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The Dutch decentralized unitary state
and its effects on civil service systems
in the period of the Night Watch,
Welfare and Enabling States 1814–2016
FRITS VAN DER MEER, GERRIT DIJKSTRA, TOON KERKHOFF1
1. Introduction
From a geographical point of view, the Netherlands
Over time the nature, content and power relations within
belongs to the smaller European states. Though small
the decentralized unitary state did evolve, though the ba-
in size, it contains a considerable degree of cultural,
sic structure remained the same, as will be explained in
historical, political and religious variation. Over the
section 2. Those changes also applied to the interconnec-
years, this variety has been an essential attribute of
tion to society. In the period 1814–2016, the Dutch state
Dutch society and has to a large extent determined its
went from being a Night Watch State, to a Welfare and
political-administrative institutional design. Finding
Enabling State. Government initially had very little in-
an acceptable equilibrium between unity and decen-
volvement in »public service delivery«. It dealt only with
tralization has influenced political administrative his-
the most basic provisions such as safety, public order
tory from the Burgundian times till the present day.
and finances. From the final quarter of the nineteenth
With the founding of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
century and especially after the Second World War, this
in the aftermath of the Congress of Vienna, a decen-
changed, as government assumed a much more active
tralized unitary state structure was introduced with
role. The most recent decades have seen the emergence
the Constitution of 1815. This structure encompassed a
of an Enabling State where government is once again tak-
considerable degree of autonomy and self-government
ing a step back. It creates necessary parameters but also
for the various government levels within the frame-
tries to let ›civil society‹ manage itself.
work of the unitary state. The importance attached to
The central idea behind bureaucratic reform has
self-government is related to the view that decentral-
been that changes within government and society have
ized government should be a vehicle for societal self-
to be accompanied by parallel changes in civil service
expression at all levels of the state. For our purposes
systems. The changing nature of the decentralized uni-
it is important to note that autonomy and self-govern-
tary state and the consequence for civil service systems
ment also pertained to personnel management deci-
can be analyzed by looking at the transition of dominant
sions and regulations regarding civil servants.2
state models. In each of these models we can find an
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answer to what is expected of (senior) civil servants in
A temporal perspective is not only a merit and inter-
terms of expertise, experience, attitude etc. – in short,
esting on its own but is also of prime importance for
the content of merit. How to shape and organize person-
understanding the nature of current issues confronting
nel tasks have thus been core issues in Dutch public ad-
government bureaucracy and human resources man-
ministration and administrative thought. This involves
agement policies and practices. Past events and experi-
a modification of personnel management policies and
ences, for better or worse, are important for compre-
practices but also of requirements that are considered
hending contemporary problems in the public domain
necessary for civil servants to operate in an appropri-
and for finding appropriate solutions to deal with these
ate way in these new conditions. It thus also relates to
challenges.8
3
139 F ri ts v an de r Me e r, Ge rr it D ij k st ra, To o n K e rk hof f — Th e D u t c h d e c e n t ra l i ze d u n i t a r y s t a t e
D
the changing content of merit principles applied within
This article is structured as follows. In the next sec-
Dutch civil service systems. In this contribution we will
tion we will look into the theoretical concepts of the
put emphasis on senior civil servants although in Dutch
decentralized unitary state, civil service systems, merit
civil service regulations, such a category has not been
and the transition of state models. Next we present our
well defined before the 1990s.
empirical findings using a chronological order based on
Our central question thus is: to what extent were the
crucial periods and junctures in the development of the
nature and content of merit principles for Dutch civil ser-
Dutch state from 1815 onwards. Finally we provide an
vice systems influenced by the (changing) decentralized
answer in our conclusion.
unitary state, during the periods of the Night Watch, Welfare and Enabling State between 1814 and 2016?
Before dealing with this question in the following
sections, it is good to briefly elaborate on the use of
history for the study of public administration and the
need for historical comparison when evaluating current
questions. The use of history for the study of public administration has been widely discussed in recent decades.4 The study of public administration benefits from
2. The Dutch decentralized
unitary state and the effects on
civil service systems in the era
of the Night Watch, Welfare and
Enabling State: concepts and
models
historical research because the latter has »at its core the
insight that a phenomenon can only be studied holisti-
The decentralized unitary state, changing models of state,
cally, precisely because of its contingent qualities in time
and civil service systems are key concepts in our analy-
and space«.5 Similarly, an historical approach is thought
sis. These concepts are in need of explanation given their
to be useful because it helps to show limits and possi-
sometimes ambiguous meaning. But first we should dis-
bilities of generalization in understanding and explain-
cuss the importance of an historical administrative dis-
ing long-term social processes. This means that »for a
cussion of Dutch civil service system change in relation
proper understanding of contemporary structures and
to the decentralized unitary state. With some reservation
relations in public administration a geographical and
and care we will envisage a Dutch administrative tradi-
historical setting is of great importance [...]. Without
tion and model. The Thorbeckian model of the decentral-
knowledge of the geographical and historical context,
ized unitary state, the importance of the involvement of
we are not able to assess neither the uniqueness nor the
society in the public domain and the formulation these
comparability of societal phenomena«. Administrative
have taken in the periods of the Night Watch, Welfare
history thus provides a long-term perspective that can
and Enabling State can be seen as part of that Dutch ad-
reveal »the fundamental dynamics of state building«.
ministrative tradition and even – written perhaps with
6
7
Naturally this applies to the study of civil service sys-
some more caution – administrative model.
tems as well. A long-term perspective enables us to see
To begin with the decentralized unitary state, after
more fundamental developments and offers possibili-
the overthrow – or more accurately, the collapse – of
ties to assess motives, intentions and context of changes
the Dutch Republic (1795) a unitary state was formed
in civil service systems over time until the present day.
as result of the constitution of 1798. How to strike an
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acceptable balance between centralism and decentral-
zens’ involvement and societal development in the public
ism was a lasting point of endless debates up until the
domain. Public domain can be seen as a vague term and
annexation to Napoleonic France in 1810. With the
is often barely defined. In addition to government (the
creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, a
public-public domain), a private-public domain can be
more stable decentralized unitary state structure came
distinguished.10 The private-public domain includes so-
into existence encompassing the central state, provinc-
cial self-management by citizens, social groups, civil soci-
es, municipalities and some functional governments.
ety as well as the involvement of companies that enables
Although formally decentralized and constitutionally
the implementation of public tasks. As argued, this pri-
bound, in practice the first monarch after independ-
vate-public domain has been considered essential since
ence, King William I, concentrated power in his own
the early 19th century till the present day. It took shape
hands. His personal rule also had significant effects
in voluntary citizens’ action under the Night Watch state.
on the functioning of the civil service systems. This
During the greater part of the Welfare State era it took
monarchic rule ended with the liberal Constitution of
the form of the pillarized society. Pillarization involved
1848 introduced by Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, whose
the vertical self-organization and service delivery of
name still is associated with the constitutional design
parts of society on the basis of a shared religious or social
of the modern Dutch state. With him the modern-day
democratic worldview. ›Vertical‹ refers to pillars which
decentralized unitary state began in earnest. The de-
included all classes from the lower to higher segments of
centralized unitary state was meant to remedy both
society. After the 1970s, with the (partial) collapse of the
the institutional weakness of the Dutch Republic and
pillarized society, a more individualized form of a partici-
some of the oppressive aspects of a strong central state
patory society manifested itself. This coincided with the
which became manifest during the years of the French
rise of the Enabling State.
annexation and to a lesser degree the autocratic rule
Over time, the decentralized unitary state system
of King William I. The decentralized unitary state, ac-
developed and provided the institutional context for
cording to the intentions of Thorbecke, was to combine
the expansion and modernization of government and
the positive elements of the Dutch Republic (mostly
changing government relationships with society. This
self-governing cities) with the powerful administrative
has had profound effects on civil service systems, as we
capabilities of a vigorous central state that was devel-
will show below. Toonen (1987)11 argues that the Thor-
oped during the French era.
beckian design proved to be flexible enough to adapt
9
The concept of the Dutch decentralized unitary state
to societal needs of the day in the periods of the Night
states that within the public domain the unitary state is
Watch, Welfare and Enabling States. In these differ-
composed of primarily general-purpose governments
ent models of state, the changing character, tasks and
such as the central government, provincial governments,
relations within the Dutch decentralized unitary state
and municipalities, and (to a lesser extent) of functional
and its relation to society become apparent. This in its
bodies such as water boards. The preference for general-
turn defined the development of civil service systems.
purpose governments stems from the emphasis on inte-
In the figure below12 a classification of the defining di-
gral public service delivery and citizen involvement. The
mensions of these state models is presented using di-
sovereignty of the state is invested in each government
mensions which consist of the depth of state depth of
according to the responsibilities assigned in the Consti-
state intervention: societal penetration; the scope of
tution and institutional laws. For instance municipali-
government intervention regarding the dominant task
ties are not considered to be solely derived from central
areas undertaken by the public administration and the
government but seen as a unique embodiment of the
State community; the preferred intervention approach
state and, according to Thorbecke’s organic state theory,
in terms of timing (reactive versus proactive); routing
contributing to the growth of society and state. This idea
of intervention (indirect versus direct); delivery style
is central to the Thorbeckian system as it still (at least
(regulatory versus producing); use of public power (lim-
formally) exists. In this Thorbeckian conception, the de-
ited vs. strong); (state) strength (limited to high); the
centralized state is seen as instrument and vessel for citi-
nature (formal vs. informal) and type of intervention
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instruments (legislation, financial and communication
tarian) and finally the role and attitude of civil servants
instruments); preference in intra- and extra-state coor-
within government and towards society. These will re-
dination mechanisms (hierarchical, market, communi-
turn in our discussion in the next sections.
Night Watch State
Welfare State
Enabling State
Depth of state intervention:
societal penetration
Limited/ medium
Extensive
Extensive
Scope of state intervention:
dominant tasks
Public Law Safety
Full range
Public Law Safety +
Enabling tasks
Timing
Reactive
Proactive
Proactive
Routing
Direct
Indirect + Direct
Indirect + Direct
Delivery Style (dominant)
Regulatory
Provision through
intermediary bodies
Regulatory and
societal coproduction
Use of public power
performing core tasks
Strong
Limited
Strong
State strength
Limited
Medium
High
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INTERVENTION APPROACH
INTERVENTION INSTRUMENTS
(In) Formal
Formal
Formal + informal
Formal + Informal
Type
Legislation
Legislation + Financial +
Communicative
Legislation + Financial
Primary coordination
mechanisms
1.Hierarchy
Pillarized Communitarian
Hierarchy Market
1.Hierarchy
2.Market
2. coproduction with the
private public domain
2.Market
CSS
Classical bureaucrat
Professional official
Public servant bound to
government and society
Figure 1: Dutch models of state: an analytical approach (amended from Van der Meer 2012)
To this point, the concepts of civil service and the civil
ants‹ and ›the civil service‹ are used quite freely. The
service system have been used indiscriminately. Within
English-language term ›civil service‹ can be confusing
English-language research in public administration,
as, in the British context, the words ›civil service‹ often
administrative science and administrative history by
are reserved for those public officials working for central
authors from various countries, the terms ›civil serv-
government. Confusion can arise in an international con-
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text. The British ›civil service‹ concept is not exactly com-
cies and procedures. From this definition it becomes
parable to the ›fonction publique‹ in France, ›Beamten‹
clear that what is fitting and what is best can differ
in Germany or ›ambtelijk apparaat‹ in the Netherlands.
substantially. Here we arrive at the complexities men-
In order to make comparative studies possible, the civil
tioned earlier. The content of merit can vary accord-
service concept has been de-anglicized and stretched to
ing to the requirements of (government) organizations
other (central) government bureaucracies. Nowadays in
in view of their specific tasks, intervention approach
international civil service studies the term refers to pub-
and instruments (see figure 1). Even more significantly
lic (permanent) officials working at all levels of govern-
for our purpose, what is considered merit can differ
ment. Thus it pertains to the (permanent) government
according to place and over time – specifically, what
workforce excluding political officials. The concept of
was viewed as merit could differ from government to
the civil service system has been a further addition for
government within the decentralized unitary state.
enhancing comparisons by focusing on the historical
We examine this issue in detail in the next sections.
institutional dimension of civil services. A civil service
As described above, organizational and social require-
system (CSS) is defined by Bekke, Perry and Toonen as
ments have changed over time, as becomes manifest in
institutions (i.e. rule complexes) that mobilize human re-
the change from a Night Watch to a Welfare State and
sources in the service of the state in a given territory13.
more recently an Enabling State. This influences what
Crucial for our purposes is that civil service systems refer
is expected of the role and position of civil servants at
to the mobilization of human resources and thus pertain
the different levels of government in the decentralized
to such elements as the recruitment, promotion, deploy-
unitary state. At the same time it has an effect on what
ment and career development of public officials. Deploy-
is required of civil servants in terms of knowledge, ca-
ment within a civil service system involves the position
pabilities, attitude, skills and experience.
of civil servants within a public organization according
to the needs and requirements of that particular government. The concept of merit is crucial to this.
In administrative sciences and administrative history, the concept of merit (systems) is often used in and
central to discussions on the modernization and bureaucratization of civil service systems. The answer to
the question of what is meant by merit (and the subse-
3. Civil service system
employment in the changing
decentralized unitary state:
recruitment, selection,
remuneration and deployment
quent merit system) might look easy at first glance, but
in reality it is fraught with difficulties. Merit is a com-
In this section we will first look at the changing civil ser-
plex, ambiguous and changing notion. Often, to name
vice employment over time and examine the division of
but some examples of merit criteria that are considered
powers and responsibilities regarding civil service em-
appropriate to a particular job or career, knowledge,
ployment within the decentralized unitary state. Also,
capabilities, experience, skills, and attitude are men-
the changing nature of that employment over time with
tioned. These are relevant to recruitment and promo-
respect to methods of recruitment, ways of remunera-
tion and other personnel decisions in employment sys-
tion, the perceived necessary qualifications and the de-
tems. In short, merit criteria relate to the fit between an
ployment deficits through a lack of mobility will be ad-
applicant for a position or career and the organization-
dressed. We look into changes in the civil service system
al needs. In the public sector, these merit criteria have
during the transition from the Night Watch to the Wel-
become equated with the requirements of government
fare State and in particular the Enabling State. Finally
bureaucracies as formulated by Max Weber. They still
we will examine the effects of these substantive changes
form the tenets of what is perceived as proper person-
on discussion about the preferred legal position of these
nel policies. In order to guarantee these merit princi-
civil servants.
ples of the best and most fitting, employment decisions
have been governed by uniform and impersonal poli-
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3.1 The consequences of the changing
decentralized unitary state for civil service
systems up to and during the era of the Night
Watch State.
latter, these career systems found their origin or their
The principle of decentralization implied that from the
confined to those well acquainted with administrative
outset hiring staff and formulating the entry and pro-
life. Family, compatible political and religious circles,
motion requirements were considered the primary
and friends and acquaintances were the most important
responsibility of each level of government. Municipal,
sources for recruitment to (senior) bureaucratic posi-
provincial and central government were in charge of
tions17. The elitist nature especially of the higher levels
their own personnel policies and labor conditions. This
of central government civil service was furthermore
decentralized setup explains why there has never been
strengthened by comparatively fairly low earnings and
any truly centralized recruitment, promotion or remu-
rather poor labor conditions in the greater part of the
neration system. Until fairly recently, the key tenet of
19th century.18 Levels of earnings remained the same be-
decentralization also applied within central govern-
tween 1828 and 1864.19 The main argument for keeping
ment itself. In departments or ministries, emphasis was
salaries at a relatively low level was that theses salaries
put on individual ministerial responsibility for internal
were compensated by the honor of holding public office
departmental policies and management, rather than
– hence the use in Dutch of the Latin word ›honorarium‹.
this being a shared cabinet responsibility. As such, man-
Likewise, these poor labor conditions resulted in an
agerial departmental autonomy led to internal fault
aristocratization of the senior civil service in the early
lines within central government, called compartmen-
nineteenth century.20 With the passing of time these low
talization. This meant that each department had a fairly
wages led to serious problems. Given the gradual but on-
high level of autonomy, including personnel policy and
going processes of formalization and bureaucratization
the institutionalization of principles of merit. A general
of labor conditions during the 19th century, civil servants
lack of single-party dominance of the political system,
could not supplement their income through other ways
even at the local level, meant that a single-party hold on
than by private means. Especially in the case of lower
the civil service seldom occurred.14
and middle-ranking civil servants, this brought about a
inspiration in the French era.16
From 1815 to the early 20th century, recruitment to
civil service positions had a very closed nature and was
Thus, departmental and local compartmentaliza-
form of ‘dignified’ poverty.21 Family and political patron-
tion has been a continuing feature in central and lo-
age played an important but diminishing role in recruit-
cal government until quite recently, with respect to
ment during the 19th century. Nevertheless, criticism of
personnel management issues among others. We will
senior civil servants having a low level of quality was vir-
return to this issue, as after the Second World War this
tually absent given the high level of pre-entry education.
compartmentalization was considered to have a pro-
Before the fundamental overhaul of the party-politi-
found negative effect on government performance and
cal divisions within governments after the introduction
the civil service.
of universal male suffrage in 1917 and of active voting
A particularity of Dutch civil service systems in the
for women in 1919, senior civil servants were part of the
decentralized unitary state was the emphasis on a job
dominant liberal elite. Likewise they were of a Dutch
system of recruitment and promotion. To a lesser ex-
(non-orthodox) reformed background. This can be ex-
tent career systems can also be found, although they are
plained by the fact that most academic civil servants
Nevertheless their importance
were recruited from the then-premier Dutch universi-
should not be underestimated. These exceptions include
ty in Leiden, which trained the national elite that had
corps-like structures for the military, judiciary, police,
predominantly this political and religious disposition.
diplomatic service and, till recently and to a certain ex-
Candidates from underprivileged religious groups such
tent, the Inland Revenue and the Department of Public
as Catholics and orthodox Protestants were only mar-
Works. In addition, the colonial service in the former
ginally recruited to senior positions due to their limited
Dutch Indies (the Royal Dutch Colonial Army) was also
access to the university system, closed elite recruitment
based on this corps structure. With the exception of the
and religious discrimination.
exceptions to the rule.
15
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When pointing to political aspects of recruitment
infrastructure, social affairs, welfare provisions and
and nomination procedures of civil servants, we have
public enterprises. These tasks arose in addition to the
to keep in mind that organized political parties in the
law and order and safety tasks of the Night Watch State.
Netherlands only slowly acquired a hold on the political
In particular in the areas of social and health care, edu-
system. Political parties first came into existence during
cation and social housing, public service provision was
the last quarter of the 19th century. This process started
shared with the societal pillars mentioned in our in-
with the founding of Protestant (ARP: 1879 and CHU:
troduction. This implied the existence of, for instance,
1908) and later Roman Catholic (RKSP: 1926) confession-
Catholic and Protestant schools, hospitals, and housing
al parties as part of the religious emancipation process
corporations next to (mainly) government institutions.
of underprivileged religious groups. The social demo-
For these institutions governments had an enabling
cratic party (SDAP: 1894) came into existence as a conse-
function, though the actual term was not used. After the
quence of the so-called social question that was caused
First World War they were increasingly financed from
by the negative social side-effects of the industrializa-
government budgets. The explanation for this can be
tion of the Netherlands. An exception to the formally po-
found in the dominance of Catholic and Protestant par-
litically neutral method of recruitment is to be found in
ties in parliament from 1918 till the 1970s.
the appointments Thorbecke made to crucial provincial
Given the complexity and nature of the new tasks,
positions after 1848. As stated, Thorbecke was the driv-
the setting of ambitious targets, the utilization of new
ing force behind the new constitutional order of 1848.
kinds of work expertise stemming from a wide range
He appointed, for instance, new King’s Commissioners
of relevant disciplines, more direct and penetrating in-
in the provinces on the basis of shared political ideas.22
tervention methods and the need for a more proactive
His principal motive was to realize a fundamental policy
attitude of civil servants, all governments became more
and/or system change by diminishing the grip of the old
dependent on substantive civil service expertise in vari-
administrative vanguard through appointing loyal new
ous task areas.23 An adequate supply of a trained and
officials. Nevertheless, recruitment on the basis of pure
equipped workforce was needed in order to fill the in-
political allegiance rarely occurred during the 19th and
creasing number of civil service vacancies. Next to the
early 20th century. Political recruitment to senior civil
growing demand for technical experts in the areas men-
service positions only became visible after the 1970s.
tioned above, the management of political administra-
Patronage on the basis of family, religious or political
tive processes in terms of public policy and organization
ties slowly but surely diminished after the 1880s, merit
also generated a demand for generalist and professional
became the dominant principle as enshrined in the on-
civil servants.
going bureaucratization process of government and its
civil service systems.
After World War II the need for an able and professional civil service received an additional powerful
boost by having to confront the immediate necessities
of the post-war reconstruction, given the large-scale de-
3.2 The consequences of the changing
decentralized unitary state for civil service
systems in the era of the Welfare State
1880–1980s
struction which had occurred during the German occu-
It is important for understanding the changes in gov-
found effects on the composition of the ruling political
ernment personnel policies and management after 1880
and administrative elites of power. While the changes
that with the growth and diversification of government
to Dutch society and government were not as compre-
tasks a need for a more professional and formalized
hensive and far-reaching as some might have wanted,
bureaucracy did arise. The transition from the Night
significant reforms were introduced. Not only did the
Watch to the Welfare State (as described in figure 1)
range of government tasks expand, while the tasks were
involved the emergence of an extensive and complex
intensified, but also the more proactive and interven-
range of tasks such as education, housing, health care,
tionist government approach emerged in earnest as
pation. This need was strengthened by the rapid social
and economic development of the Dutch economy and
society from the late 1950s and 1960s. The war had pro-
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(central) government took the lead in a planned and
tance of pillarized public service delivery after the 1970s
systematic approach to confronting a wide range of so-
– due in part to rapid secularization of Dutch society –
cial and economic issues. Because of the experience in
there was an increase in responsibilities of and pressure
World War II with (military) planning and strategy and
on government organization in terms of growth of staff
still remembering the ineffective social and economic
and finances.25 Negative effects were reinforced by the
policies of the successive governments during the pe-
prevailing job system that had a negative effect on the
riod between 1918 and 1940, a demand for a new civil
inflexible deployment of civil servants, manifesting itself
service appeared: a civil service able to operate in these
in deficient (inter)departmental and intergovernmental
new demanding conditions. The War and its aftermath
mobility. People did change jobs over the years but for
thus gave rise to, or at least stimulated the development
the most part within their own ministerial or local gov-
of, a professional bureaucracy with an increased em-
ernment unit and on their own accord. Job-switching be-
phasis on technical experts rather than on the old clas-
tween the public and private sector was very limited. In
In the emerging Dutch
addition, the institutionalization of training with a wider
political science and public administration societies
scope and a longer time frame was exceedingly difficult.
(consisting of practioners and academics) and the rel-
Given the allocation of training budgets to decentralized
evant academic periodicals, the urgency of these civil
units, training was primarily targeted at the needs of
service reforms was also maintained.
the particular function currently performed. The per-
sical administrative functions.
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The need for a more professional civil service led to
spective of actual long-term public sector employment
a bureaucratization and professionalization of person-
and training was hardly taken into consideration, as the
nel management from the 1950s. At the central level of
training budget came from the particular unit where the
government, structural reform was introduced with the
official was employed.
short-lived Central Personnel Bureau, the RPD (psycho-
Since the 1970s, external advisory committees26 were
logical tests), the RGD (medical services) and the ROI (cen-
installed to come up with ideas to combat coordination
tral government training institute). These organizations
deficits that occurred because of compartmentalization.
were part of the Home Office. This development was
In the reports of the external advisory committee Struc­
mirrored in the larger municipalities. In essence, recruit-
ture of Central Government Organization (Commissie
ment (policies) and human resources management prac-
Hoofdstructuur Rijksdienst), the need for a senior civil
tices in central government remained the domain of each
service was argued in order to diminish departmental
department. The same is true for the larger municipal
compartmentalization and the negative side effects of
units and enterprises. The policy initiatives and programs
the job system. Only much later, however, would such a
mentioned above were rather technocratic (and rational-
senior public service be created with the Senior Public
ized), which befitted the dominant mood of the time. Not
Service (Algemene Bestuursdienst or ABD) in 1995. The
only was this attitude to be found within government it-
target group were senior and top civil servants with a
self, but it was also prevailing in the (growing) public ad-
management responsibility. The basic idea behind the
ministration professional and academic community. This
ABD was that it could further (interdepartmental) mo-
rationalized and planned approach was short-lived, as
bility. Previous policies directed at increasing senior
it could not withstand resistance by other departments.
service mobility had proved to be largely ineffectual.
The compartmentalized structure of central (but also of
Officials were expected to change positions and depart-
local) government, as described in section 2, proved to be
ments regularly. A directorate-general (bureau ABD)
detrimental to this centralized approach.
had been created at the Ministry of the Interior under
With the growth in tasks and personnel, the intensifi-
the dual supervision of the minister of that department
cation of societal intervention and organizational prolif-
and the prime minister. Its function was to operate as
eration of government in the post-World War II period,
a personnel office to the ABD. These recruitment tasks
the negative effects of this organizational compartmen-
were accompanied by management development ac-
talization on public service delivery and civil service
tivities.27 Within the ABD a separate top management
performance increased. With the diminishing impor-
group (TMG) was established. This group consisted of
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permanent secretaries, inspectors-general and direc-
1993 en 1994‹). It was recommended to decentralize la-
tors-general. These top civil servants are appointed for
bor negotiations and create thirteen sectors for these ne-
a particular position in a department for a maximum
gotiations. These sectors included: central government,
of seven years on recommendation of the Minister of
defence, police, judiciary, municipalities, provinces, wa-
the Interior and the Cabinet after undergoing an ABD
ter boards, primary and secondary education, higher
selection procedure. They are currently employed by
vocational education, universities, public sector research
the Minister of the Interior and posted at a given min-
organizations, and university teaching hospitals. Em-
istry. This posting is done in consultation with the min-
ployers’ organizations negotiate with public-sector labor
In addition, new talent
unions about working conditions and pay. Pensions and
is being recruited for future ABD positions who will re-
the nature of the public-sector negotiations system have
ceive training and coaching in a so-called candidate pro-
been excluded. These are still discussed at the central
gramme.29 In addition to the ABD and TMG initiatives,
level. Employers and labor unions have each been work-
there are management trainee programs (rijkstrainees)
ing together in their respective umbrella organizations.
for aspiring higher civil servants recruited from univer-
These organizations can meet each other in the Council
sity. Thus, in the last two decades the dominant job sys-
of Public Sector Personnel Policy (Raad voor het Over-
tem has been amended by introducing career elements.
heidspersoneelsbeleid).
ister of the given department.
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28
The main driving forces have been the desire to increase employability and promote mobility schemes in
ernment, but local government and especially the larger
3.3 The consequences of the changing
decentralized unitary state on civil service
systems in the era of the Enabling State
municipalities are also moving in this direction.
Since the middle of the 1980s, a slow but certain change
order to enhance interdepartmental integration. What
has been said above reflects the situation in central gov-
Above we have looked into reform to combat com-
from a Welfare State towards an Enabling State has be-
partmentalization and thereby increase centralization in
come manifest in the Netherlands. The financial crises
the civil service system. Centralization also occurred in
of the 1980s combined with what was considered to be
the particular and important form of collective wage and
an overloaded (primarily central) government that was
pension agreements for civil servants. After initial cen-
not able to address the social and economic problems of
tralization immediately after World War II, there was a
the day. This led to a fundamental overhaul of the Wel-
clear move towards decentralization. Prior to 1987 there
fare State. The shift mentioned earlier from a pillarized
existed a centralized negotiations system in the Nether-
public service delivery to a governmental and a non-
lands. Though the Civil Service Act of those days specified
profit one in the 1970s also increased the pressure on
that the different governments were in charge of their
the civil service (size) and stretched government financ-
own labor relations, central government could take the
es. In order to solve these crises, cutbacks in the social
lead by using the provisions in the law and force other
policy domain, decentralization to local government,
governments to follow. This befitted the planned and
privatization and agentification of public tasks, down-
guided wage policy of the time that existed until 195930
sizing civil services and increasing citizen participation
and gave a predominant role to central government, as
in service delivery became the main policies. As a result
wage negotiations were led by the Minister of the Interior.
the Welfare State was transformed and made way to an
As this centralized approach was considered increasing-
Enabling State. This Enabling State operates within the
ly unsatisfactory, the four labor unions for government
(administrative) traditional bounds of the decentralized
personnel, the Minister of the Interior, the Association of
unitary state and the prerequisite of citizen involve-
Netherlands Municipalities (VNG), the Interprovinciaal
ment in public service delivery. The Enabling State in-
Overleg (Interprovincial Consultation or IPO) and the As-
volves creating and supplying the necessary ›good‹ con-
sociation of Regional Water Authorities (UVW) signed a
ditions for (civil) society and the economy to take care
protocol in 1994 to divide negotiations according to gov-
of their own and the communal interest. Those societal
ernment sectors (›Protocol sectoralisatie van het overleg
interests are considered paramount. These conditions
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are often conveyed through the concepts of ›good gov-
supportive role for civil servants. Fewer and fewer civil
ernance‹ and institutional capacity.31 The Enabling State
servants are involved in the direct provision of welfare
shares some aspects of the 19th-century Night Watch
and production tasks, and more in facilitating or coor-
State in regard to the importance of law-and-order
dinating public service delivery.34 The exception is the
safety tasks. At the same time, however, its task area, its
implementation of law-and-order tasks, which are still
way of operation, and its societal involvement are much
predominantly the province of government and the
broader. It also involves and stresses the defining tasks
civil service. Actual production tasks have been or are
of government, much more than was the case with the
in the process of being privatized or decentralized to
This Enabling State
local governments, and then tendered out to profit or
can be proactive in having to create and supply neces-
non-profit organizations or increasingly performed by
sary good conditions for the operations of the market
citizens themselves. Civil servants in the Enabling State
economy and civil society. Those conditions refer to the
are mainly active in those areas where the unique and
maintenance of a reliable and transparent legal and ad-
binding character of government comes to the forefront:
ministrative system. Society, the business community
the areas where public authority is exercised, where a
and foreign investors should know and count on an ef-
regulatory and supervising role is needed, a system re-
fective and efficient operation of the legal system. This
sponsibility is at hand and where it is operating as a so-
includes active care for an operational legal system, a
cietal facilitator. In the next section we will have look
neutral judiciary, open access to the courts, clear laws
at what this implies for the legal status of civil servants.
Night Watch and Welfare States.
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concerning property rights and contracts. In addition to
Another implication is the idea that a ›new‹ civil
these administrative legal aspects, emphasis is increas-
servant is needed to be suitable in a ›new‹ kind of pub-
ingly placed on independent regulatory agencies for
lic administration.35 Personnel cutbacks over the last
guaranteeing the existence of full market conditions.
decades and a limited new intake of staff have caused
The existence of a reliable financial system and devel-
imbalance between the actual and the required quali-
opment of a stable policy, the promoting and maintain-
ties within the civil service system. To end on a nega-
ing a modern system of physical infrastructure, and the
tive note: retraining is needed but cutbacks on training
development of human infrastructure by educating a
budgets in the last decade make things quite difficult.
well-trained workforce, are also included in the necessary conditions. Finally, government is expected to have
my. In this respect it also has to function as a last resort
3.4 The changing legal position of civil
servants and the need for recruiting
professional civil servants
and safety net for those in society that cannot take care
The expanding public service and the increasing de-
of themselves. Here, a major difference with the Wel-
mand for specialist and professional personnel had as a
fare State becomes apparent: government is a last but
side effect a legislative push for a legally better protect-
not a first resort. The first resort is society itself, which
ed service.36 During the 19th and early 20th centuries,
is enabled by government. As such, one can also speak
the legal position of civil servants within the system of
of a transition from a Welfare State to a Welfare Society.
government was relatively weak given the absence of
The role and position of the civil service towards the
a legal framework.37 Thorbecke had already argued in
public (customers) and towards political officeholders
1848 that it was necessary to enshrine the position of
(principals), as well as its preferred mode of functioning,
civil servants in public law. Only much later, in 1929,
have been and still are in a process of adapting to this
was such an act enacted by parliament. Because of the
new enabling role of the state (see figure 1). This implies
need to attract skilled personnel, some social and pro-
that civil servants are recruited and trained for execut-
tective measures were issued, starting with pensions
ing the classical law-and-order tasks and the Enabling
and widow assistance schemes later in the 19th centu-
The role of citizens and
ry.38 As a result of efforts and pressure from within the
society is thus increasingly being emphasized with a
civil service, assisted by legal experts like Krabbe with
a system responsibility for the state (institutions) in case
of a breakdown of vital parts of society and the econo-
State tasks mentioned above.
33
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his influential dissertation (1883)39 and a state commit-
sectors. At the same time, it would be easier to dismiss
tee40, a Civil Service Act (CSA) was adopted in 1929.41
officials. A third reason that is often mentioned is that at
This act encompassed all levels of government. How-
present two systems coexist, namely a private labor law
ever, the CSA 1929 did not contain very detailed provi-
and a public-law one. During the debate emanating from
sions. Instead, it provided a general framework and its
this proposal, the initiative and its supporting arguments
operationalization depended on bylaws and regulations
were heavily criticized by the Council of State and pub-
that were made by the various governments. For in-
lic administration experts for lacking consistency and
stance, in 1931 the General Regulation for Central Gov-
empirical evidence for supporting the arguments.46 An
ernment Civil Servants (ARAR) was adopted. This pro-
important point is that with the change from a Welfare
cess of regulating the formal position of civil servants
to an Enabling State, civil service employment has been
also had effects on formalizing recruitment procedures
confined to the classic law-and-order and societal facili-
and formalizing the inclusion of merit criteria within
tating tasks. Here the unique and the binding nature of
those procedures. It is, however, important to point to
the government are visible.
42
the fact that not everyone in the public service was an
official subject to the CSA. The CSA left open an option
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4. Conclusion and final remarks
contract of employment under civil law. This especially
related to lower and temporary positions. In 1947 69 %
The central question we addressed was to what extent
of public servants were employed on the basis of an em-
the nature and content of merit principles for Dutch
ployment contract.43 Today, this category does not exist,
civil service systems were influenced by the changing
as virtually all public servants are employed under the
decentralized unitary state, during the periods of the
CSA. In 1995, the applicable regulations concerning con-
Night Watch, Welfare and Enabling State between 1814
tract agents were withdrawn.
44
By means of privatiza-
tion, contracting out and agentification, these categories
of positions have now virtually disappeared.
and 2016.
We have argued that the Dutch case of the effects of
the decentralized unitary state on civil service systems is
The legal position of civil servants has remained a
interesting to study as it was meant as a compromise and
point of contention since the 1950s. Changes in the role
solution to the failing particularistic and decentralized
and functions of government combined with the better
confederative structure of the Republic and the oppres-
legal protection of private labor protection raised the
sive centralized arrangements during the annexation
question whether a public law status for civil servants
to France. The current formulation of the decentralized
was still necessary. This issue lingered for many years
unitary state is the inheritance of the legislative work of
while some material points (such as labor negotiation
the leading Dutch 19th-century statesman Johan Rudolph
and the right to strike) were harmonized. In the 2010s
Thorbecke. The basic tenets were that the decentralized
the debate has intensified and a member initiative has
unitary state is made up primarily of general-purpose
been sent to the Second Chamber to abolish the public
governments (central government, provincial govern-
law appointment of the larger part of the civil service.45
ments and municipalities) and secondarily of functional
These officials remain in the employ of government and
bodies such as water boards. In each of these govern-
keep a civil service status, but are given a contract of
ments, the sovereignty of the state is embodied. The
employment on a private-law basis. Specific public-law
Thorbeckian model of the decentralized unitary state
regulation regarding, for instance, integrity, but also a
with its emphasis on the autonomy and self-government
wage cap for top civil servants remains in force. The mili-
of its constituent components also stressed the central
tary, police, political office holders and judges keep their
place and involvement of society in the public domain.
appointment under public law. This equalization of the
That role of the citizens took shape as voluntary citizens’
public with the private-law position is called ›normaliza-
action during the Night Watch State. In the larger part of
tion‹. The arguments provided by its supporters included
the Welfare State years, from the 1880s to the 1970s, it
the increase of mobility between the private and public
manifested itself in the pillarized society. After the 1970s
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and the partial collapse of pillarized society, there was a
this particular era, the effects on civil service quality were
movement towards a more individualized form of a par-
limited given the high level of pre-entry education. Dur-
ticipatory and coproducing society coinciding with the
ing this period senior civil servants predominantly had a
emergence of the Enabling State. Together these features
legal background, working in such areas as law and order
can be seen as crucial components of the Dutch admin-
and general administration. While they were able to use
istrative tradition and administrative model. That tradi-
the power of the state, the scope and depth of interven-
tion has remained a lasting feature during the periods
tion in societal affairs was limited and reactive.
of the Night Watch, Welfare and Enabling State with its
That changed with the rise of the Welfare State, start-
influence on the place, role and functioning of the civil
ing towards the end of the 19th century and coming to
service systems adapting to the needs of time.
full bloom after 1945. The expansion and diversification
In accordance with the decentralized unitary struc-
of public tasks, particularly at the municipal level, ne-
ture, personnel management and regulations were con-
cessitated a more professional and formalized bureau-
sidered the prime responsibility of each government.
cracy. This range of tasks comprised education, housing,
For instance, with the exception of mentioning the ex-
health care, infrastructure, social affairs, welfare provi-
istence of a town clerk and receiver, no provisions were
sions and public enterprises. The management of politi-
inserted in the Municipal Law concerning local govern-
cal, public policy and organization processes increased
ment civil services. The same is true with respect to
the demand for well-trained generalist civil servants.
other institutional laws. In addition, the Constitution
Technical experts were needed in these areas next to
stipulates that the position of civil servants should be
expertise needed for law and order and general admin-
regulated by law but the exact way is left open. The Civil
istration. The complex character of these extensive Wel-
Service Act 1929 only provides a general outline that
fare State tasks, the accompanying ambitious objectives,
was to be made concrete in local regulations. With the
the application of new work methods derived from a
exception of the years of centralization immediately af-
wide range of relevant disciplines, the direct and pen-
ter World War II, wage agreements, labor negations and
etrating intervention methods and the need for a more
settlements have in general been very much decentral-
proactive attitude of civil servants necessitated a new
ized since 1994, although mutual consultation between
civil servant. The necessity led to specialized training
government employers did and does exist. As such ri-
and education programs as well as the professionaliza-
valry between central and local levels of government re-
tion of personnel management.
garding competencies and recruitment rarely has rarely
Given this urgency, local government made the ear-
occurred or been acted upon, except perhaps in the in-
liest steps in the process of adapting to the new civil
terlude mentioned above regarding wage negotiations.
service. During the early days of the Welfare State, the
We have argued that civil service requirements have
proliferation of government tasks originated at the mu-
changed due to changes in the public sector and society,
nicipal level, given the pressing social and economic
as is visible in the consequences of the transition from a
needs of the day. Likewise, training for (specialist and
Night Watch to a Welfare State and more recently the En-
generalist) civil service jobs started at the municipal lev-
abling State. That transition influences what is expected
el. As an example, the initiative for extensive public ad-
of the role and position of civil servants at the different
ministration training and education started at the local
levels of government in the decentralized unitary state.
level and gradually also came to central and provincial
At the same time it had an effect on what is required of
governments. Public administration, economics and so-
civil servants in terms of knowledge, capabilities, atti-
cial sciences eroded the monopoly of legal training with-
tude, skills and experience. The early 19th century system
in the Dutch civil services. Programs were developed at
of recruitment, promotion and deployment was at first
administrative academies and in the final quarter of the
primarily based on personal relationships. That already
20th century also at universities, a feature the Nether-
changed during the later Night Watch State era with the
lands shared with the USA. Central government became
ongoing bureaucratization of administrative procedures.
involved in earnest after the Second World War when it
Though patronage still played an important role during
took central stage in public service delivery.
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From the early 1980s, the Welfare State gradually
The role and position of the civil service towards
gave way to an Enabling State. Primary causes were
the public (customers), political officeholders (princi-
the financial crisis of the 1980s, the overburdening es-
pals) and its preferred mode of functioning have been
pecially of central government, and its problems with
and are still being adapted to this new enabling role of
handling current social and economic problems. In ad-
the state. This implies that civil servants are recruited
dition, a more ideological dimension was at play relat-
and trained for executing the classical law-and-order
ing to the processes of individualization, the popularity
tasks and the Enabling State tasks mentioned above.
of political and economic neoliberalism and the ongo-
The role of citizens and society is thus increasingly be-
ing depillarization of Dutch society. Cutbacks in social
ing emphasized with a supportive or facilitating role
expenditure, decentralization to local government, pri-
for civil servants. Fewer and fewer civil servants are
vatization and agentification of public tasks, downsiz-
involved in welfare and production tasks and more
ing civil services and increasing citizen participation
in facilitating or coordinating public service delivery.
in service delivery were seen as the best way to tackle
The exception is the implementation of law-and-order
these issues. This led to an erosion of a state-led welfare
tasks that are still predominantly the domain of gov-
system. The Enabling State emerged. We have defined
ernment and the civil service. Again a ›new‹ civil serv-
an Enabling State as involved in generating and supply-
ant is needed to fit the new job requirements. Person-
ing the necessary good conditions for (civil) society and
nel cutbacks over the last decades and a limited new
the economy to take care of its own and the communal
intake of staff have caused a mismatch between the ac-
interest. Those societal interests are considered para-
tual and the required qualities within the civil service.
mount. These conditions are often conveyed through
A retraining is necessary but cutbacks in the training
the concepts of good governance and institutional ca-
budget have made things quite difficult. Civil servants
pacity.47 The Enabling State shares, to a certain extent,
in the Enabling State are predominantly active in areas
the core tasks of the Night Watch State: the importance
where the unique and binding nature of the govern-
of law, order and safety tasks. At the same time, as stat-
ment is visible. We pointed to a system responsibility
ed, its range of tasks, its way of operation and societal
in the exercise of public authority in areas where the
involvement is much more extensive and more proac-
regulatory and supervising role of government is es-
tive. This also includes the tasks of supplying the right
sential and where the function of a societal facilitator
conditions for societal development and self-govern-
is needed. That special nature has been and still is an
ance as described above, much more than was the case
argument to create and keep a special public law status
of the Night Watch and Welfare States.48
for civil servants.
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publieke dienst, Leiden 2012. • — / B E R G , Caspar F. van den / D I J K S T R A , Gerrit S. A.: Het eigene van de overheid en haar personeel
in een systeem van multi-level governance: naar een nieuwe ambtelijke
status, Leiden 2012. • »Minder overheid, maar wie denkt er na over de
lange termijn?«, in: Mejudice www.mejudice.nl/artikelen/detail/minderoverheid-maar-wie-denkt-er-na-over-de-lange-termijn (Date: November
18, 2014). • — / R A A D S C H E L D E R S , Jos C. N. / T O O N E N , Theo
A. J.: The Civil Service in the 21st Century, Completely Revised 2nd edition: Comparative Perspectives, Houndsmill 2015. • — / B E R G , Caspar
F. van den: »Government and society in the active and the enabling state: A framework for analyzing transitions across time and place«, paper
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presented at the IRSPM conference 2016 in Hong Kong 2016. P O E L ­
J E , Gerrit A. van: »De gemeente-ambtenaar«, in: H. Th. Klein, et al. (Ed.),
Gedenkboek uitgegeven ter gelegenheid van het 40-jarig bestaan van
den Nederlandschen Bond van Gemeente-Ambtenaaren, Alphen aan
den Rijn 1933, p. 106–114. R A A D S C H E L D E R S , Jos C. N.: »Administrative History: Contents, Meaning and Usefulness«, in: International Review of Administrative Sciences 60/1 (1994), p. 117–129. • — /
R U T G E R S , Mark R.: »The Evolution of Civil Service Systems«, in: Hans
A. G. M. Bekke, James L. Perry, Theo A. J. Toonen (Eds.), Civil Service Systems in Comparative Perspective, Bloomington 1996, p. 67–99. • Handbook of Administrative History, New Brunswick, etc. 1998. • et al.,
»Against A Study of the History of Public Administration: A Manifesto«,
in: Administrative Theory and Practice 22/4 (2000), p. 772–791. • »Is
American public administration detached from historical context? On
the nature of time and the need to understand it in government and
its study«, in: American review of public administration 40/3 (2010), p.
235–260. R A N D E R A A D , Nico, »Civil Servants in Nederland (18151915)«, in: Bijdragen en Mededelingen over de Geschiedenis van Nederland 2/109 (1994), p. 209–236. S T E K E L E N B U R G , Mikis, 200 jaar
werken bij de overheid, 2 volumes, Den Haag 1999. T I L L Y , Charles,
»Why and how history matters«, in: Robert E. Goodin, Charles Tilly (Eds.),
The Oxford handbook of contextual political analysis, Oxford, etc. 2008,
p. 417–437. T O O N E N , Theo A. J., Denken over binnenlands bestuur:
theorieën van de gedecentraliseerde eenheidsstaat bestuurskundig beschouwd, ’s Gravenhage 1987. V A U G H N , Stephen (Ed.), The vital past:
writings on the uses of history, Athens 1985. I J S S E L M U I D E N ,
Pieter G. van, Binnenlandse Zaken en het Ontstaan van de Moderne
Overheidsbureaucratie in Nederland 1813–1950, Kampen 1988.
A
152 F ri ts v an de r Me e r, Ge rr it D ij k st ra, To o n K e rk hof f — Th e D u t c h d e c e n t ra l i ze d u n i t a r y s t a t e
1
Frits van der Meer, Gerrit Dijkstra and Toon Kerkhoff are working at
and for the Institute of Public Administration Leiden University.
2 In accordance with practice in the field of comparative civil service
systems, civil servants and public servants are considered to be
synonymous.
3 Frits M. van der Meer, »Public Sector Reform in Western Europe and
the Rise of the Enabling State: an Approach to Analysis«, in: Rohit
Raj Mathur (Ed.), Glimpses of Civil Service Reform, Hyderabad 2009,
p. 171–195; Frits M. van der Meer, Voorwaarden, waarborgen en
ambtenaren. De gevolgen van de opkomst van de voorwaardenscheppende staat voor de publieke dienst, Leiden 2012.
4 See, amongst many others, Lynton K. Caldwell, »The Relevance of
Administrative History«, in: International Review of Administrative
Sciences 21 (1955), p. 453–466; Jos C. N. Raadschelders, »Administrative History: Contents, Meaning and Usefulness«, in: International Review of Administrative Sciences 60 (1994), p. 117–129;
Jos C. N. Raadschelders, et al., »Against A Study of the History of
Public Administration: A Manifesto«, in: Administrative Theory and
Practice 22 (2000), p. 772–791; Jos C. N. Raadschelders, »Is American Public Administration Detached From Historical Context? On
the Nature of Time and the Need to Understand It in Government
and Its Study«, in: American Review of Public Administration 40
(2010), p. 235–260; Charles Tilly, »Why and How History Matters«,
in: Robert E. Goodin, Charles Tilly (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of
Contextual Political Analysis, Oxford, etc. 2006, p. 417–437; Stephen Vaughn (Ed.), The Vital Past. Writings on the Uses of History,
Athens [GA] 1985.
5 Raadschelders, et al., »Against a Study«, p. 782.
6 Jos C. N. Raadschelders, Handbook of Administrative History, New
Brunswick, etc. 1998, p. 9.
7 Laurence E. Lynn Jr., Public Management: Old and New, New York
2006, p. 22.
8 Frits M. van der Meer, Jos C. N. Raadschelders, Theo A. J. Toonen,
»Modelos administrativos, tradiciones y reformas. ¿Último recurso
explicativo?«, in: Estado, Gobierno, Gestión Pública. Revista Chilena
de Administración Pública 12 (2008), p. 85–103.
9 Frits M. van der Meer, Jos C. N. Raadschelders, »Between Restauration and Consolidation: The Napoleonic Model of Administration in
the Netherlands 1795–1990«, in: Bernd Wunder (Ed.), The Napoleonic Model of Government, Brussels 1995, p. 199–221, here p. 220.
10 Frits M.van der Meer, »Minder overheid, maar wie denkt er na over
de lange termijn?«, in: Mejudice www.mejudice.nl/artikelen/detail/minder-overheid-maar-wie-denkt-er-na-over-de-lange-termijn
(Date: November 18 2014).
11 Theo A. J. Toonen, Denken over binnenlands bestuur: theorieën van
de gedecentraliseerde eenheidsstaat bestuurskundig beschouwd, ’s
Gravenhage 1987.
12 Van der Meer, Voorwaarden, waarborgen en ambtenaren; Frits van
der Meer, Caspar F. van den Berg, »Government and society in the
active and the enabling state: A framework for analyzing transitions
across time and place«, paper presented at the IRSPM conference
2016 in Hong Kong 2016.
13 Hans A. G. M. Bekke, James L. Perry, Theo A. J. Toonen (Eds.), Civil
Service Systems in Comparative Perspective, Bloomington/Indiana
1996, p. 2.
14 Gerrit S. A. Dijkstra, Frits M. van der Meer, »The civil service system
of the Netherlands«, in: Frits M. van der Meer (Ed.), Civil service systems in Western Europe, Cheltenham, Aldershot 2011, p. 157–191.
15Ibidem.
16 Van der Meer/Raadschelders, »Between Restauration and Consolidation«.
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17 Aris van Braam, Ambtenaren en bureaukratie in Nederland, Zeist
1957; Nico Randeraad, »Civil Servants in Nederland (1815–1915)«,
in: Bijdragen en Mededelingen over de Geschiedenis van Nederland
2/109 (1994), p. 209–236.
18 Pieter G. van IJsselmuiden, Binnenlandse Zaken en het Ontstaan
van de Moderne Overheidsbureaucratie in Nederland 1813–1950,
Kampen 1988.
19Ibidem.
20Ibidem.
21 Randeraad, »Civil Servants in Nederland«.
22 Ronald Kroeze, Een kwestie van politieke moraliteit. Politieke corruptieschandalen en goed bestuur in Nederland. 1848–1940, Hilversum 2013.
23 Gerrit A. van Poelje, »De gemeente-ambtenaar«, in: H. Th. Klein, et
al. (Ed.), Gedenkboek uitgegeven ter gelegenheid van het 40-jarig
bestaan van den Nederlandschen Bond van Gemeenteambtenaren,
Alphen aan den Rijn 1933, p. 106–114.
24 Frits M. van der Meer, Jos C. N. Raadschelders, Toon D. N. Kerkhoff,
»Van nachtwakersstaat naar waarborgstaat. Proliferatie en vervlechting van het Nederlandse openbaarbestuur in de lange twintigste eeuw (1880–2005)«, in: Pieter Wagenaar, Toon D. N. Kerkhoff,
Mark R. Rutgers (Eds.), Duizend jaar openbaar bestuur in Nederland: Van patrimoniaal bestuur naar waarborgstaat, Bussum 2011,
p. 221–290.
25 We point here to increased responsibilities but not actual service
delivery. The greater part of the former health care and housing
corporations on a religious basis continued as independent (managerially run) organizations on a non-religious basis. They merged
with (municipal) facilities to become part of these new management-based organizations. The exception to this rule was primary,
secondary and university education.
26 Commissie van Veen, Rapport van de Commissie Interdepartementale Taakverdeling en Coördinatie, ’s-Gravenhage 1971; Commissie Hoofdstructuur Rijksdienst (Vonhoff), Voordat de lade klikt,
’s-Gravenhage 1981; Commissie Hoofdstructuur Rijksdienst (Vonhoff), Eindadvies, ’s-Gravenhage 1981; Commissie Hoofdstructuur
Rijksdienst (Vonhoff), Elk kent de laan die derwaarts gaat, rapport 3,
’s-Gravenhage 1980.
27 Dijkstra / Van der Meer, »The civil service system of the Netherlands«.
28Ibidem.
29Ibidem.
30 Mikis Stekelenburg, 200 jaar werken bij de overheid, 2 volumes, Den
Haag 1999.
31 Van der Meer, »Public Sector reform in Western Europe«.
32 Van der Meer, Voorwaarden, waarborgen en ambtenaren; Van der
Meer/Berg, »Government and society in the active and the enabling
state«; Van der Meer, »Public Sector Reform in Western Europe and
the Rise of the Enabling State«.
33 Frits van der Meer, Jos C. N. Raadschelders, Theo A. J. Toonen, The
Civil Service in the 21st Century, Completely Revised 2nd edition:
Comparative Perspectives, Houndsmill 2015.
34 Gerrit Dijkstra, Frits van der Meer, Caspar F. van den Berg, »Is er nu
wel of niet sprake van een terugtredende overheid?«, in: Jaap J. M.
Uijlenbroek (Ed.), Staat van de ambtelijke Dienst, Den Haag 2015 (b),
p. 23–37.
35 Van der Meer, Voorwaarden, waarborgen en ambtenaren; Frits van
der Meer, Caspar F. van den Berg, Gerrit S. A. Dijkstra, Het eigene van de overheid en haar personeel in een systeem van multilevel governance: naar een nieuwe ambtelijke status, Leiden 2012;
Caspar F. van der Berg, Frits M. van der Meer, Gerrit S. A. Dijkstra,
153 F ri ts v an de r Me e r, Ge rr it D ij k st ra, To o n K e rk hof f — Th e D u t c h d e c e n t ra l i ze d u n i t a r y s t a t e
A
»­ Traditions, Bargains and the Emergence of the Protected Public
Servant in Western Europe«, in: Fritz Sager, Patrick Overeem (Eds.),
The European Public Servant. A Shared Administrative Identity?,
London 2015 (a), p. 117–135.
36 Jos C. N. Raadschelders, Mark R. Rutgers, »The Evolution of Civil
Service Systems«, in: Hans A. G. M. Bekke, James L. Perry, Theo A.
J. Toonen (Eds.), Civil Service Systems in Comparative Perspective,
Bloomington 1996, p. 67–99.
37 Van IJsselmuiden, Binnenlandse Zaken en het Ontstaan van de Moderne Overheidsbureaucratie in Nederland.
38 Frits M. van der Meer, Jos C. N. Raadschelders, »The unification of
the civil service pension system in the Netherlands 1798–1922«, in:
Bernd Wunder (Ed.), Pension systems for public servants in Western
Europe 19th/20th century, Baden-Baden 2001, p 113–127.
39 Hugo Krabbe, De burgerlijke staatsdienst, Dissertation, Leiden 1883.
40 Hendrik Coenraad Dresselhuys, Verslag van de Staatscommissie ter
voorbereiding van algemeene wettelijke regelen betreffende den
rechtstoestand van ambtenaren (ingesteld bij Kon. Besluit van 21
mei 1917 No. 27), ‘s Gravenhage 1919.
41 Dijkstra/Van der Meer, »The civil service system of the Netherlands«.
42Ibidem.
43 Stekelenburg, 200 jaar werken bij de overheid.
44Ibidem.
45 Van der Berg/Van der Meer/Dijkstra, »Traditions, Bargains and the
Emergence of the Protected Public Servant in Western Europe«.
46Ibidem.
47 Van der Meer, »Public Sector reform in Western Europe«.
48 Van der Meer, Voorwaarden, waarborgen en ambtenaren; Van der
Meer/van den Berg, »Government and society in the active and the
enabling state«.
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Abstract
About the Authors
The central question on our article is: to what extent were
Frits van der Meer is CAOP professor in comparative public
the nature and content of merit principles for Dutch civil
sector and civil service reform and working at the Leiden
service systems influenced by the (changing) decentralized
Institute of Public Administration. Besides his work on com-
unitary state, during the periods of the Night Watch, Welfare
parative civil service reform and comparative bureaucracy
and Enabling State between 1814 and 2016? In accordance
he has written extensively on administrative history of the
with the decentralized unitary structure as originally de-
Netherlands. He is also heading the Leiden centre for Public
vised by the 19th century Dutch statesman Johan Rudolf
Sector Reform.
154 F ri ts v an de r Me e r, Ge rr it D ij k st ra, To o n K e rk hof f — Th e D u t c h d e c e n t ra l i ze d u n i t a r y s t a t e
Thorbecke, personnel management and regulations were
(and are) considered the prime responsibility of each (level
Gerrit Dijkstra works as a senior lecturer at the Leiden In-
of) government. Our article shows how neither in past nor
stitute of Public Administration. His research is on the in-
present have there been hierarchical relationships in this
tersecting lines between law and public administration and
area, with the exception of centralized wage settlements
more particular on the consequences of legal dimensions
after the Second World War until the 1990s. In addition, we
for Public Administration. He has published extensively
argue that civil service requirements have altered due to
amongst others on juridification of PA, the relationship bet-
societal and public sector change. Those changes have be-
ween citizen and administration, the issue how to embed
come visible in a transition from a Night Watch to a Welfare
accountability, responsiveness and, responsibility within
State and more recently an Enabling State. This transition
performance management and civil service systems.
not only influenced what was expected of the role and position of civil servants at different levels of government in the
Toon Kerkhoff works as a senior lecturer at the Leiden In-
decentralized unitary state. It also had an effect on what
stitute of Public Administration. His research and teaching
has over time been required of civil servants in terms of
are characterized by a continuous and consistent historical
knowledge, capabilities, attitude, skills and experience. The
approach to core questions in public administration and
article explains how the Thorbeckian decentralized unitary
politics; most notably corruption, integrity, public values
state provided a lasting but flexible format to accommoda-
and civil service reform.
te these civil service system adjustments.