Name:________________________ Date of Final Exam:_________________ Final Exam Review Sheet for Biology 2016 ATP Adenosine Triphosphate stores the most energy in 3 Phosphate chemical bonds The last chemical bond gets broken first when energy is needed The only fuel a cell can use directly for life’s activities. Very quick release of energy when needed and very quick storage (rechargable) ATP production stops with death Cellular Respiration Process that breaks down Glucose into ATP takes place in the mitochondria and is an aerobic process During Cellular Respiration , 36 ATP is produced inside the mitochondria using oxygen Aerobic requires oxygen Anaerobic does not need oxygen examples: Glycolysis, Alcoholic Fermentation and Lactic Acid Fermentation are anaerobic reactions that do not need oxygen to proceed. Glucose (C H O ) the most important sugar needed by all living cells 6 12 6 Poly saccharides poly mers long chains of energy found in starches like potatoes, bagels, and pasta; (many sugars) ; saccharide= sugar Glycogen “human starch” made in the human liver and stored in muscles for energy Diabetes disease that affects the Glucose level in the blood. People who are diabetic cannot produce enough insulin (hormone) so they must inject the insulin as medicine. “Carb loading” Athletes eat starch food (polymers polysaccharides) 24 hours before a big athletic event for a lot of energy. Remember starch has a lot of chemical bonds 100,000,000 Cellulose carbohydrate that is found in all plant cell walls. Cellulose gives cells strength and shape. Stems of large trees are cut down to make wood and paper. Fiber term that humans use for cellulose. Examples include celery, fruits, vegetables, lettuce leaves. Humans cannot chemical break down cellulose (fiber) because humans do not produce an enzyme to break it down into ATP. Enzyme is Cellulase . Moose, Deer, Rabbits do have enzyme and derive nutrients from Cellulose. Enzymes EnzymesSpecial protein catalyst that speed up chemical reactions in our cells but do not get used up instead recycled All chemical reactions that occur in living organisms need ENZYMES!!!! Enzymes are named based on the substrate (reactant) they act on and end in the suffix –ase Sucrase is the enzyme that breaks down sucrose table sugar DNA Polymerase is the enzyme that makes DNA ATP Synthase is the enzyme that breaks and rebuilds ATP molecules Lock and Key Model Enzymes are very specific acting enzymes are like a key that will only unlock 1 door Ex. classroom door lock and correct key . (Like 2 puzzle pieces that fit perfectly together.) Study the diagram below . You must know all parts of Enzyme Substrate Complex and in correct order to label on the final. Steps: 1. Substrate =Reactant and Enzyme attach to each Other at Active Site 2. Old Chemical Bonds get broken and changed into new chemical bonds at Active Site hence the word ACTIVE 3 . New Products are released 4. Enzyme gets recycled to perform the chemical process over and over again Enzymes are represented as the “smaller hill” on the graphs. Analogy: Remember you can run faster over a smaller hill than a larger hill! This is why adding an enzyme makes chemical reactions go very fast! (CHNOPS) represent elements Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Phosphorous, Sulfur These 6 elements make up the four Organic compounds that are needed for Life: 1. Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA are two types of these organic molecule =Heredity 2. Proteins=Enzymes and Amino Acids=build cells, tissues, organs, organ systems 3. Carbohydrates=Sugar and Starch= ENERGY and cell walls for plants/insects 4. Lipids (fats, oils and waxes)= Long Term Energy Storage Chromosomes S ex chromosomes the two chromosomes ( XX and XY) that determine the sex of an organism only 2 in humans XX= female XY = male Autosomes chromosomes that contain genes that code for body traits 44 or 22 pairs Trisomy 21 = has 3 chromosomes instead of two at “chromosome pair 21” aka Down’s Syndrome DNA Nucleic Acids –found in the nucleus and are made of nucleotides Nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids DNA and RNA. DNA is the abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid. The sugar is called deoxyribose DNA is shaped like a double helix/twisted ladder You have to label this picture on the final. ● ● ● Phosphate Deoxyribose (sugar) Nitrogen Base DNA alphabet has 4 letters : A=T and G=C In a DNA molecule, Adenine (A) bonds to Thymine (T) In a DNA molecule, Cytosine (C) bonds to Guanine (G ) Weak hydrogen bonds hold DNA’s complementary bases together. Complementary Base Pair ATCGGGTATA TAGCCCATAT Triplet= 3 bases of 3 nucleotides on DNA and every 3 bases code for an amino acid DNA Replication The process in which DNA makes a copy of itself It happens when DNA is unwound and opened up by the weak hydrogen bonds breaking between A=T and C=G Controlled by an enzymes DNA Polymerase Chargaff’s Rule The amount of Adenine is equal to Thymine and the amount of Cytosine is equal to Guanine Example: DNA sample Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine 100% 35% 35% 15% 15% 100% 12% 12% 38% 38% James Watson and Francis Crick “ allegedly” discovered the structure of DNA and built the first correct model. ● There was controversy because James Watson viewed Rosalind Franklin’s picture made using xray technology. Rosalind Franklin did not give Watson her permission to view the DNA xray picture. ● This xray proved that DNA was a double helix and that is the evidence Watson and Crick used to st build the 1 model. ● James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins won a Nobel Prize for their correct structure of of DNA but Rosalind Franklin died of cancer and could not receive the Nobel Prize posthumously (in death) Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase used radioactive isotopes to determine if protein or DNA making up a bacteriophage (virus) was the genetic material. DNA proved to be the infecting material of the bacteriophage This is a picture of a virus that infects bacteria. Another name for it is bacteriophage Viruses are not cells. Viruses cannot reproduce on their own must infect a host Recombinant Technology one form of Genetic Engineering that creates “ Small human chemical Factories “ for Insulin and Human Growth Hormone production ● Uses 2 different species –a Human gene/DNA and inserts into Plasmid of Bacteria ● This technology has created Transgenic organism 2 different species’ types of DNA ● Safer and Less Expensive – helps millions of more people ● rd Used to make Rice more nutritious in 3 World Countries(very poor) ● This technology has created Transgenic organism 2 different specie’s types of DNA Mutation a change or mistake in DNA base pairing. Can be bad, good or even neutral depending on where the mistake is the DNA molecule and also if the mutation gives an advantage in a certain environment Sickle Cell Anemia inherited disease that can be found mostly in African Ancestors (Black) individuals and others in which the red bloods are irregularly shaped like a “sickle farm instrument” or crescent moon In USA and Europe individuals with Sickle Cell Anemia Trait have a disadvantagedifficult to breath normally and cannot participate in strenuous physical activities. In Africa and countries where Malaria is still prevalent Sickle Cell Anemia trait gives the person immunity or resistance to Malaria Energy Terms: Autotroph another name for a primary producer aka producer Autotrophic bacteria living in the dark, cold ocean floors where hydrothermal vents are located use this process to survive and support an entire food web that scientist did not know existed until 1970’s. The bacteria are the bottom of the food chain (the base) and the most important! Photosynthesis a process in which producers use light energy to make Glucose/carbohydrate Photosynthesis is used by plants, algae, and plankton to make glucose from sunlight Note: Most of planet Earth’s oxygen is made by phytoplankton – that are photosynthesizing and floating in the Ocean. Heterotroph another name for a consumer. These organisms do not have the ability to undergo photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophs eat others. Heterotrophs include: 1. Primary consumers 1st level consumer eats producers. Herbivory refers to Herbivores are organisms that eat only plants. Herbivores are the predator and plant is the prey 2. Secondary consumers 2nd level consumers eat primary consumers. Can be a carnivore or an omnivore. Carnivore eats only meat (carne) Omnivore –eats both meat and plants 3. Tertiary consumers 3rd level consumer eats the secondary consumer 4. Quaternary Consumers 4th level consumer eats the tertiary consumer 5. Decomposers eat dead and decomposing organisms. Bacteria and Fungi are Decomposers All food webs need decomposers and detrivores to return elements (CHNOPS ) back to the soil or water to be used again by producers. Detrivores eat decomposed leaves and organic matter which is detritus aka humus. Worms and Crabs are detrivores 10 % Rule only 10 % of Energy is moved to the next feeding level. 90 % is given off as heat Trophic level feeding level. There are usually no more than 5 trophic levels s ince there will be so litte energy available to the top level Consumers! The sun is the source of energy for this food pyramid Biomagnification harmful pollutants such as DDT , Mercury, Lead and PCBs build up in top level consumer’s body tissue and cause health problems, cancer and even death. It almost caused our country’s Bald Eagles to become extinct in 1970s; weakened their egg shells so the shells broke and no babies could be incubated and develop! Ecology terms Succession a change in an ecosystem over time. Primary succession occurs on bare rocks and volcanic islands where no soil exist . Soil takes a long to form due to erosion Pioneer species the first colonizers to a barren area ; lichen and mosses are pioneer species because they do not need soil to live and reproduce. Secondary succession occurs after a forest fire or cutting because soil still exist. Climax Community older ecosystem with wellestablished older trees and a lot of biodiversity. Biomes Biome very large geographical area that has the same climate and precipitation Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome area that has seasons and average temperature and precipitation. NJ and the entire East Coast of USA is a Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome. Deciduous – refers to dropping of leaves in autumn Ex maple, oak hickory, black walnut trees Tundra Biome has permafrost or frozen soil most of the year. Very cold temperature and no grasses just moss and small shrubs. Polar Bears and Caribou. Tropical Rain Forest Biome High temperature and high amounts of precipitations (rain) because it is at the equatorTropical Region of Earth Most biodiversity of plants and animals C4 photosynthesis plants: Sugar cane and Corn grow use the high sunlight intensity Desert Biome High Temperature and Low Precipitation plants and animals have adaptations that allow them to live in these harsh conditions. Cactuses store water and have CAM photosynthesis. Stoma opened only at night to avoid a lot of water loss due to transpiration – evaporation of water from plants. Ecosystems and Populations Estuary a wetland that forms when a river meets the sea. Estuaries are called the World’s Nursery because so many aquatic organisms give birth in these warm and shallow areas. Aphotic zone the dark region in a body of water where no photosynthesis occurs and it is cold and high pressure.Strange animals live here in the aphotic zone. Certain jellyfish and hatchet fish have the ability to make their own natural light so they can “Glow in the Dark”. This ability is called bioluminescence. Brackish water salt water mixed with fresh water. Less salty than ocean Ecosystem all the living (biotic) organisms in one area and their nonliving (abiotic) physical environment Abiotic nonliving factors include rocks, soil, salt, water Biotic living factors include trees, plants, fungi, cats Community includes many different populations of organisms living in one place. All the deer, rabbits, dogs and humans in Hawthorne, NJ Population includes all the members of the same species in an area. Humans in Hawthorne, NJ. There are several hundred squirrels living in an oak forest. S Population Growth Curve Shows how populations grow up to a specific point known as the carrying capacity . Organisms cannot continually grow because they run out of food or space and must level off Organism individual of a Genus and specie Ex. Homo sapien Organisms of the same species can interbreed to make a fertile offspring Symbiosis very close feeding relationship between 2 different species. 3 Types of symbiosis: ● ● ● Mutualism Both species benefit; + and + Ex. Clownfish and Anemone; Blind Person and Seeing Eye Dog and LICHEN which is an algae and a fungus Parasitism one organism benefits and the other is harmed. + and – Ex. Fleas on Dog Commensalism one organism benefits and the other is not helped or harmed + and 0 Ex. Barnacles on a Whale Evolution Taxonomy The science of naming and grouping organisms according to Binomial nomenclature 2 part scientific name ( Genus and species) ● ● Genus and species and written in Latin Ex. Homo sapien (human) or Ursa arctos ( bear) Binomial nomenclature 2part scientific naming system made by Carolus Linnaeus Phylogeny The study of how living and extinct organisms are related to one another ● ● ● clade A group of species that includes a single common ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor phylogenetic tree aka cladogramshows relative degrees of relatedness among lineages. Derived trait is a trait or characteristic that arose in the most recent common ancestor of a particular lineage, and was passed along to its descendants Interpretation of the above Cladogram: Amphibians are the oldest species or clade since they are located at “the bottom of the branch” Interpretation of the Cladogram (continued): Then the sequence of evolution is Amphibians→ Reptiles → Marsupials→ Dogs and relatives →Cats Cats evolved last and are the most recent in evolutionary time. They are located at the Very top of the branch Node the fork area where a new species evolved from a common ancestor represented a the main branch Represents a derived trait “every species to the right of the has that trait Amniotic Eggs is a derived trait can be found in Reptiles, Marsupials, Dogs, and Cat Hair is a derived trait found in Marsupials, Dogs, and Cat Retractable claws as a derived trait and found only in cats Proximity the closer the location of the 2 different organisms the more common DNA they share and the more recently they evolved from a common ancestor ● ● Amphibians and cats share the least amount of similar DNA/Genes Dogs and relatives share the most similar DNA/Genes Evolution a change in the DNA in a population of a species over many generations. Evolution – results from ● ● random variation in characteristic’s due to sexual reproduction mutations of DNA producing new traits Common Descent the idea that all organisms evolved from a common ancestor a long time ago and today there is much Biodiversity many different species Charles Darwin Gave the most correct Evolutionary Theory. Darwin’s Theory includes these 4 main ideas: 1. Variation – differences in traits are natural in all populations and will serve as the basis for evolution 2. Common Descent Organisms descended from a common ancestor a long time ago and underwent “Descent with Modification” traits were modified based on environment. 3. Gradualism Evolution takes a long, long time known a Gradualism and the planet is very old (4.5 billion years) 4. “Survival of the Fittest” Most organisms will produce more young that will not survive. Only the most fit will survive an reproduce and pass on the healthy and strong traits to new generations Adaptive radiation aka divergent evolution new species evolve from a common ancestor due to living in different environments/ habitats. ● 14 different species of finches (birds) on the Galapagos Islands descended from a common finch from South America ● Tortoises (turtles) descended from a common ancestor from South America ● Evolution is still going on all around us today ex. Antibiotic Resistance ● Geographic isolation a barrier such as a mountain or ocean prevents 2 members of the same specie to reproduce thus causing speciation to occur. Ex. Finches and Turtles of the Galapagos Islands off the coast of South America East Coast and even the 2 different squirrels of the Grand Canyon Evidence that support Evolutionary Theory: 1. DNA Testing the most accurate 2. Embryology all embryos have the same genes when first formed; tails, gills, webbed toes and fingers 3. Fossils found in sedimentary rock a nd the use of radiometric dating – proves the real age of Earth and in age extinct organisms Ex Dinosaurs and Mass Extinction 4. Anatomy study of bones Homologous Organs Humans, horses, whales, birds have the same exact bones even though they are not used for the same function Vestigial Organ has no present day function or use ex. Human appendix and tail bone Cell Structure & Function Chloroplast organelle where photosynthesis takes place Granum aka Grana – (looks like a stack of green m& m) made of thylakoids( one m& m) The location of the Light Dependent Reaction o f photosynthesis occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the grana Stroma fluid – is where the Calvin Cycle or Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis t akes place Be prepared to label the Stroma, Granum (Grana), and the Thyklakoid on the final! Be prepared to label this diagram on the final! Blue, Violet and Red Light are the wavelengths of Light that are used during photosynthesis. Green Light are not used in photosynthesis and is reflected by plants Stoma also called stomata opening on the bottom of leaves that allow carbon dioxide and water vapor to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out. Guard Cells special cells that open and close the stoma. Work because of Osmosis – water diffusion ( see picture above) Cuticle waxy covering on leaf that protects from water loss. Photosynthesis takes place in the palisades and mesophyll cells not in cuticle or epidermis! See above the small dots are chloroplasts. Transpiration Water Loss in Plants (“plant perspiration”) due to evaporation to air Veins of leaves are made of xylem and phloem vascular tissues Phloem moves glucose the food made in the leaves throughout the entire plant even down to the roots. This is done because of Active Transport and Osmosis! Xylem moves water and ions from the soil into the roots and up the stem to the leaves and then out of the leaves because of transpiration. Root hairs special adaptations that that allows for more osmosis (water) to move in through the roots of plants Flower reproductive organ of the plant . Contains the stigma that makes egg and anther makes the sperm aka pollen Fruit developing embryo (baby plant) of a plant and comes from the flower Legumes Special plants ( peas, beans, peanuts, soybeans) that can take Nitrogen Gas from the air and chemically change it into usable Nitrate and Nitrite compounds needed by all plants. Nitrogen Fixation process in which Nitrogen Gas from the air gets chemically change it into usable Nitrate and Nitrite compounds needed by all plants. Performed by Bacteria in the soil, legumes and natural /artificial fertilizers Nitrogen Gas is the most abundant element in the atmosphere /air around us NOT oxygen! Fluid Mosaic Theory the cell membrane is a thick fluid (jello) always changing in shape due to the phospholipid composition and cholesterol and proteins embedded in it! Phospholipids – special lipids that give the cell membranes fluidity due to chemical makeup: ● phosphate heads polar = hydrophilic= water loving ● lipid tails= nonpolar = hydrophobic water hating Semipermeable aka selectively permeable = allowing only certain molecules to pass through the cell membrane Cell transport= movement of materials through the cell membrane 2 types: passive and active Concentration gradient= difference in concentration either high or low or low to high Passive transport= no ATP/Energy needed, moves from high to low (downhill) include: 1. Diffusion any substance that moves from a high concentration to a low concentration ex. Oxygen, CO2 , “perfume = analogy” 2. Facilitated diffusion protein channels that help to move substances through the cell membrane ex. Glucose 3. Osmosis water diffusion from high to low concentration and can occur in 3 different environments with different effects on the cell. a. Hypertonic more solute outside the cell and more water inside so water will move out of cellshrink ex. Swimming in Salt water on skin cells or drinking soda to quench thirst only dehydrates more!!!! b. Isotonic equal amounts of solutes inside and outside the cell so water moves in and out at an equal rate called Osmotic Equilibrium= ideal situation for cells no change in the shape/size of the cell= balanced state c. Hypotonic less solute outside the cell and less water inside so water will move into the celland the cell will get bigger and can pop or lyse Ex red blood cells in fresh water= burst see red smear , salt water fish in fresh water tank will die due to all cells popping! Active transport= ATP/Energy needed to move bulk /large amounts, moves from low to high (uphill) includes: 1. Endocytosis substances moving into the cell by fluid cell membrane surrounding the substance and engulfing : 2 methods= a. Pinocytosis= cellular drinking using ATP a. Phagocytosis = cellular eating 2. Exocytosis substances moving out of the cell needed to for cell productsproteins, hormones, steroids, and waste 3. Protein pumps= transporters of charged ions ex Na, M, K
© Copyright 2026 Paperzz