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Mikhail Bakhtin
Mikhail Bakhtin (1895 - 1975) was a Russian philosopher and literary critic. He was
born in Oryol, Russia, to an established family of the nobility. Bakhtin became
influenced by German philosophy, and after finishing hi studies in 1918, he published
his first work, ‘Art and Responsibility’, the following year. In 1923, Bakhtin was
diagnosed with a bone disease which led to the amputation of his leg. Despite this
setback, Bakhtin continued to work and write, although attempts at publishing his
work were often met with attempts to censor it by the Soviet regime. Bakhtin died in
Moscow in 1974; it was only after his death that his ideas became widely known
among intellectuals and the public.
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The carnivalesque and grotesque realism
Bakhtin is perhaps best known for his theories of the grotesque and the carnivalesque,
both of which are related. He put forward these ideas as part of his doctoral
dissertation, which proved controversial among some of the professors; as a result of
this controversy, Bakhtin was denied a doctorate. The work remained unknown for
many years until it was finally published as a book in 1965, titled ‘Rabelais and His
World’.
In this book, Bakhtin explores and analyses the work ‘Gargantua and Pantagruel’,
written by the Renaissance author Francois Rabelais. This piece of writing tells of the
exploits of the giant Gargantua and his son Pantagruel. It is famous for its lewd
humour, and was heavily suppressed for many years.
Bakhtin argued that Rabelais’ book had been misunderstood for centuries, to the
point where some sections of it had been banned. Bakhtin’s concern was to explore
how Rabelais described the hierarchical social structure of Renaissance France (that
is, the time and place in which Rabelais was writing), and to gain a sense of what was
permitted in this society and what was forbidden. Hidden below the surface of
Rabelais’ narrative, Bakhtin identified two important ideas in the text: (1) the
carnivalesque; (2) grotesque realism.
1. The Carnivalesque
The carnivalesque is a mode of literary expression in which the world is turned temporarily, at least - upside down. Social hierarchies dissolve or become inverted, the
sacred and the profane are mixed, and riot and disorder prevail over certainty and
stability.
The idea of the carnivalesque relates to the medieval idea of the carnival, which itself
was related to the Feast of Fools, held around January 1 in medieval society. The Feast
of Fools was a festival associated with the sub-deacons of the cathedral, who,
temporarily excused of the usual behavioural expectations that were expected of
people in their social position, were free to act loutishly, crudely and foolishly. In a
sense, the festival provided a time and a space in which the participants could ‘let off
steam’, before returning to their respective social positions, and the duties and
responsibilities that accompanied those positions.
The carnivalesque - like the carnival - is associated with riot, disorder and
pandemonium. The rules, regulations and expectations of ordinary life are temporarily
suspended or inverted. Bakhtin argues that carnival is an event of great power and
spontaneous creativity, and that this power and creativity derives from the fact that all
members of society are actively engaged in the carnival as participants. He contrasts
this with modern festivals like Mardi Gras, which he believes aren’t as powerful or as
creative, because they are merely spectacles to be observed; indeed, the separation of
society into participants and spectators when it comes to carnival events has
contributed to the withering away of carnival’s power.
Not only are ordinary social customs overturned during carnival, but so too are
everyday social hierarchies. Those who are usually marginalised or treated as outsiders
- beggars, fools, etc- take centre stage and take on the roles of rulers and wise men.
Conversely, those who are usually in positions of power - kings, aristocrats, etc -
become miserly beggars and fools. Binary oppositions collapse (ie. ‘fact’ and ‘fantasy’,
‘heaven’ and ‘hell’) - the individual becomes free during carnival because the usual
rules/expectations/roles that apply to them become suspended or turned upside
down.
Bakhtin identifies four main characteristics of the carnivalesque: (1) free interaction
between individuals, which due to restrictions of interaction imposed by social
hierarchies would not/could not take place outside of the carnival; (2) eccentric or
strange behaviour is welcomed rather than condemned, and individuals have license to
behave in an uncensored way, unlike in ordinary life; (3) collapse of binary
oppositions, as mentioned above; (4) events that are sacrilegious, or offensive to
people’s religious sensibilities, are permitted within the context of carnival.
2. Grotesque Realism
Bakhtin identified ‘grotesque realism’ (sometimes known as the ‘grotesque body’) as a
main idea in Rabelais’ work. The grotesque involves taking that which is sublime,
spiritual, noble, honourable, etc, and undermining it in such a way as to make it appear
revolting degraded, and disgusting.
Rather than solemnly dwell on ‘deep’ and ‘respectable’ questions about what it means
to be human, grotesque realism portrays the human condition as one which is
characterised by the constant need to satisfy primal urges: sex, eating, drinking,
defecating and urinating. By reveling in what is usually considered revolting or ‘bad
taste’, grotesque realism becomes a way of celebrating human existence by dismissing
high-brow abstract speculation, and embracing the everyday world of sensual pleasure.
This emphasis on the grotesque has obvious links with the social practice of carnival.
In both, we see the suspension of ordinary customs and rules regarding what
behaviour is acceptable, notions of who has power, and the constraints that social
positions place on individuals. Both these ideas can be seen as a means of allowing
oppressed individuals to let off steam, and also of a way of assisting those in power to
maintain control: by suspending established rules and customs temporarily, the
citizens are indirectly reminded of who their ‘superiors’ are, and where power resides
outside the ritual space of the carnival.