(J) scores for performance (rWG(J) =
.85), OCB (rWG(J) = .74), job satisfaction
(rWG(J) = .59), cohesion (rWG(J) = .65),
and envy (rWG(J) = .76) suggested high
agreement within groups, and thus indicated
that these constructs may also be valid at the
group level (van Mierlo, Vermunt & Rutte,
2009).
The path analysis showed a strong
association between envy and distress.
It seems that envy may create a negative
mood, a feeling of isolation and sadness.
Similar findings have been reported by
Cohen-Charash (2000, 2007) and Smith et
al. (1999, 1991), Such affective responses
to envy often occur (a) when the envious
coworker cannot justify blaming the envied
colleague for their legitimate good fortune
(better position, etc.), (b) due to some
perceived injustice, or (c) where there is felt
to be no hope of improving the situation.
Another limitation of this study is
causality. Since the data were gathered
at one point in time, we were unable to
infer causal relationships or rule out the
possibility of reverse causality. Further
experimental or longitudinal research
studies could address this problem.
Research on envy could also benefit from
applying objective measures to investigate
its impact on outcome variables such as
sales performance or turnover. To date only
subjective measures have been used, which
therefore limits our understanding of envy in
the workplace.
Furthermore, the association between
envy and job satisfaction was mediated
by distress. Feelings of isolation and
sadness due to envy seem to reduce overall
satisfaction with the work and thereby job
performance. Similar findings were obtained
by Smith et al. (1996).
Limitations, Strengths, and Implications
for Future Research
Except for group performance, selfreporting by group members was applied for
all other measures. In general, self-ratings
can be less accurate than other-ratings or
objective measures, because self-reports
can suffer from inflation, unreliability, or
bias (Atwater et al., 2009). However, we
believe self-reporting is justified here by the
nature of the variables under study. Envy
and distress are internal emotional states
that have no specific behavioral expression.
In our study, the key dependent variable,
group performance, was collected from a
separate source (group leader). By using two
sources we reduced the threat of common
method variance (Podsakoff et al., 2012).
Research on envy in group settings is still
evolving, and we need to better understand
how envy influences group effectiveness
13
Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, June 2015
Volume 7, Issue 1
more constrained settings, such as utilities,
insurance, or basic metals.
and outcomes. Future research could
further our knowledge in several key areas.
First, we need to apply data from different
contexts, such as public organizations, in
order to examine whether the findings in
our study still hold. Second, future research
could include new mediator variables,
such as unfairness and hostility, and new
output variables, such as self-esteem and
organizational commitment, which would
expand our knowledge of the direct and
indirect effect of envy in group settings. The
third and final key area for future research
concerns the research design. The designs
chosen in this study and previous research
on envy have focused on testing envy and
its effect on organizational behavior in
field settings, which makes it difficult to
draw stronger causal inferences from those
findings. Perhaps, as suggested by CohenCharash (2009), there is a need for an
alternative design in order to expand our
knowledge on envy and related variables.
Rigorous experimental studies might be
more appropriate for studying the causal
relationships between envy and group
dynamics. More objective measures of
behavioral reactions to envy would be the
benefit of such a research approach.
Contribution
To our knowledge this is the first
empirical test of the relationships between
envy, distress, cohesion, and outcomes,
using data from work groups in business
settings. This examination of envy and its
effect on group dynamics and outcomes
has found evidence that seems to be valid
in a for-profit setting. No support was
found for a negative association between
envy and OCB as suggested by Kim (2010).
However, evidence was found for an indirect
and negative association between envy and
OCB, as cohesion mediates this relationship.
Envy’s hostile nature reduces interpersonal
attraction and group commitment, which in
turn negatively influences voluntarily helping
other coworkers with their problems. A
negative work environment characterized by
distance among the coworkers, lack of trust,
and disrespect was found to reduce group
members’ overall job satisfaction. Envy was
indirectly associated to group outcomes
through distress. The greater the magnitude
of envy experienced, the greater the affective
response. Feelings of tension, apprehension
and depression were found to reduce group
member’s job satisfaction. This indirect
association demonstrated that making
negative social comparisons and jealousy
were not sufficient in themselves to lead to
negative reactions such as job dissatisfaction.
Distress must first be experienced for envy to
become evidenced in the workplace.
The present study has used data from
various business settings, including a
cluster of organizations from forestry and
wood construction (sawmills, window/
door production, wood house manufacture,
etc.), agricultural companies that operate
slaughterhouses and other processing
plants related to food production, and a
producer of dairy products. In all these
organizations, promotion and competition
for status and resources was an important
ongoing dynamic, which in our study
seemed to foster envious hostility. However,
future research should gather data from
other business contexts in order to test
the validity and generalizability of the
hypotheses. It would also be useful to
investigate whether envy is more prevalent
in some industries than others. Perhaps
envy may be more likely to surface in
dynamic and discretionary industries, such
as technology, media and entertainment,
and fashion, which are highly competitive
arenas for status and resources. If so, envy
may be less prevalent in low-discretionary,
Theoretical and Practical Implications
The present study supports the
dysfunctional effect of envy in work groups
in business organizations. However, further
testing of the theoretical implications
through longitudinal research to
substantiate possible causal links between
envy, mediating variables and outcomes
remains necessary. In addition, longitudinal
research can help us to understand how
envy develops over time in work groups.
Evidence from multiple sources such as peer,
subordinate, and supervisor reports would
be useful to confirm self-reports of envybased behavior. An interesting theoretical
implication of the present study is to identify
14
The relationships between envy and attitudinal and behavioral outcomes and work
Thompson, Glasø and Martinsen
under which condition envy is likely to occur
in work groups. In the present study work
groups varied in size from 3 to 40 members,
with a mean value of 12.49. In addition,
post hoc analysis of the sample showed a
positive association between envy and group
size (r = .14, p = <.05), which highlights
the significance of group size as a potential
contextual variable for the undermining
effect of envy. A possible explanation for
the association between group size and
envy could be that supervisors of large
work groups have more constraints on their
time than do supervisors of smaller groups.
Opportunities for interaction between leader
and individual followers are less likely,
and may limit possibilities for developing
high-quality exchange relationships. In this
situation supervisors may tend to treat their
employees differently and develop close
working relationships with certain members
to the exclusion of others. Preferential
treatment or special working relationships
can easily create tension and negative
emotions. Understanding organizational
conditions which support the emergence of
envy could lead to development of coping
strategies in reaction to workplace envy.
managed work teams might minimize
workplace envy. Such work groups, with
shared responsibility for task completion
and mutual work dependence, decrease
competition among co-workers and reduce
the likelihood of envy. We believe such
practical implications should be addressed
in leadership training programs in order to
provide group leaders with competencies
to cope with the dysfunctional dynamics of
envy. However, the larger issue of reducing
interpersonal counterproductive behaviors in
work groups remains to be explored. Precise
prediction as to which coping technique is
maximally effective for a given situation is
not yet possible (Vecchio, 2007). Identifying
effective techniques for dealing with envy in
groups still remains an important avenue for
future research.
Understanding the dynamics of workplace
envy can help organizations manage such
negative emotions. More specifically,
by addressing the practical implications
for managers to respond effectively to
envy in work groups. First, encouraging
open informative communication may
be useful, where group members feel
comfortable approaching colleagues with
their problems in the work group (Vecchio,
1995, 2007; Dogan & Vecchio, 2001).
This would encourage group members to
work together to cope with problems that
otherwise could arouse feelings of envy.
Next, group managers could encourage
greater inclusivity in decision-making.
Participating in decision-making makes
subordinates more aware how decisions are
made, and dispels the belief decisions are
based on favoritism. Additionally, it gives
subordinates a greater sense of inclusivity
in work group activities and can reduce
feelings of envy and isolation. Tactics to
boost self-esteem may ameliorate feelings
of envy by enabling individuals to focus on
personal strengths and positive attributes.
Finally, Vecchio (1995) has suggested self-
Aristotle. (350BC/1954). The rhetoric and
the poetics of Aristotle (W. R. Roberts, Trans.). New York: Modern
Library.
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