Brief Contents
PART I: Comparative Political Analysis
1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction 1
2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23
PART II: The State, Development,
Democracy, and Authoritarianism
3 The State 46
4 Political Economy 70
14 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 325
15 Ideology and Religion in Modern Politics 348
PART V: The Comparative-International
Nexus
16 Comparative Politics and International
Relations 372
PART VI: Country Profiles and Cases
5 Development 96
Brazil
399
6 Democracy and Democratization 119
China
412
7 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic
Breakdown 145
France
PART III: Institutions of Government
8 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171
9 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198
10 Executives 226
11 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest
Groups 252
PART IV: Politics, Society, and Culture
427
Germany
India
441
455
Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran)
Japan
Mexico
468
482
496
Nigeria 510
Russia
525
United Kingdom
United States
539
553
12 Revolutions and Contention 277
13 Nationalism and National Identity 304
iii
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Contents
Insights xi
Preface xiii
Maps of the World
How Theories Emerge and Are Used
Types of Evidence 29
xxiv
Hypothesis Testing
27
31
Correlation 31
Causation 33
Critiques: Using Theory and Evidence
PART I: Comparative Political Analysis
The Challenges of Measurement: Biases,
Errors, and Validity 41
CHAPTER 1
The Comparative Approach:
An Introduction 1
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
and Argumentation
Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative
Politics 2
Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4
Empirical Arguments Versus Normative Arguments 6
Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7
Concepts
39
Empirical Critiques: Using Deviant Cases 39
Theoretical Critiques: Improving Theories
and Hypotheses 39
Qualities of Good Analysis
42
Step 1: Asking Good Questions: Why? 43
Step 2: Hypothesis Testing: Generating Good Hypotheses
and Testing Them Fairly 43
Step 3: Balancing Argumentation: Evidence, Originality,
and Meaningfulness 43
9
Features of Good Concepts 9
Conceptualization 10
Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures
Empirical Evidence
11
12
PART II: The State, Development,
Democracy, and Authoritarianism
Facts and Evidence 12
Cases and Case Studies 13
The Comparative Method
14
Variables and Comparison 14
The Most-Similar-Systems Design 15
The Most-Different-Systems Design 18
Comparative Checking 18
Within-Case Comparison 20
Is the Study of Politics a Science? The Limits of the
Comparative Method 20
CHAPTER 2
Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23
Introduction to Theories, Hypotheses,
and Evidence 24
Theories 25
Hypotheses 25
CHAPTER 3
The State 46
Concepts
48
The Modern State 48
State Capacity 49
Failed States 50
The State–Society Relationship
Types
50
52
Characteristics of Modern States 52
Bureaucracy 52
Impersonality 53
Sovereignty 54
Traditional Functions of States 55
Defense 55
iv
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Contents
v
Policing 55
Taxation 56
Order, Administration, and “Legibility” 57
Causes And Effects:Why Did States Emerge
and Expand? 57
Political/Conflict Theories 58
Economic Theories 60
Cultural Theories 61
Diffusion Theories 62
Great Britain, the United
Kingdom, or Neither? State and Nation in England
and Scotland 65
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
CHAPTER 4
Political Economy 70
Concepts 72
Inequality 73
Employment and Inflation 75
Types 76
Markets and States in Modern Economies 76
Markets and Economic Performance 77
States and Economic Performance 79
Economic Functions of Modern States 82
States and Economic Management 82
Investments in Human Capital: Education and Health 83
Infrastructure and Other Public Goods 85
Welfare State Functions 85
Causes and Effects: Why Do Welfare States Emerge? 86
Cultural Changes 87
Industrial Capitalism 87
Mobilization and Political Action 89
International Learning Effects 92
Welfare States in the Nordic
Countries: What Can We Learn and How? 93
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
CHAPTER 5
Development 96
Concepts 97
Types 97
Poverty 97
Social Outcomes and Human Development 99
Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 100
Satisfaction and Happiness 101
Cultural Development 102
Sustainability 103
Causes And Effects: Why Does Development
Happen? 103
Institutions: The Market–State Debate, Revisited 104
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Institutions: Beyond the Market–State Debate 106
Culture and Development 107
Civil Society, Social Capital, and Trust 107
Religion 109
Value Systems 109
Systems and Structures: International and Domestic 110
Domestic Economic Structures and Class Interests 111
International Economic Structures and Class Interests 111
Geography 112
Explaining the Development
of North and South Korea 114
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
CHAPTER 6
Democracy and Democratization 119
Concepts­ 121
Democracy and Democratic Regimes 121
Procedural (Minimal) Definitions of Democracy 122
Substantive Definitions of Democracy 123
Regime Change and Democratization 124
Types 125
Types of Democracy 125
Representative Democracy 126
Direct Democracy 128
Types of Democratization 129
Democratic Transitions 129
Democratic Consolidation 129
Causes and Effects: What Causes Democratization? 131
Modernization 132
Culture and Democracy 134
The International System 135
Domestic Institutions 136
Agents and Actors: The Role of Individuals and Groups 137
Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 139
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
Is American Democracy
a Model? 141
CHAPTER 7
Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic
Breakdown 145
Concepts 147
Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 147
Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 148
Types 148
Types of Authoritarianism 148
Totalitarian Regimes 148
Theocracies 149
Personalistic Dictatorships 149
Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes 151
Hybrid and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 151
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vi
Contents
Types of Transition (or Nontransition) to Authoritarianism
Authoritarian Persistence 153
Democratic Breakdown 155
Transition to Hybrid or Semi-authoritarian Regime 157
152
Causes and Effects: What Causes Authoritarian Regimes
to Emerge and Persist? 158
Historical Institutionalist Theories 159
Poverty and Inequality 160
State Weakness and Failure 162
Political Culture Theories of Authoritarian Persistence
Barriers to Collective Action 164
Special Causal Circumstances Surrounding Hybrid
and Semi-Authoritarian Regimes 166
Types
202
Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 202
Electoral Systems 205
District Systems 205
Proportional Representation (PR) 208
Mixed or Hybrid 209
Executive–Legislative Relations 211
Causes and Effects: What Explains Patterns
of Representation? 213
163
Why Did Zimbabwe Become
and Remain Authoritarian? 167
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
Patterns of Representation 213
Electoral Systems and Representation 215
Legislative Decision Making and Representation
Executive–Legislative Relations and
Representation 220
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
and Beyond
218
Representation in New Zealand
222
CHAPTER 10
PART III: Institutions of Government
Constitutions and Constitutional Design 171
174
Constitutions 174
Constitutional Design
Types
175
176
Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 177
Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary
Sovereignty 178
Federalism and Unitarism 180
Federalism 180
Unitarism 182
Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions 183
Causes and Effects: What Are the Effects of Federal
Constitutions? 184
Are Federal Constitutions Good for Social Stability? 185
Are Federal Constitutions Good for Democratic Rights? 187
Are Federal Constitutions Good for the Economy? 188
Judicial Review and Democracy 190
What Explains the Similarities
Between the Brazilian and South African
Constitutions? 193
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
CHAPTER 9
Legislatures and Legislative Elections 198
Concepts
200
What Legislatures Are 200
What Legislatures Do 201
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Concepts
Types
CHAPTER 8
Concepts
Executives 226
228
229
Executive Structures: Presidential and Parliamentary
Formal Powers 232
Partisan Powers 235
Coalitions 235
Informal Powers 240
230
Causes and Effects: What Explains Executive
Stability? 240
Stable and Unstable Regimes: Presidentialism, Parliamentarism,
and Democracy 240
Stable and Unstable Executives: Styles of Presidential
Rule 243
Stable and Unstable Executives: Patterns of Parliamentary
Rule 246
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
and British Models
Beyond the American
247
CHAPTER 11
Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest
Groups 252
Concepts
255
Political Parties 255
Party Systems 255
Interest Groups 256
Types
257
Political Parties: Elite, Mass, and Catch-All Parties 258
Party Systems: Dominant-Party, Two-Party, and Multiparty
Systems 259
Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism 264
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Contents
Causes and Effects: Why Do Party Systems Emerge,
and What Effects Do They Have? 267
Party Systems and Representation 267
What Factors Shape Party Systems? 267
How Do Party Systems Shape Political Outcomes?
Interest Groups and Representation 272
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
Africa
Cultural Boundaries 317
Material Interests 318
Rational Calculation 318
Social Psychology 320
269
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
Violence
Party Systems in Sub-Saharan
275
Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 325
Types
Revolutions and Contention 277
279
Causes and Effects: What Factors Influence
the Political Representation of Women and
Minority Groups? 337
279
280
Social Movements 280
Revolutions 284
Insurgencies and Civil Wars 287
Terrorism 287
“Everyday Resistance” 289
Thinking About Contention: Summary
Social Movement Mobilization 337
Political Parties Based on Gender or Ethnicity 339
Institutions for Promoting Women’s and Minority Group
Representation 341
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
Empowerment
290
Causes and Effects: Why Do Revolutions
Happen? 291
The “Arab Spring” of 2011
CHAPTER 13
Nationalism and National Identity 304
Concepts
306
Identity 306
Nationalism and the Nation
Types
306
307
Primordialist Approaches 307
Perennialist Approaches 308
Modernist Approaches 308
Types of Nationalism 311
Causes and Effects: What Causes Ethno-national
Conflict? 313
Primordial Bonds
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316
Indicators of Gender
344
CHAPTER 15
Ideology and Religion in Modern
Politics 348
Relative Deprivation 291
Resource Mobilization and Political
Opportunities 292
Rational Choice 294
Culture or “Framing” Explanations 296
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
329
Disentangling Race and Ethnicity 329
Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity 332
Gender Discrimination 333
Empowerment of Women and Minority Groups 334
CHAPTER 12
What Is “Contention”? 279
Revolutionary and Non-Revolutionary Contention
327
Race and Ethnicity 327
Gender 328
Sexual Orientation 329
PART IV: Politics, Society, and Culture
Types
Ending Ethnic and National
321
CHAPTER 14
Concepts
Concepts
vii
Concepts
298
350
Modernity and Modernization 350
Ideology 351
Religion 351
Secularization, Religion, and Modern Politics 352
Religious Conflict 353
Types
354
Modern Ideologies 354
Liberalism 354
Fascism 355
Socialism 356
Modern Forms of Religion in Politics
Lay and Religious States 358
Denominationalism 359
357
Causes and Effects: Why Do Religion and Ideology
Remain Prevalent in Modern Politics? 360
Why (and How) Does Modernization Alter Religion’s Role
in Politics? 360
Modernization Theory and Secularization 361
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viii
Contents
The “Religious Economies” Approach 362
Institutional Theories 363
Why Didn’t Ideology (and History) End? 364
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
America?
CASE STUDIES
Two Lefts in Latin
367
China
PART V: The Comparative-International
Nexus
PROFILE
Comparative Politics and International
Relations 372
Issues
375
376
380
France
Realism 390
Liberalism 393
Constructivism 394
Marxism 395
THINKING COMPARATIVELY
of Analysis
PROFILE
Essen
Düsseldorf
The EU and Levels
Cologne
G E R M A N Y
Bonn
PART VI: Country Profiles and Cases
Brazil
399
399
Introduction 399
Key Features of Contemporary Brazil 399
Historical Development 401
Regime and Political Institutions 405
Political Culture 405
Political Economy 406
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427
427
CASE STUDIES
Leipzig
Kassel
421
Introduction 427
Key Features of Contemporary France 427
Historical Development 430
Regime and Political Institutions 431
Political Culture 432
Political Economy 433
395
Duisburg
420
How Did China Become an Economic Power?
(Chapter 5) 420
Is China Destined for Democracy? (Chapter 6)
Who Governs China? (Chapter 10) 423
The Chinese Party System (Chapter 11) 424
The Chinese Revolution (Chapter 12) 425
Causes and Effects: What Are the Main Causes
in International Relations? 390
PROFILE
412
CASE STUDIES
Globalization and Trade 376
International Institutions and Integration
Immigration 382
Environment and Sustainability 384
Transnational Networks 387
Nuclear Threats and Terrorism 388
412
Introduction 412
Key Features of Contemporary China 412
Historical Development 414
Regime and Political Institutions 417
Political Culture 418
Political Economy 419
CHAPTER 16
Concepts
407
Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Nations?
(Chapter 5) 407
Democratic Consolidation in Brazil (Chapter 6) 408
Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipline in Brazil’s Legislature
(Chapter 9) 409
Brazil’s Landless Movement (Chapter 12) 410
Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has
Progress Come From? (Chapter 14) 410
Dresden
434
The State in France (Chapter 3) 434
Authoritarian Persistence in Nineteenth-Century France
(Chapter 7) 436
Electing the French President: What Do Runoffs Do?
(Chapter 10) 436
The French Revolution (Chapter 12) 437
Religion and Secularism in France (Chapter 15) 438
Globalization and Culture in France (Chapter 16) 439
Germany
PROFILE
441
441
Introduction 441
Key Features of Contemporary Germany
441
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Contents
ix
Historical Development 443
Regime and Political Institutions 446
Political Culture 447
Political Economy 448
CASE STUDIES
449
The German State: Unification and Welfare (Chapter 4) 449
Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany
(Chapter 7) 450
Institutional Design: Germany’s Bundestag and Bundesrat
(Chapter 9) 451
Consensus-Based Politics in Germany (Chapter 11) 452
Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? (Chapter 13) 453
India 455
PROFILE
455
Introduction 455
Key Features of Contemporary India 455
Historical Development 457
Regime and Political Institutions 460
Political Culture 461
Political Economy 462
CASE STUDIES
463
What Explain India’s Recent Growth? (Chapter 5) 463
Democracy’s Success in India: What Can We Learn from
a Deviant Case? (Chapter 6) 464
Federalism and Differences in Development in India
(Chapter 8) 464
Ethnicity and Political Parties in India (Chapter 14) 465
India in the Twenty-First Century: Domestic Politics, Identity,
and Security (Chapter 16) 466
Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 468
PROFILE
468
Introduction 468
Key Features of Contemporary Iran 468
Historical Development 470
Regime and Political Institutions 473
Political Culture 474
Political Economy 474
CASE STUDIES
475
Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems? The Case of
Iran (Chapter 7) 475
Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran (Chapter 8) 476
Iran’s Islamic Revolution and “Green Revolution”?
(Chapter 12) 478
Gender in Post-Revolutionary Iranian Politics
(Chapter 14) 479
Religion and Politics in Iran (Chapter 15) 479
Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Chapter 16) 480
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Japan 482
PROFILE
482
Introduction 482
Key Features of Contemporary Japan 482
Historical Development 484
Regime and Political Institutions 487
Political Culture 488
Political Economy 488
CASE STUDIES
490
State-Led Development in Japan (Chapter 4) 490
The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese Diet
(Chapter 9) 491
How Did Japan's Dominant Party Win for So Long?
(Chapter 11) 491
Importing National Identity in Japan? (Chapter 13) 493
Gender Empowerment in Japan? (Chapter 14) 493
Resource Management in Japan (Chapter 16) 494
Mexico 496
PROFILE
496
Introduction 496
Key Features of Contemporary Mexico 496
Historical Development 498
Regime and Political Institutions 501
Political Culture 502
Political Economy 503
CASE STUDIES
504
The Mexican State and Rule of Law (Chapter 3) 504
Mexico’s “Perfect Dictatorship” and Its End
(Chapter 7) 505
The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico (Chapter 11) 506
Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity
in Mexico (Chapter 13) 507
Why Aren’t There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico?
(Chapter 14) 508
Nigeria 510
PROFILE
510
Introduction 510
Key Features of Contemporary Nigeria 510
Historical Development 512
Regime and Political Institutions 515
Political Culture 515
Political Economy 516
CASE STUDIES
517
What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed?
The Case of Nigeria (Chapter 3) 517
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xContents
Why Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse?
The Nigerian Case (Chapter 5) 518
Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together
or Tearing Apart? (Chapter 8) 519
The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations
(Chapter 10) 521
The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and EthnoNational Conflict in a Post-Colonial Society (Chapter 13) 522
Religious Difference and Conflict in Nigeria: Disentangling
Ethnicity and Religion? (Chapter 15) 523
Russia 525
PROFILE
525
Introduction 525
Key Features of Contemporary Russia 525
Historical Development 527
Regime and Political Institutions 531
Political Culture 532
Political Economy 532
CASE STUDIES
533
Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia
(Chapter 7) 533
Executives in Russia: Formal and Informal Powers
(Chapter 10) 534
Personalism and the Party System in Russia (Chapter 11) 535
The Russian Revolution (Chapter 12) 536
Communist Ideology in Practice—Russia and the Soviet Union
(Chapter 15) 537
United Kingdom 539
PROFILE
539
Introduction 539
Key Features of the Contemporary United Kingdom 539
Historical Development 541
Regime and Political Institutions 544
Political Culture 545
Political Economy 545
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CASE STUDIES
546
The State in the United Kingdom (Chapter 3) 546
Political Economy of Britain (Chapter 4) 547
No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the
United Kingdom (Chapter 8) 548
The Mother of Parliaments: The United Kingdom and the
Westminster Model (Chapter 9) 549
National Identity in the United Kingdom
(Chapter 13) 550
Liberal Ideology in the United Kingdom
(Chapter 15) 552
United States 553
PROFILE
553
Introduction 553
Key Features of the Contemporary United States 553
Historical Development 555
Regime and Political Institutions 558
Political Culture 559
Political Economy 560
CASE STUDIES
561
Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will They in
the Future? (Chapter 4) 561
Is American Democracy in Trouble? (Chapter 6) 562
Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem?
(Chapter 8) 563
The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by
Design? (Chapter 9) 564
“The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on American
Presidents (Chapter 10) 566
The United States and the World: A Love–Hate Relationship?
(Chapter 16) 567
Notes 569
Glossary 582
References and Further Reading 000
Credits 000
Index 000
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