Herculaneum
1
Herculaneum
Archaeological Areas of Pompeii,
Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata *
UNESCO World Heritage Site
The excavations of Ercolano
Country
Italy
Type
Cultural
Criteria
iii, iv, v
Reference
829
Region **
Europe and North America
[1]
Inscription history
Inscription
1997 (21st Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List
[3]
** Region as classified by UNESCO
[2]
Herculaneum (in modern Italian Ercolano) was an ancient Roman town destroyed by volcanic pyroclastic flows AD
79, located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano, in the Italian region of Campania in the shadow of
Mt. Vesuvius.
It is most famous for having been lost, along with Pompeii, Stabiae and Oplontis, in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
beginning on August 24, AD 79, which buried them in superheated pyroclastic material that has solidified into
volcanic tuff. It also became famous as the source of the first Roman skeletal and physical remains available for
study that were located by science, for the Romans almost universally cremated their dead. Since the discovery of
bones in 1981, some 300 skeletons have been found, most along the sea shore — the town itself having been
effectively evacuated. Herculaneum was a smaller town with a wealthier population than Pompeii at the time of the
destruction.
Herculaneum
2
History
Ancient tradition connected Herculaneum
with the name of the Greek hero Herakles
(Hercules in Latin and consequently Roman
Mythology),[4] an indication that the city
was of Greek origin. In fact, it seems that
some forefathers of the Samnite tribes of the
Italian mainland founded the first
civilization on the site of Herculaneum at
the end of the 6th century BC. Soon after,
the town came under Greek control and was
used as a trading post because of its
proximity to the Gulf of Naples. The Greeks
named the city Ηρακλείου. In the 4th
century BC, Herculaneum again came under
the domination of the Samnites. The city
Plan of the excavations of Herculaneum
remained under Samnite control until it
became a Roman municipium in 89 BC, when, having participated in the Social War ("war of the allies" against
Rome), it was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of Sulla.
After the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the town of Herculaneum was buried under approximately 20
metres (50–60 feet) of mud and ash. It lay hidden and nearly intact for more than 1600 years until it was accidentally
discovered by some workers digging a well in 1709.[5] From there, the excavation process began but is still
incomplete. Today, the Italian towns of Ercolano and Portici lie on the approximate site of Herculaneum. Until 1969
the town of Ercolano was called Resina, and it changed its name to Ercolano, the Italian modernization of the ancient
name in honour of the old city.
The inhabitants worshipped above all Hercules, who was believed to be the founder of both the town and Mount
Vesuvius. Other important deities worshipped include Venus, who was believed to be Hercules' lover, and Apollo.
The eruption of 79 AD
The catastrophic eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius occurred on the afternoon of
August 24, 79 AD. Because Vesuvius
had been dormant for approximately
800 years, it was no longer even
recognized as a volcano.
Herculaneum and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black
cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.
Based
on
the
archaeological
excavations on the one hand and two
letters of Pliny the Younger to the
Roman historian Tacitus on the other
hand, the course of the eruption can be
reconstructed.
At around 1 pm on August 24, Vesuvius began spewing volcanic ash and stone thousands of meters into the sky.
When it reached the tropopause (the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere), the top of the cloud
Herculaneum
3
flattened, prompting Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as a Stone Pine tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew toward
the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the surrounding area. Since
Herculaneum lay to the west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs
in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing
little damage but nonetheless prompting many inhabitants to flee.
Because initial excavations revealed only a few skeletons, it was long thought that nearly all of the inhabitants had
managed to escape. It wasn't until 1982, when the excavations reached boat houses on the beach area, that this view
changed. In the suburban area, archaeologists discovered few hundreds of skeletons huddled close together on the
beach and in 12 boat houses facing the sea. Further excavations in the 1990s confirmed that at least 300 people had
taken refuge in those chambers, while the town was almost completely evacuated.
During the night, the eruptive column which had risen
into the stratosphere collapsed down onto Vesuvius and
its flanks. The first pyroclastic surge, formed by a
mixture of ash and hot gases, billowed through the
evacuated town of Herculaneum at 100 mph
(160 km/h). At about 1am it reached the beach and the
boat houses, where those waiting for rescue were killed
instantly by the intense heat, despite being sheltered
from the direct impact. The study of the victims'
postures and the effects on their skeletons indicate that
the emplacement of the first surge caused the instant
death of these people as a result of fulminant shock due
to a temperature of about 500 °C (932 °F). The intense
heat caused explosion of the skulls, fracture of long
bones and teeth, and contraction of hands and feet.[6]
Boat houses where skeletons were found
A succession of six flows and surges buried the city's buildings from the bottom up, causing them little damage and
preserving almost intact structures, objects and victims. The surprisingly good state of preservation of things and
victims is due to several factors:
1. The rapid and complete filling and covering of Herculaneum buildings and the town itself by the ash surges and
flows emplacement preserved most of structures from collapse.
2. The intense heat of the first pyroclastic surge carbonized the organic materials and extracted the water from them.
3. The signs of bone carbonization and the preservation of victims' joint connections indicate that most soft body
tissues were destroyed by the intense heat and then replaced rapidly by ash. The heat of the ash was sufficient to
vaporize most of the organic matter, so the initial violent vaporization caused a sudden drop in ash temperature
and the corpses were preserved intact in their original postures.
4. The deep (up to 25 meters), dense tuff formed an airtight seal over Herculaneum for 1,700 years
Herculaneum
4
Excavation
Excavation began at modern Ercolano in 1738 by Spanish
engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre. The elaborate
publication of Le Antichità di Ercolano ("The Antiquities of
Herculaneum") [7] under the patronage of the King of the Two
Sicilies had an effect on incipient European Neoclassicism out
of all proportion to its limited circulation; in the later 18th
century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on stylish
furnishings from decorative wall-paintings and tripod tables to
perfume burners and teacups. However, excavation ceased
once the nearby town of Pompeii was discovered, which was
significantly easier to excavate due to the reduced amount of
debris covering the site (four meters as opposed to
Herculaneum's twenty meters). In the twentieth century,
excavation once again resumed in the town. However, many
public and private buildings, including the forum complex, are
yet to be excavated.
Skeletal remains
The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in
In 1981, Italian public works employees, under the direction
Herculaneum.
of Dr. Giuseppe Maggi, found bones at the Herculaneum site
while digging a drainage trench. Italian officials, at Dr.
Maggi's urging, called in Sara C. Bisel, a physical anthropologist from the United States, to oversee the excavation
and study the bones of the victims found on the beach and within the first six boat chambers. This research was
funded with a grant from the National Geographic Society.
Until this discovery, there were few Roman skeletal remains available for academic study, as Ancient Romans
regularly practiced cremation. Excavations in the port area of Herculaneum initially turned up more than 55
skeletons: 30 adult males, 13 adult females and 12 children. The skeletons were found on the seafront, where it is
believed they had fled in an attempt to escape the volcanic eruption. This group includes the 'Ring Lady' (image at
right), named for the rings on her fingers.
Through the chemical analysis of those remains, Dr. Bisel was able to gain greater insight into the health and
nutrition of the Herculaneum population. Quantities of lead were found in some of the skeletons, which led to
speculation of lead poisoning. The physical examination of the bones yielded additional information. The presence
of scarring on the pelvis, for instance, gave some indication of the number of children a woman had borne.[8]
In 1997-1999, new excavations conducted by Pier Paolo Petrone, a bioanthropologist at the Museum of
Anthropology of the University of Naples Federico II, in collaboration with Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo, volcanologist
at the Vesuvius Observatory, and Mario Pagano, then director at the Herculaneum Site, investigated three left
unearthed chambers, within a scientific project finalized to study directly in situ the effects of the eruption on people,
structures and things. The results of this research, published by Nature in 2001, had a wide echo through world press
and several scientific documentaries produced by international broadcasters.
Casts of the skeletons were also produced, to replace the original bones after taphonomic study, scientific
documentation and excavation. In contrast to Pompeii, where casts resembling the body features of the victims were
produced by filling the body imprints in the ash deposit with plaster, the shape of corpses of those killed at
Herculaneum could not be preserved, due to the rapid vaporization and replacement of the flesh of the victims by the
hot ash (ca. 500°C). A cast of the victims' skeletons unearthed within chamber 10 is on display at the Museum of
Herculaneum
Anthropology in Naples.
Recent multidisciplinary research on the lethal effects produced by the AD 79 pyroclastic surges in the Vesuvius
area definitely showed that at Pompeii and vicinity heat was the main cause of death of people, heretofore supposed
to have died by ash suffocation. This study shows that exposure to at least 250°C hot surges even at a distance of 10
kilometres from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death of all residents, even if they were sheltered within
buildings.[9]
Specific buildings
To expand this section, translate it:Scavi archeologici di Ercolano.
Open excavation
The buildings at the site are grouped in blocks (insulae), defined by the intersection of the east-west (cardi) and
north-south (decumani) streets.
Hence we have Insula II - Insula VII running anti-clockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks:
Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known
as the 'Suburban District' (SD).
Individual buildings having their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3).
The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1)
The first building in insula II is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the remains
of the house is not particularly well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was
probably used for storage.
The House of Argus (Ins II, 2)
The second house in insula II got its name from a fresco of Argus and Io which once adorned a reception room off
the large peristyle. The fresco is now sadly lost, but its name lives on. This building must have been one of the finer
villas in Herculaneum. The discovery of the house in the late 1820s was notable because it was the first time a
second floor had been unearthed in such detail. The excavation revealed a second floor balcony overlooking Cardo
III. Also wooden shelving and cupboards. Sadly with the passing of time, these elements have now been lost.
5
Herculaneum
The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3)
To the north of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius. It has only been partially excavated but it appears
to have been a spacious building. The house derives its name from the statue of a cupid that formed part of a
candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin.
The House of the Alcove (Ins IV)
The house is actually two buildings joined together. As a consequence of this it is a mixture of plain and simple
rooms combined with some highly decorated ones.
The atrium is covered, so lacks the usual impluvium. It retains its original flooring of opus tesselatum and opus
sectile. Off the atrium is a biclinium richly decorated with frescoes in the fourth style and a large triclinium which
originally had a marble floor. A number of other rooms, one of which is the apsed alcove after which the house was
named, can be reached via a hall which gets its light from a small courtyard.
College of the Augustales
Temple of the augustales or priests of the Imperial cult.
Villa of the Papyri
The most famous of the luxurious villas at
Herculaneum is the "Villa of the Papyri" was once
identified as the magnificent seafront retreat for Lucius
Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Julius Caesar's
father-in-law. However, today it has clearly emerged
that the objects thought to be associated with Lucius
Calpurnius Piso Caesonius correspond more closely to
Fresco from the college, depicting the myth of Hercules.
a greatly standardized assemblage, and cannot indicate,
[10]
with certainty, the owner of the villa.
The villa
stretches down towards the sea in four terraces. Piso, a literate man who patronized poets and philosophers, built
there a fine library, the only one to survive intact from antiquity. Scrolls from the villa are stored at the National
Library, Naples. The scrolls are badly carbonized, but a large number have been unrolled, with varying degrees of
success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral imaging, in the infra-red range, helps make the ink legible. There is now
a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened scrolls using X-rays.[11] The same techniques could be
applied to the scrolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, removing the need for
potentially damaging the unrolled scrolls.
A team spent a month in summer 2009, making numerous X-ray scans of two of the scrolls that are stored at the
French National Academy in Paris. They hoped that computer processing would convert the scans into digital images
showing the interiors of the scrolls and revealing the ancient writing. The main fear, however, was that the Roman
writers might have used carbon-based inks, which would be essentially invisible to the scans. That fear has turned
out to be fact. They now hope that re-scanning the scrolls with more powerful X-ray equipment will reveal the text.
[12]
6
Herculaneum
7
Issues of conservation
The volcanic water, ash and debris covering Herculaneum, along with
the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over
1600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the
elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was not helped
by the methods of archaeology used earlier in the town's excavation,
which generally centered around recovering valuable artifacts rather
than ensuring the survival of all artifacts. In the early 1980s and under
the direction of Dr. Sara C. Bisel, preservation of the skeletal remains
became a high priority. The carbonised remains of organic materials,
when exposed to the air, deteriorated over a matter of days, and
destroyed many of the remains until a way of preserving them was
formed.
Herculaneum, Ercolano, and Vesuvius
Today, tourism and vandalism has damaged many of the areas open to the public, and water damage coming from
the modern Ercolano has undermined many of the foundations of the buildings. Reconstruction efforts have often
proved counterproductive, however in modern times conservation efforts have been more successful. Today
excavations have been temporarily discontinued, in order to direct all funding to help save the city.
A large number of artifacts come from Herculaneum are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum.
Photos
House Number 22 is noted for
this outstanding summer
triclinium with a nymphaeum
decorated with coloured mosaics
Herculaneum, Neptune
and Amphitrite, wall
mosaic in House Number
22
Wall paintings in the first style
Inlaid marble floor
Street paving stones in
Herculaneum
Residential water pipe made
of lead in Herculaneum
Herculaneum
Documentaries
• A 1987 National Geographic special In the Shadow of Vesuvius explored the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum,
interviewed archaeologists, and examined the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
• A 2002 documentary "Herculaneum. An unlucky escape" - http://www.doclab.it/produzioni.php, based on a
research of Pier Paolo Petrone, Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo and Mario Pagano. Co-production of DocLab Rome,
Discovery Channel USA, France 3 - Taxi Brousse, Spiegel TV, Mediatred, 52'.
• A 2004 documentary "Pompeii and the 79 AD eruption". TBS Channel Tokyo Broadcasting System, 120’.
• An hour-long drama produced for the BBC entitled Pompeii: The Last Day portrays several characters (with
historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of
Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays
the facts of the eruption.
• Pompeii Live, [[Five (channel)|Channel 5 [13]], 28 June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig at Pompeii and
Herculaneum]
• A 2007 documentary "Troja ist überall: Auferstehung am Vesuv", Spiegel TV, 43'29 - http://terra-x.zdf.de/
ZDFde/inhalt/3/0,1872,7122307,00.html.
• Secrets of the Dead: Herculaneum Uncovered [14] a PBS show covering the archaeological discoveries at
Herculaneum.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 829
http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list
http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ ?search=& search_by_country=& type=& media=& region=& order=region
The founding myth asserted that Hercules built Herculaneum at the location where he killed Cacus, a son of Vulcan who had stolen some of
Hercules' cattle.
[5] Claudia, Coverso (2000). Herculaneum: Civilisation and Art. Monaco Press. p. 8. ISBN 9788881801442.
[6] Mastrolorenzo G., Petrone P.P., Pagano M., Incoronato A., Baxter P.J., Canzanella A., Fattore L. (2001). "Herculaneum Victims of Vesuvius
in AD 79". Nature 410, 769-770. http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v410/ n6830/ pdf/ 410769a0. pdf.
[7] http:/ / www. picure. l. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ arc/ ercolano/ index. html
[8] Recently Dr Estelle Lazer of the University of Sydney has questioned some of these findings in Resurrecting Pompeii (2009).
[9] Mastrolorenzo G., Petrone P., Pappalardo L., Guarino F.M.(15 June 2010). "Lethal Thermal Impact at Periphery of Pyroclastic Surges:
Evidences at Pompeii". PloS one 5 (6): doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011127. PMID 20559555. PMC 2886100. http:/ / www. plosone. org/
article/ info%3Adoi%2F10. 1371%2Fjournal. pone. 0011127.
[10] The World of Pompeii. Edited by John J. Dobbins and Pedar W. Foss 2008
[11] (http:/ / www. research. uky. edu/ odyssey/ fall04/ seales. html)
[12] http:/ / www. kentucky. com/ 2010/ 05/ 24/ 1277387/ uk-scientists-stymied-in-effort. html
[13] http:/ / www. five. tv/ programmes/ revealed/ pompeii/
[14] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ secrets/ previous_seasons/ case_herculaneum/
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
National Geographic, Vol 162, No 6. Buried Roman Town Give Up Its Dead, (December, 1982)
National Geographic, Vol 165, No 5. The Dead Do Tell Tales, (May, 1984)
Discover, magazine, Vol 5, No 10. The Bone Lady (October, 1984)
The Mayo Alumnus, Vol 19, No2. An Archaeologist's Preliminary Report: Time Warp at Herculaneum, (April,
1983)
Carnegie Mellon Magazine, Vol 4, No 2. Bone Lady Reconstructs People at Herculaneum, Winter, 1985
In the Shadow of Vesuvius National Geographic Special, (February 11, 1987)
30 years of National Geographic Special, (January 25, 1995)
Petrone P.P., Fedele F. (a cura di), 2002. Vesuvio 79 A.D. Vita e morte ad Ercolano, Fridericiana Editrice
Universitaria, Napoli.
• National Geographic, Vol 212, No 3. Vesuvius. Asleep for Now, (September, 2006) http://ngm.
nationalgeographic.com/2007/09/vesuvius/vesuvius-text
8
Herculaneum
External links
•
•
•
•
The Friends of Herculaneum Society (http://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk)
The local archaeological authorities (http://www.pompeiisites.org/)
AD 79: Year of Destruction (http://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption)
The Philodemus Project will publish Philodemus' works on poetry and on rhetoric. (http://www.humnet.ucla.
edu/humnet/classics/philodemus/philhome.htm)
• Brigham Young University: Herculaneum Scrolls (http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=43)
• Herculaneum (http://www.roman-empire.net/articles/article-011.html) by Iain Dickson, 'Melvadius Macrinus
Cugerni'
• Romano-Campanian Wall-Painting (English, Italian, Spanish and French introduction) (http://creadm.solent.ac.
uk/custom/rwpainting/cover/index.html)
9
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Herculaneum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444825521 Contributors: 2help, AJR, Aaroncowdin, Alison, Alphachimp, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Andrewpmk,
Antandrus, Atropos, Attilios, BD2412, Ben Ben, Ben MacDui, Betacommand, Bill Thayer, BlackTerror, Bloger, Bob Burkhardt, Boccobrock, Bogolov, Boing! said Zebedee, Brutaldeluxe,
Bunthorne, CQJ, Calliopejen1, Calton, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Catalographer, Cgay88, Chochopk, Chris.urs-o, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, Connormah,
Conversion script, Cynwolfe, D6, DJDunsie, Danceswithzerglings, Deb, Delirium, Doc9871, DoohanOK, Dougweller, Drmies, Droll, Earthsound, Edgy01, Egthegreat, Emporostheoros, Epolk,
Erianna, Eve Hall, Fabartus, Fdewaele, Folks at 137, FourthAve, Fredcamper, Fryed-peach, GTBacchus, Gaius Cornelius, Gioto, Gobeirne, GreatWhiteNortherner, HCP herculaneum, Hadal,
HansHermans, Healthinspector, Henrywhorwood, Honza Záruba, IdreamofJeanie, Imandb, J heisenberg, JMK, Jagvar, Jamyskis, Jimfbleak, JoDonHo, Jocyjump, Joergen, Joey80, Joseph Solis in
Australia, Jyril, Kaihsu, Kansan, Karophyr, Kazubon, KeithB, KnightRider, Korg, Krylonblue83, KyraVixen, Lauraamadeleinee, Leszek Jańczuk, Llort, Lord Pheasant, Lova Falk, Luiclemens,
M.O.X, Maglame, Maher27777, Malcolm Farmer, MapMaster, Mareforzan0ve, Matthew Yeager, Mattis, Maurice Owen, Mcgrawcm, Mervyn, Michael Hardy, Mikenorton, Mikheil88, Mlouns,
Mon Vier, MosheA, Mwp, Nakon, Nathanian, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, NinevahMM, Nishkid64, Noniusbalbus, Notforthwithstanding, Olgalapazza, Onionskinprod, Onlyharshil,
Ottawa4ever, Pearrari, Peterlewis, Podzemnik, Ppetrone, Prof saxx, Pschemp, Puffin, Pyrospirit, Qfl247, Qxz, R.Veenman, Raven in Orbit, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rkm1,
Rmhermen, Robert K S, RobertG, Ronkonkaman, Roundtheworld, Rrburke, S h i v a (Visnu), SGW999, SGW9999, Saddhiyama, Sam Korn, Sannse, Sardur, Scottydude, Seattle Skier,
Shadowjams, Shoessss, Sjakkalle, SkagitRiverQueen, SmthManly, Spartan55, Spazure, Stan Shebs, Steven J. Anderson, Storkk, Tail, Tbharding, Textor, Thumperward, Tiddly Tom, Trails,
TutterMouse, Unyoyega, Welsh, Wetman, Where, WikiDusk, Wildhartlivie, William Avery, WojciechSwiderski, Xgoni, Xtreambar, Yahia.barie, Yath, Zfr, Zyxw, 324 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:010319 25 Ercolano scavi .JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:010319_25_Ercolano_scavi_.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
G.dallorto, Lalupa, 1 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Italy.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below
File:Plan Of Ancient Herculaneum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plan_Of_Ancient_Herculaneum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AlMare,
DenghiùComm, G.dallorto, Qoan, 1 anonymous edits
File:Mt Vesuvius 79 AD eruption 3.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mt_Vesuvius_79_AD_eruption_3.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: MapMaster
File:Herculaneum Bootshaeuser.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herculaneum_Bootshaeuser.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Matthias Holländer at
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File:Ring Lady.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ring_Lady.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Anakin101, Angr, Basilicofresco, Bozoid, Caddywagon,
Fourthords, Jagvar, Shanes, Wknight94, 12 anonymous edits
File:Herculaneum Pano.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herculaneum_Pano.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Xtreambar
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File:Herculaneum Neptune And Amphitrite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herculaneum_Neptune_And_Amphitrite.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
AM (talk) 16:11, 17 July 2011 (UTC)
File:Roman Road Surface at Herculaneum.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_Road_Surface_at_Herculaneum.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
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DenghiùComm, G.dallorto, 2 anonymous edits
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