PROTECTION OF NATURAL HABITATS
7 b he successful in ca ing functiotlin ecosystems andpo ulations
of soecies ofolnnts nn%tttrnalr into rife fi~rtirrc,
orotecte nnrurnl
,a .
ai-eii m u s t 6PproperI.y designed.
i'
Alan Holt
Of all the t e c h ~ o u e savailable to the conservation orofession for the orotection of our
natural diversity, the method ofihoice is certainly '
protectionof intact. Functioning natural habitats. Of course, intacl hahitats
are not alwavs available to be Drotected. esoeciallv in the case of our most
endan ered ipecies. Rut wheie they arc a v h a h l k iunc!ioning ecosystems
offer tfe best return on the curnewation investment.
The reasons for preferring the ~rotectionof s ~ e c i e in
s their natural habitats over ex situ (ouiof habits) coisewation in a'botanic earden or
zoo
ares~~nificant.
the intricate and p&ly underst& &logid processes upon u,hich & given specier relie are provided 'ior frec" In io native
habitat.Lnlike a ere<nhouse or earden wheie thev must be develo~edand
maintained a r t i f i h l ) . o f en :it considerahlc erpensc Even for d e ' f l ~ n i n ~
rpeiies where some aspect of their hahitat may he in disarray. many of the
specier' ecological needr can only be studied in the remaining natural habi.
tat. Anv chance of pulling an endangered species back from the hrink and
ertahliching healthv wild popuhtions depends on the existence of suitahle
natural habitat. This IS not to say that hotan~cgardens or laboratorie\ or
zoos are not invaluable oartnersh ssoecies con?ervation. In some areas in
Hawai'i, native ecosyste;ns may already he so damaged thar errahliihing a
nature preserve ma) no longer be worthwhile. In these cases, a z;ru conservation of remamine individual soecies mav he the onl\ answer. The ooinc,
rather, is that any sci&tist worktng'to rescue'a plant or animal would
just about anything
- to have a iunct:oning- examplc of irs native habitat to
study.
.4 &reason for preferring habitat preservation as a conservation tool
for species is that protected habitats bring many species and invaluable ecosvstem functions don^ for the ride. Bv orotectinh the rain forest on which
lhe Endangered ~ n u i ~ a r r o t h i(Pserljbne.~ror.r~;nr/zo~~~~s)
ll
rel~es,the
thousands of plants, birds, snailc, insects, and other organisms which make
uo that foresi(manv of them unknown) also benefit. Likewise. the broader
e&ronmentaffuncbons provided by that forest--watershed protection.
climatic effects, aesthetic values-are also ensured.
~.
~~
HABITAT PROTECTION IN HA\VA161-AN HISTORIC OVERVIEW
The arrival of humans in Hawai'i some 1,500 years ago began an era of
dramatic decline in both the diversity and overall abundance of Hawai'i's
native ecosystems. As described elsewhere in this volume (see Loope; Smith,
Non-Native Plants; Stone, Non-Native Land Vertebrates, Native Birds,
Hawai'i's Wetlands.. .), the pace of this decline quickenedwith the arrival
of Europeans in 1778.
The ra id degradation of Hawai'i's forests was documented in popular
form as ear y as 1875 (Clarke 1875). By 1900, the effects of feral cattle
(Bos f u u m ) and other introduced hoofed mammals, together with localized
clearcutting of forests for fuel and timber, had caused widespread concern
for the integrity of island watersheds (Hosmer 1959; Judd 1918). This concern
was brought on by the sugar industry, which had come to rely on water from
forested watersheds and had developed extensive ditch systems to harvest this
water. Largely through the urging of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association
(HSPA), Hawai'i estahlished a professional forestry ro ram in 1903 with the
assignment of Ralph Hosmer to the young ~ e r r i t o q g y8ifford Pinchot,
founder of the U.S. Forest Service. Hawai'i's is the third oldest state forestly
oroeram in the nation (Hosmer 1959: LeBarron and Korte 1970).
The f o c u ~of thesee:lrly forestry proSrnms was nor on hahitit protection
p e r w but on soil and watcr conscrvatlon. Lnder llosmer's successor, C.S.
Judd, the forestry program launched an aggressive pro ram to remove feral
cattle and other stock from forest areas and to establis and fence Forest
Reserves throughout the territory. If not for this early effort, conservationists today would have far less native habitat to protect. Working closely with
HSPA and bolstered by abundant labor of the Citizens Conservation Corps in
the 1930s, the territorial foresters also mounted a major replanting effort.
Early on, this included efforts to use native trees as reforestation stock, but
these were largely abandoned in favor of more reliable nursery stock from
non-native species (Judd 1918; Lyon 1919).
National parks and wildlife refuges were the earliest major projects
expressly for habitat protection in Hawai'i, with the establishment of Hawaii
National Park (later to be split to form Haleakala and Hawaii Volcanoes
National Parks) and the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge in the
second decade of this century. The system of National Parks and National
Wildlife Refuges has been expanded considerabl in the past 70 years, making
the National Park Service and the U S . Fish and hildlife Service the most
active managers of protected habitats in Hawai'i (see below).
In the late 1960s. the ~ r i v a t esector entered the habitat conservation
business in Hawai'i k t h the acquisition of lands in near-prisline Kipahulu
Vallcy. klaui, hy.lhe Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, a private, non-profit
organization. The Conservancy has expanded its own preserve system and hac
transferred significant lands to puhlic agenc:es in the p ~ s two
t dcwdes:
The %rateof Hawai'i has also made ~ignificantadditions to its hah~tal
zoning was D U Into
~
protection cfforts in the last 20 vears. C~~nservat~on
effect, by which certain lands a;e recognized for their value to ~ t i v species
e
and ecosystems. Also, in 1970 the State Natural Area Reserves System was
established to preserve native plant and animal communities and geological
features. The State also established the Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve and has
P
.-
f
desi nated a number of plant and wildlife sanctuaries focused primarily on
locafized habitats of endangered plants and on endangered waterbirds.
I" all. nearlv 50l1.000 acres (200.000 ha). or about 15% of the land area
of the-Staie, ha; been dedlcatedfor the pr&rvat~on of native cumm~nities
In H:lwaiSi (Table I).
ESTABLISHING A PROTECTED NATURAL AREA
In order to consider how well these designated conservation lands fulfill
thegoal of protecting the State's native ecosystems and species, we must first
define what we regard as an adequate level of protection.
)
Holt and Fox (1985) defined a "~rotectednatural area" as one where: 1~,
;IK afiirmative legal actibn u . d d be'required to dlou human activities to
t~ccurt h a ~hould seriously disturb the native ecosystem, processes, or .;pccics
thereon; and 2) where nn actke nlanagement program is under way to colltrol
non-native biotic (alien species) and resultant shiolic dimption (for example,
fire). In short, to be truly protected, an area must have lastme, legal protection from destructive usisand must have an active stewardsh;~D?o&am.
The second component ol thir definition may he the less b&io;r. This is
a commitment of funds and manpower to mitigate thocu threats to the protected area that have hecn. or m w in !he future. be introduced. and which. if
left untended, will s e r ~ o u sdegrF,de
t
the natural vslucz which lhc are.3
established to prolect. In lawat I, there must he a Cu~dcdcommitment to
protect the area against feral pigs (Sur scrofa) and goatb (Cupra iiircccs),
noxions weeds. vandalism. and threats such as fire. which mav be intensified
by huild-up of he-adaplkl alienplant>. \Vith the ;xceptio";,f 3 v e j few
isolatcd mountain tops, offshore isletr. and underground lava tubes, the
tvoical Hawaiian natural area todav would suffer aramaticallv from dis~Dti0n
ti): these threats if we sirr.ply put b fence around it, designated it as legal!;
protected. and left it alone.
was
~
~
THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN
l o he successful in wrrylng functioning ecosystems and populations of
species of plants and aninlals into the hturc, a protected natur:~larea must
r
design focuses on ensuring
also be properly designed. P n ~ p c preserve
- the
viabilitjof the brotesed area and the s~eciesi n k
Thk s i ~ of
e the area must reflect the scale o i the ecolo ical pr~)cesses
which operatc uilhin the protectcd ecos)ctem. 1.01 exampk, in de.cignlnga
for Hawaiian foiests. an essential consideration ?s the ~hen<m&on
bf 'ohi'a dieback (Gerrlzh, this volume). Because 'olri'a (Mefro;idrro.r
pol~morp/ra),the dom~nanttree m out forests, tend.; to form even-aged stands
of trees: and because, in manv areas. these stands tend to die someGhat svnc h r o n o ~ s la~ ,preserve whichkelies on the stahillty of the 'ohi'a forest m&
include many different-aged stands. If. for instance, the designer were to
include only tall-statured. msture stands In 3 nrrserve for a blrd soecies
which relics on such old irees for nesting site;, the preserve would be seriously
threatened when those old stands go into the dichack phase. Instead, the
designer must recognize this majoiforest process andinclude both young and
old stands within the presetve.
reserve
Table 1. Designated areas for proteciion of native communities in Hawai'i.
(Adaptedfrom Thc Nature CoNewancy of Hawaii 1987.)
Number of
Natural
Communities**
Site Name.
Acreage
STATE
Natural Area Reserves
(18 reserves)
Wilderness Preserves
Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve (Kaua'i)
State Sanctuaries
Hawaii State Seabird Sanctuary
(Offshore islets)
Kamiloloa 'Ohai (Moloka'i)
Kahuku Ncnc (~awai'i)'
Keauhou I Nene (~awai'i)'
Keauhou 11 Nene (~awai'i)'
Kipuka 'Aioahou Nene (Hawai'i)
Pu'uwa'a'wa'a 'Alala (Hawai'i)
Mauna Kea Silversword (Hawaii)
200,888
90
108.W8
78
10
...-.---_..
~
Number of
Rare Natural
Communities
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
s
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
59
9,4Nl
FEDERAL
,
.
Hawaii Volcanoes NP (Hawai'i)
Kaloko-Honokohau NP (Hawai'i)
National Wildlife Rcfuces (NWR)
Hawaiian Islands NWR (NWHI)
Kilaura Point NWR (Kaua'i)
Hakalau Forest NWR (Hawai'i)
PRIVATE
The Naturc Conscwancy of Hawaii
Kaluahanu (Kauai)
'Ihi'ihilauakea (Oahu)"
Kamakou (Moloka'i)
Pclckunu (Mvloloka'il
TOTAL
Natural Communities Not Included
486,620
131
49
97
44
'Lands dedicated for historical sitcs, waterbird habitat, or specific plants and animals are
not included in this table unless intact native natural communities are a h present.
*.#01,180
natural communities (scc Ncwman, this volume; Cuddihy, t h s volume).
Prwately owned but managed by agency.
##Publicly owned but managed hy The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii.
172
Protection of Norum1 Habitats \Halt
Other important considerations in preserve design include adjacent land
uses, the feasrbility of managing the site (for example, does terrain prohibit
adequate access?), and the present integrity of the ecosystems or species to be
protected. An important consideration for individual species management is
the concept of minimum viable populations, as discussed by Gilpm and Soult
(1986). Franklin (1985) and Diamond (1986) are among the many authorities
who have discussed preserve design in tropical areas.
ASSESSING OUR PROGRESS
How well do the current Droerams involving protected Hawaiian habitats
t
actually protect the Sthte's n;t~v;s~ecies and e%yctcms? Let us f ~ r > consider how well each of the habit31 protection programs described above fits
thc deiinition of ;I 'orotectell narural area. More details ;,re given in H d t
and Fox (1985).
State Forest Reserves and Conservation Districts
While these designations carry a degree of legal protection for native
habitats, they also permit a range of other uses (such as resource development) which are incompatible with most native areas. The Protected or "P
subzone of the Conservation District provides the most complete legal protection among these State lands. However, current programs of the Department of Laud and Natural Resources (the agency charged with management
of these lands) are not adeonate to Drovide ~rotectivestewards hi^
, .Drorrams
ior this vast acreage. ~ l a n 3 e m c nit i somc'nati\,e artas :'.u s ~ ~ t a i n d
r~.creationalhunting of introduced hoofed animals conflirts with protection of
njtive resources. Forest Re>encsand Ct~nten:~r~on
D~str~cts
(lo DL)! mwt
the definition given here for protected natural areas.
-
State Natural Area Reserves,
Sanctuaries, and Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve
These State lands meet the definition of legal protection and have stronger protective management programs than the larger Forest Reserves and
Conservation Distncts. However, maua ement programs on Natural Area
Reserves were only initiated in 1987 andg must be great1 expanded toadeauatelv address the needs of this 18-reserve system. T e Alaka'i Wilderness
~;eser\ealso merits rxpanJed nianagemcnt piogramc. Smctlmries generallv
enjoy more intensive, sustained nianagement progrsm.
g
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii's system of preserves meets the definition of protected natural area. Legal protection 1s provided through fee
ownership or perpetual conservation easement of preserve areas. Stewardship programs are in place with endowed funding to support most essential
operations, but the Conservancy regards these as minimally ade uate at
present. These programs must be expanded through additlordl und raising
as part of the Conservancy's current program campaign.
?'
The National Park Service and
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
These agencies are the established leaders in the conservation of natural
areas in Hawai'i. Their lands are generally adequately protected from a legal
standpoint, and management programs are the most comprehensive in the
State. Both agencies have integrated research and management programs.
Further program expansion is needed, however, to address pressing alien
species threats in the large habitat areas included on these Federal lands.
Within this assemblage of "protected natural areas" (Conservancy Preserves, National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, and State Plant or Wildlife
Sanctuaries) are included about 46 of the estimated 180 described types of
Hawaiian natural communities (The Nature Conservancy of Hawail, unpublished data). Eighty-eight community types are regarded by scientists as
being in critical need of orotection and currentlv he outside this svstem of
programs.
THE NEXT STEP
Hawaiian habitat conservation has reached a time of urgent challenges
and exciting
Three major initiatives are needed to reach the
- opportunities.
..
goal of a system of viable reserves prdtectiq the full range of our remaining
native ecosystems and species:
1. The l e d orotection of sites suooortine criticallv imoerilled natural
-
vation goals.
2. Active stewardship programs must be established in existing legally protected areas, with prior~tyto the areas richest in rare species and most
threatened with degradation. Of particular importance is the establishment of such programs on State lands. Many natural community types
and rare spec~esare known& from these State lands--they can be
protected nowhere else. The recent funding of initial stewardship programs for the Natural Area Reserves System is a very hopeful sign. Similar initiatives must include Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve and a number
I J Conwvation
~
Ilistrlct areas.
3. Hawai'i niust hecome u center for thc dcveloprnent olconcenntion technique%for i-land eco$ywrns. The need for improved ste\rard\htp technlques fdr outwips the :,hilit! of current univer,ity and agency rc~carcli
programs to provide the :tnwers. H w a i ' ~has thc opportunity to plav a
mainr rnlc in \\urliI\\iJe trouical cun~ewatinnhccnuse of an un!xctr:lllclcd
run& oi native hahitats andgowing ~vstrmi f protected areas ivailahle
l
istahlc, long-tcrm research zites. Oceanic islands arc the plane^‘, 'llot
spots" of spezes extinction. Natural continental ecosystemGre in~reasingly becoming man-made islands amidst developed lands. By cult~vatlng