a Training Wetenschappelijk schrijven CWZ mei-­‐juni 2016 Annemarie van der Zeeuw www.focusoptekst.nl Programma
Inhoud 1.  De fasen in het schrijfproces 2.  Inhoud en opbouw van de onderdelen van een wetenschappelijke publicaDe (IMRaD). 3.  Opzet van inleiding en discussie. 4.  De kenmerken van een wetenschappelijke sDjl; lijdende vorm, naamwoordsDjl 5.  De basis van tekstopbouw: topische zinnen. 6.  De Djden van het werkwoord. 1 Sources George D. Gopen and Judith A. Swan, The science of scien1fic wri1ng. (American ScienDst Online: hTp://www.americanscienDst.org/issues/num2/the-­‐science-­‐of-­‐scienDfic-­‐
wriDng/1 You Tube video: Simon Peyton Jones, Cambridge. How to write a great research paper Steven Pinker, The elements of style. The thinking person’s guide to wriDng in the 21st century. (Penguin) Adrian Wallwork, English for wri1ng research papers. Springer, 2011. Stages of the wriDng process 5. Revising 1. Planning 4. Wri1ng (2) finding words 2. Gathering informa1on 3. Wri1ng (1) selec1ng and structuring 2 The wriDng process 5. Revising 1. Planning FORM CONTENT 4. Wri1ng 2. Gathering informa1on 3. Wri1ng selec1ng and structuring Simon Peyton Jones, Cambridge ‘How to write a great research paper’ (You Tube) The first of SEVEN SIMPLE SUGGESTIONS 1.  Write early: wriDng = researching 3 The wriDng process according to Simon Jones 5. Revising 1. Planning lah
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4. Wri1ng: finding words 2. Gathering informa1on 3. Wri1ng: selec1ng and structuring Split the wriDng and the thinking BUT ALSO AND ALTERNATELY Write to clarify and develop your thoughts •  WriDng = planning + selecDng + structuring + finding words + viewing your text through the eyes of the reader + revising 4 Basics of text design •  Paragraphs are your building blocks, so: •  Think in paragraphs, not in sentences (they come later) •  Think in ques2ons (of your reader) -­‐> they will lead you to relevant answers = content •  Never mind ‘the first sentence’ or ‘how to start?’ -­‐> Your perfect first sentence can easily be the last one you write! •  First make up your line of thought. STORY LINE OF INTRODUCTION 5 Think first Exercise Answer the quesDons in short. Don’t mind style or grammar (the how): just concentrate on content (the what). Story line of the introducDon TOPIC QUESTIONS GENERAL BACKGROUND Territory What is the topic? DILEMMA / PROBLEM Niche What is the problem? YOUR WAY TO SOLVE IT Occupying the niche What research quesDon? Why important? What do we know/what not? Gap of knowledge? Design or methodology? How to find the answer? 6 Happiness is infecDous •  Nicholas Christakis (Harvard Medical School) & James Fowler (University of California) •  Data from the Framingham Heart Study (ongoing cardiovascular study, begun in 1948) •  Study looked at 5,000 individuals over 20 years •  Happiness spreads like an emoDonal contagion •  When you get happy, the network effect can be measured up to 3 degrees •  This chain reacDon benefits friends’ friends, and your friends’ friends’ friends… •  Conversely, sadness does not spread J IntroducDon of Happiness •  What are the quesDons this introducDon answers? •  What are the topics that are addressed? 7 3 MOVES of SWALES 8 3 moves of Swales Move 1 Establishing a territory Claiming centrality – Making topic generalisa2ons – Reviewing items of previous reserach Move 2 Establishing a niche Counter-­‐claiming – Indica2ng a gap – Raising a ques2on – Con2nuing a tradi2on Move 3 Occupying the niche Outlining purposes – Announcing present research – Announcing main findings – Indica2ng ar2cle structure Swales hTp://sana.aalto.fi/awe/style/reporDng/
secDons/intros/cars/cars.html 9 The format: IMRD Introduc1on What is the subject of this study? What makes the subject an important maTer? What do we already know? What do we not know yet? What is the problem or reason for this parDcular study? So: what is the major quesDon of this study? Materials and methods What was tested or invesDgated? And how did we do it? Under what condiDons? What were the circumstances? Were there limitaDons? Results What did we find -­‐> what are the results? Discussion What are the major findings? How do we interpret and explain them? What can we derive from them? How do the findings meet or not meet our expectaDons? What are comparisons with previous studies? What are possible criDcisms? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this study? How should we carry on? Conclusions What is the answer to the major question? What does the answer implicate?
4 secDons, 4 purposes IntroducDon: moDvate your reader, give backgroud, explain importance, sketch your idea and the aim of your research Materials and Methods: make replicaDon of results possible + soundness of argument Results: to outline the most important findings, to give a picture Discussion: to give your findings meaning and convince your reader to accept your conclusion 10 The discussion TOPIC QUESTION INTENTION BoTom line main result(s) message implicaDon What is the answer to the main quesDon? What are the main results? What is our key message? StaDng the key message Comparison with earlier studies, what is different, what is new What is the value of our findings? How new is it? Are our results in line with earlier studies? If they are different/alike: how can we explain this en what does it mean? What can be deduced or generalized? Building the foundaDon of the statement; argumentaDon Weakness/strengths design/
methods staDsDcal power What are weaknesses of our study? What do they mean for our results? What are strengths and what do they mean? Possible criDcisms? InterpretaDon and mechanisms: what is solved, what is not? How can we explain the findings? What quesDons are sDll unanswered? Explain the findings; making the picture clear Clinical interpretaDon and medical relevance What can we derive from our findings? How can we use them in clinical pracDce? Who will benefit from these findings? Building the bridge between research and pracDce: applying findings Conclusion with implicaDon, suggesDons What is the general conclusion? How can we go on from here? What are suggesDons for further research? Concluding; repeaDng key message with an eye for the future Discuss a finding • 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
What is the result of the first test? Why is this a suprising result? What explanaDons are there? Did others find this as well? If not, what did they find? How can I explain differences or similariDes? How clear is this all? What must be done to know more? 11 Happiness Discussion an outline in ques2ons 1.  What is the answer to the main quesDon? -­‐> What does this show? -­‐> How remarkable is this? 2.  How do the results compare with earlier studies? (answer: in line with evoluDonary theories)-­‐> how does spreading of happiness serve an evoluDonary purpose? 3.  How can we explain these findings? -­‐> various possible mechanisms (1,2,3) 4.  What is a surprising finding? What can we learn from that / what can it mean? 5.  So what? Relevance? -­‐> example (illness) 6.  What is the general conclusion? Take home message? 2
1
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Discussion(Happiness(
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What(is(the(answer(to(
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So(what?((
What(is(the(relevance?!
How(can(we(explain(
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12 The pyramid point (key message) explanaDon, argumentaDon data, details, further background 13 The funnel introducDon details, examples, comparisons, explanaDon, argumentaDon point (key message) Book case First sentence announces content First element / step / feature / idea Second element / step / feature / idea Third element / step / feature / idea 14 The topic sentence and ….. 1. Pulmonary nerve endings were relaDvely insensiDve to phenal diguanide. 15 1. Pulmonary nerve endings were relaDvely insensiDve to phenal diguanide. Of 25 pulmonary nerve endings tested, only 10 were sDmulated when this drug was injected into the right atrium, ……………….. The pyramid point (key message) explanaDon, argumentaDon data, details, further background 16 2. There are three different theories put forward for the very slow relaxaDon of catch muscles of molluscs. 2. There are three different theories put forward for the very slow relaxaDon of catch muscles of molluscs. One theory holds that …….. The second theory holds that …… A third theory, to which I subscribe, pictures ……. 17 Book case Topic sentence announces content First element / step / feature / idea Second element / step / feature / idea Third element / step / feature / idea 3. Our results are consistent with previous work on the evoluDonary basis of human emoDons and with work focusing on the fleeDng direct spread of emoDons. 18 3. Our results are consistent with previous work on the evoluDonary basis of human emoDons and with work focusing on the fleeDng direct spread of emoDons. In addiDon to their internal and psychological relevance, emoDons have a specifically social role: when humans experience emoDons, they tend to show them. 3. Our results are consistent with previous work on the evoluDonary basis of human emoDons and with work focusing on the fleeDng direct spread of emoDons. In addiDon to their internal and psychological relevance, emoDons have a specifically social role: when humans experience emoDons, they tend to show them. Like laughter and smiling, the emoDon of happiness might serve the evoluDonarily adapDve purpose of enhancing social bonds. Human laughter, for example, is believed to have evolved….. 19 The funnel introducDon details, examples, comparisons, explanaDon, argumentaDon point (key message) 4. Just as even very good studies have limitaDons, they may also have unexpected results. 20 4. Just as even very good studies have limitaDons, they may also have unexpected results. When this occurs, ….. 4. Just as even very good studies have limitaDons, they may also have unexpected results. When this occurs, it is best for the author to acknowledge such results and provide a reasonable explanaDon as to why they were obtained. Perhaps a slightly different approach 21 The first sentence: topic sentence The first sentence of a paragraph: •  introduces the topic of the paragraph •  gives the reader an idea of the content of the paragraph (or: the quesDon that the paragraph will answer) •  someDmes: provides the central idea (the point or key sentence) COHESION 22 SIGNALS -­‐ COHESION Surface structure SUBSTANCE -­‐ COHERENCE Deep structure Coherence Coherence: substan1al consistency (deep structure) 1. The immediate effects of alcohol use on the brain are well known. Science is a dynamic system with various influenDal actors. 2. The immediate effects of alcohol use on the brain are well known. The effects in the long term have not been studied intensively and may vary widely, depending on gender, age and consumpDon. 23 Cohesion Cohesion: textual consistency (surface structure) The immediate effects of alcohol use on the brain are well known. The effects in the long term on the other hand have not been studied intensively and may vary widely, depending on gender, age and consumpDon. Or: On the contrary, the effects in the long term have not been…. Textual linking Repea1ng key words: lexical cohesion Reference words this, it, that, these, those, she, he Anaforic nouns this development, this process, those advantages… Transi1onal words and phrases: conjunc1ons words that express the relaDons between parts of text 24 What can go wrong? 1.  Not enough signals 2.  Signaling disappears or weakens in the course of the text 3.  Signals are poorly chosen 4.  Too many signals TransiDonal words: conjuncDons Coordina1ng Subordina1ng and, but, ater, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before, by the Dme, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, lest, once, only if, provided that, since, so that or, for, nor yet, so, 25 ConjuncDve adverbs addiDonally again almost anyway as a result besides certainly comparaDvely consequently contrarily conversely elsewhere equally finally further furthermore hence henceforth however in addiDon in comparison in contrast in fact incidentally indeed just as likewise meanwhile moreover namely nevertheless next nonetheless notably now otherwise rather similarly sDll subsequently that is then thereater therefore thus Use of conjuncDons •  Vary your conjuncDons. •  Most used: however, moreover, furthermore. Accurate? •  As a paragraph starter: link with key message. 26 27 However, or…? 1.  This is true, but what follows makes it less important/
worthy/true She worked very hard. However, she failed. She worked very hard. Nevertheless, she failed. SDll, she failed. Despite her efforts, she failed. Despite this evidence… Although she worked very hard, ….
Notwithstanding, she failed. Even so, she failed. However, or…? 2.  What follows is an unexpected and contras>ng thing She worked very hard. However, she did go out a lot. She worked very hard. On the other hand, she did go out a lot. SDll, she did go out a lot. 28 However, or…? 3.  This is true, but I am sorry to tell you that the following is also the case. She worked very hard. She worked very hard. However, it made her ill. Unfortunately, it made her ill. Yet, it made her sick. The more a setback that it made her ill. However, or…? The following is in contrast, both observa>ons are important. She worked very hard. However, her boyfriend did not. She worked very hard. By contrast, her boyfriend did not. She worked very hard. However, she received a lot of support. She worked very hard. On the other hand, she received a lot of support. 29 FEATURES OF ACADEMIC STYLE Sentence length
30 Sentence length SHORTER SENTENCES: •  Are more easy to read •  Make reshuffling of sentences withing paragraphs easier •  Prevent you from needless mistakes •  Give key messages more power Yet …. •  Complex sentences allow more detailed expression •  Complex sentences oten enhance informaDon density •  Variety gives more harmony 31 Embedded sentences The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-­‐
nucleoDde (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-­‐terminal porDon of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been idenDfied as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H
+-­‐ATPase subunit 8 gene. Reshuffling The smallest of the URF's has been idenDfied as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-­‐ATPase subunit 8 gene. This URFA6L is a 207-­‐nucleoDde (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-­‐terminal porDon of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene. The URFA6L is a 207-­‐nucleoDde (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-­‐terminal porDon of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene. This URF, the smallest, has been idenDfied as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-­‐ATPase subunit 8 gene. 32 Unimportant -­‐> important Although the problem of solving the Helmholtz EquaDon for σ and ε given known transmit and/
or receive magneDc fields looks, at first glance, to be simple, there are a series of issues that hinder its applicability. Passive / active
33 Passive voice •  We assessed two samples. •  Two samples were assessed (by us). •  Jones has found several differences. •  Several differences have been found by Jones. …who did it?
•  this method has been shown to be more effecDve.. •  this method has been described in… •  this method has been observed in… •  this method has been found…. Thus: this method is more effecDve… Or: X showed that this method is more effecDve.. 34 The passive •  It is assumed that.. •  It is (generally / widely) assumed that.. OR: -­‐  In the present study it is assumed that… -­‐  We assumed that… -­‐  In this study it is assumed that… -­‐  Here it is assumed that…. Is the agent is unknown or not important? •  The subjects were randomly assigned to one of three condiDons. •  The therapeuDcal potenDal of fish oil was dicussed in an editorial in this journal last year. •  ScienDfic texts must be spelled correctly. 35 Use the acDve voice if possible In the IntroducDon In the Discussion To vary your style in Methods and Results PresenDng your own thoughts and consideraDons •  In reviews • 
• 
• 
• 
•  We invesDgated the anDplaque and surface-­‐
acDve properDes of mouth rinses containing..
….AddiDonally the effect of daily use was established.. •  We obtained informed consent from 48 adults and placed them into either a training group (n = 24) or an untrained control group (n = 24). .. This was done by…. •  In summary, we provide, to the best of our knowledge, the first evidence for experience-­‐
dependent changes in white maTer microstructure. 36 NOUN STYLE NOUN STYLE VERB STYLE To reach a conclusion To achieve an improvement To carry out a test To cause an increase To effect a reducDon To execute a search to r
each a conclusion a
performance To exhibit to achieve an improvement to carry out a test To give an explanaDon to cause an increase to effect a reducDon To implement a change to execute a search to exhibit a performance To m
a comparison to give an ake explanaDon to implement a change To perform to make a comparison an installaDon to perform an installaDon To conclude To improve To test To increase To reduce To search To perform To explain To change To compare To install 37 From the CSE Manual ‘The frequent use of nouns formed from verbs and ending in ‘ion’ produces unnecessarily long sentences and dull, staDc prose. Examples of such abstract nouns are ‘producDon’ from ‘produce’ and ‘interpretaDon’ from ‘interpret’. Sentences become long because of the length of ‘ion’ nouns and the need to use unnecessary preposiDons and verbs with them. The dullness comes from the lack of acDon that would be stated by the ‘ion’ noun’s verb equivalent and the presence of the passive verbs that are needed.’ (page 115, 7.8 Abstract nouns) NOUN STYLE A direct correlaDon between serum vitamin B12 concentraDon and mean nerve conducDon velocity was observed. VERB STYLE The mean velocity of nerve conducDon correlated directly with the vitamin B12 concentraDon in serum. 38 •  A correlaDon between x and y was observed •  X and y correlated NOUN STYLE Following terminaDon of exposure to pigeons and resoluDon of the pumonary infiltrates, there was a substanDal increase in lung volume, some improvement in diffusing capacity, and parDal resoluDon of the hypoxemia. VERB STYLE Ater the paDent stopped keeping pigeons, her pulmonary infiltrates partly resolved, lung volume greatly increased, diffusing capacity improved, and hypoxemia lessened. 39 Following terminaDon of exposure to pigeons and resoluDon of the pumonary infiltrates, there was a substanDal increase in lung volume, some improvement in diffusing capacity, and parDal resoluDon of the hypoxemia. Ater the paDent stopped keeping pigeons, her pulmonary infiltrates partly resolved, lung volume greatly increased, diffusing capacity improved, and hypoxemia lessened. •  There is a significant posiDve correlaDon between measures of food intake and body mass index. •  Body mass index is an increasing funcDon of food intake. •  Food intake predicts body mass index according to a monotonically increasing relaDon. 40 •  The more you eat, the faTer you get. •  The more food a person takes in, the more weight he gains / the higher his BMI. Exercise Convert these sentences from noun to verb style. 41 1.  The frequencies will be calculated in order to verify how likely they are to occur during an earthquake. 2.  Plants can defend themselves against bacteria, fungi, viruses and insects by producing plant hormones. 3.  It is important to consider the color of the slides and and how they are presented. 4.  Several studies show that microtubules are strongly associated with the Golgi apparatus. 5.  The main feature of this notaDon is that concurrent constraints can be used. 6.  Subsequently, the Tfs relocated to the nucleus. Noun piles •  normal Fc receptor mediated marrow mononuclear phagocyte system funcDon ? normal funcDon of marrow mononunclear cells serving as a phagocyte system through Fc receptor mediaDon? or ? funcDon of the marrow mononuclear cells as a phagocyte system mediated by normal Fc receptor? 42 Noun piles
Spectral libraries are typically generated from non-­‐ideal ion trap based shotgun proteomics experiments or syntheDc pepDde libraries, consuming considerable Dme and effort. PARAPHRASING 43 Ways to paraphrase •  Use of synonyms for key words •  Change of parts of speech (noun to verb, noun to adjecDve, etc) •  Change of nouns and pronouns from singular to plural and vice versa •  Change of verb form (-­‐ing to infiniDve, acDve to passive) •  Reversal of the order in which info is presented (see: Wallwork, chapter 10) Paraphrasing Wood (1997): The owners of internaDonal scienDfic English should be internaDonal scienDsts, not Englishmen or Americans. Possible rephrasings: 1.  InternaDonal scienDfic English belongs to everyone in science [Wood, 1997]. 2.  InternaDonal scienDfic English does not just belong to naDve English speakers, but to the whole scienDfic community [Wood, 1997]. 44 Differences WOOD’s original version WOOD’s paraphrased versions 1.  owners (noun) 1.  belongs (verb) 2.  interna2onal scien2fic English 2.  interna2onal scien2fic English 3.  internaDonal scienDsts 3.  everyone in science, the whole scienDfic community 4.  not Englishmen or Americans 4.  not just …. naDve English speakers Say in it your own words Find another formula1on for the following sentences. Start your new sentence as follows: Jones finds / states / concludes….. etc. 1.  In male polar bears the FOOLS treatment leads to an enhancement in the lipid preservaDon. 2.  Our findings suggest that for socioeconomically disadvantaged populaDons, the relaDvely higher cost of healthy foods may be an impediment to eaDng beTer. 45 1.  Jones states that the FOOLS treatment enhances / heightens / increases the preserving of lipids in polar bears -­‐-­‐ but only in males. 2.  Jones suggests that the higher price of a healty food paTern withholds / refrains the lower classes from more sensible food choices [2014]. VERBS IN YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION 46 Effect -­‐> x increases y The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of respiratory alkalosis during exercise on blood lactate concentraDon. In this study we asked whether respiratory alkalosis during exercise, like metabolic alkalosis during exercise, increases blood lactate concentraDons more than exercise alone does. RelaDonship -­‐> x regulates y We invesDgated the relaDonship between the constricDon of the ductus arteriosus and its responsiveness to prostaglandins. We tested the hypothesis that the degree of constricDon of the ductus arteriosus regulates the responsiveness of the ductus to prostaglandins. 47 Effects of x -­‐> x contributes to y This study explores the effects of alteraDons in chandelier neuron axon cartridges on the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. In this experiment we tested the hypothesis that the alteraDons in chandelier neuron axon cartridges contribute to prefrontal cortex dysfuncDon in schizophrenia. Word choice •  Simple: clear and transparent •  Precise: specific and concrete •  Concise: every word must be necessary 48 Formal language He tried to show that he could lose weight and eat his favourite food. He aTempted to prove that losing weight whilst eaDng his favourite meals was achievable. They tried to find out how this could have happened. The invesDgaDon was aimed at the causes of the phenomenon. 49 Conciseness
Blaise Pascal 1623 -­‐ 1662 ‘Friend, I am wriDng you a lengthy leTer because I have no Dme to write a brief one.’ Basis, feature, function, instance,
nature, situation, type, ……..
•  The patients were examined on a daily
basis.
•  It is too early to judge if this is the case or
not.
•  Symptoms of neurological nature..
•  …at low pH conditions.
50 oten less is more •  plays an important role -­‐> is important because •  due to the fact that -­‐> because •  a decreased number of -­‐> fewer •  Dme period -­‐> Dme •  longer Dme period -­‐ > longer •  brown in color -­‐ > brown •  it is possible that -­‐ > may Transcatheter aorDc valve implantaDon is developed as a novel treatment for elderly paDents with aorDc valve stenosis considered as inoperable. 51 Transcatheter aorDc valve implantaDon is developed as a novel treatment for elderly paDents with aorDc valve stenosis considered as inoperable. Transcatheter aorDc valve implantaDon is a novel treatment for elderly paDents with inoperable aorDc valve stenosis. In forensic sciences, computed tomography angiography (CTA) is a method which can be used to invesDgate vascular lesions. 52 In forensic sciences, computed tomography angiography (CTA) is a method which can be used to invesDgate vascular lesions. In forensic sciences, computed tomography angiography (CTA) is used to invesDgate vascular lesions. Exercise Rephrase these sentences for conciseness. 53 1. In these elderly paDents with hypertension, blood pressure decreased by 18/11 mmHg for a mean follow up of 4.4 years. 2. It is not known if 18-­‐gauge catheters are beTer. Or: This is the first Dme 18-­‐gauge catheters have been shown as beTer. 3. UnDl recently, clinical trials were difficult to design because there was no method for assessing the symptoms of genitourinary prolapse. 4. These trials have led to the evidence-­‐based introducDon of several new drugs, some of which improve survival. 5. We aimed to establish whether the palm or the whole hand was the best esDmate of 1% of total body area. 6. These techniques aim to slow down and counteract the degeneraDve processes. 7. Besides prevenDng cancer, p53 also plays a role in aging, differentaDon, and ferDlity. 8. Headache is a very common pain symptom. Or: Almost everyone experiences headache now and then. 9. Clinical seizures occur in 0.5% to 2.3% of newborns. 10. Figure 2 shows that a return kineDc energy less than 3.2Up, yields two electron trajectories. 54 VERB TENSES The tenses PRESENT SIMPLE OTT PRESENT PERFECT VTT I think They find I thought They found I have thought They have found PAST PERFECT VVT I had thought They had found PAST SIMPLE OVT 55 Introduc1on
Methods Results Discussion
present simple tense to talk about previously established knowledge or facts present perfect tense to express currency past simple tense to talk about what you did and what you found past simple tense to talk about what you did and what you found present simple tense to talk about figures and diagrams past simple tense to look back at your study present tense to interpret results and connect with other knowledge Present tense ü  To present general facts ü  To make author-­‐specific citaDons ü  To paraphrase informaDon ü  To give an opinion ü  To state research aims 56 Past simple ü  To refer to specific and finished acDons, events or states in the past In your paper: refer to your research and results in Intro + Disc ü  Elsewhere in your arDcle: oten accompanied by a past Dme marker: in early 2004, two decades ago, yesterday.. Author-­‐specific citaDons: possible, source may be outdated or no longer an authority (not always) Present perfect ü  To refer to an unspecified Dme before now, and/or acDons, events or states that are unfinished or have direct relevance to the present. In your paper: to refer to recent research and trends (IntroducDon): direct relevance to current state or knowledge Con2nua2ve: He has researched the use of presenta2ves in wri2ng since 2009. (S2ll doing this now) Resulta2ve: They have misinterpretated the data. (Which is wy their results are skewed.) Recent research has suggested a causal link between … (Which is why we will further inves2gate this link.) 57 Past perfect •  Immediately ater puncturing, a stopwatch was started and the blood absorbed every 10-­‐15 sec with a piece of filter paper unDl all visible bleeding had ceased. •  Only those mice that had previously been injected with the study drug were included in the experiment. Future ‘Will’ is oten too definite for use in academic prose. Be cauDous, and use modal verbs like may, can or could + infini2ve. 58 SPECIFIC MEANING OF TENSES
REFERRING TO WORK OF OTHERS
Smith and Jones
report that…
The present tense is appropriate in papers just published with
messages of current importance.
Smith and Jones
have reported
that…
Although the report was published in the past, it was probably
published in the recent past and continues to have intellectual
importance.
In 1963 Smith and
Jones reported
that….
The paper is published years ago and now has mainly
historical value. The event was completed and this meaning is
backed up by the date.
Not possible:
In 1963 Smith and
Jones have
reported that..
This is a contradiction because the present perfect tense
indicates continuing action, in this case the continued
existence of the reporting as published paper. The present
perfect tense cannot be used with a date
In the IntroducDon PRESENT SIMPLE To describe general background in the beginning -­‐ The physical process of fragmenta2on is relevant to… -­‐ Cancer is the main course of death in ….. PRESENT PERFECT To describe the problem Dll now (currency): -­‐  Persistence has most o]en been studied in terms of… -­‐  Yet, while several studies have evaluated whether healthier foods or diets cost more, the evidence has never, to our knowledge, been systema2cally reviewed 59 In the IntroducDon PRESENT SIMPLE + PAST SIMPLE for author-­‐specific cita2ons: Past simple: -­‐  Jones et al (2006) measured the components of…. (focus on research: what did they DO) Present simple: -­‐  Huet (2014) menDons the need to invesDgate (focus on reporDng: what do they REPORT) -­‐  Here, the past simple is also possible. In the IntroducDon PRESENT SIMPLE + PAST SIMPLE At the end, to state what authors will do: -­‐  To address this deficiency, we sought to generate normal and neoplas2c pancrea2c organoids by modifying…….. -­‐  We hypothesize(d) that… -­‐  The aim of our study was….. 60 In the Methods PAST SIMPLE (your acDons) Other info: other tenses Although complete masking of intervenDons was not possible, paDents provided wriTen informed consent to parDcipate in their own study group, without being informed of the existence of another group. This form of masking is common in cluster randomised trials, and avoids potenDal bias from paDents in the control group requesDng the intervenDon or otherwise altering their behaviour. Oncologists and invesDgators were aware of assignment. In the Methods PAST SIMPLE (your acDons) Other info: other tenses We next assessed the paTerns of gene CNAs in a pairwise manner by comparing the HER2-­‐negaDve and HER2-­‐posiDve components of each case. Although the components of each HER2 heterogenous breast cancer were more similar to each other than to the components of any of the other cases (Figure 2B), we observed differences in their paTern of CNAs in addiDon to the HER2 amplificaDon. 61 In the Results PAST SIMPLE Three putaDve GREs, 3 AREs and 4 C/EBPβ binding sites were predicted on pig 3β-­‐HSD gene promoter (Fig. 3a). ChIP assay revealed significantly lower binding of GR to the first and the third predicted GREs on 3β-­‐HSD promoter in the liver of EHL piglets (P < 0.05, Fig. 3b). No significant breed difference was observed for the binding of AR or C/EBPβ to 3β-­‐HSD promoter in the liver of preweaning piglets (Fig 3c en d). In the Discussion MIX StaDng the answer to your quesDon: PRESENT SIMPLE Our results show that in paDents with exacerbaDons requiring hospital admission, a 5-­‐day treatment course of 40 mg of prednisone daily is noninferior to a 14-­‐day treatment course with respect to reexacerbaDon. 62 In the Discussion MIX ReflecDon on study: PRESENT SIMPLE Looking back: PAST SIMPLE Our study has several limitaDons. When we designed this noninferiority trial, there was no standard glucocorDcoid regimen for the treatment of exacerbated COPD. 63