Gymnázium, Brno, Slovanské nám. 7, WORKBOOK - Chemistry
WORKBOOK
http://agb.gymnaslo.cz
Subject:
Class:
Chemistry
2.X
Topics:
1. Systematic inorganic chemistry
2. The history of organic chemistry
3. Organic chemistry-nomenclature,
isomerism, conformation
4. Aromatic hydrocarbons
5. Organohalogene compounds
6. Classes of organic oxygen compounds
7. Alcohols and phenols
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VOCABULARY
Topic 1: Systematic inorganic chemistry, its resources, minerals
 acid – a substance that produces hydronium ions when dissolved in water
 acid ionization constant – the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the
ionization of a weak acid
 acid-base indicator – a chemical dye whose colour is a affected by acidic and basic
solutions
 acidic anhydride – a non-metal oxide that reacts with water to form an acid
 acidic hydrogen – in an acid, any hydrogen that can be transferred to water
 acidic solution – contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions
 actinide – any of the second series of inner transition elements with atomic numbers
from 90 to 103; all are radioactive
 alkali metal – any element from Group 1: lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
cesium, francium
 alkaline earth metal – any element Group 2: beryllium, magnesium, calcium,
strontium, barium
 allotrope – any of two or more molecules of a single element that have different
crystalline or molecular structures
 alloy – a solid solution containing different metals, and sometimes nonmetalic
substances
 amorphous solid – a substance with a haphazard, disjointed, and incomplete crystal
lattice
 amphoteric – describes water and other substances that can act as both acids and
bases
 anhydrous – a compound in which all water has been removed, usually by heating
 anion – a negative ion
 anode – the electrode that takes electrons away from the reacting ions or atoms in
solution
 Arrhenius model – a model of acids and bases; states that an acid is a substance that
contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution and a
base is a substance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to produce a
hydroxide ion in aqueous solution
 base – a substance that produces hydroxide ions when it dissolves in water
 base ionization constant – the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the
ionization of a base
 basic anhydride – a metal oxide that reacts with water to form a base
 basic solution – contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions
 battery – one or more electrochemical cells in a single package that generates
electrical current
 Brönsted-Lowry model – a model of acids and bases in which an acid is a hydrogenion donor and base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor
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 catalyst – a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being used up
itself or permanently changed
 cathode – the electrode that brings electrons to the reacting ions or atoms in
solution
 cation – a positive ion
 chemical property – a property that can be observed only when there is a change in
the composition of a substance
 compound – a chemical combination of two or more different elements joined
together in a fixed proportion
 conjugate acid-base pair – consists of two substances related to each other by the
donating and accepting of a single hydrogen ion
 corrosion – the loss of metal that results from an oxidation-reduction reaction of the
metal with substances in the environment
 deuterium – the hydrogen isotope with a mass number of 2
 electrolysis – the process in which electrical energy causes a nonspontaneous
chemical reaction to occur
 electrolyte – any compound that conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in
water
 electrolytic cell – the electrochemical cell in which electrolysis takes place
 electronegativity – indicates the relative ability of an element’s atoms to attract
electrons in a chemical bond
 electronegativity – the measure of the ability of an atom in a bond to attract
electrons
 element – a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
 gas – a form of matter that flows to conform to the shape of its container, fills the
container’s entire volume, and is easily compressed
 halogen – any element from Group 17: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine
 hydrate – a compound in which there is a specific ratio of water to ionic compound
 hydrogen bonding – a connection between the hydrogen atoms on one molecule and
highly electronegative atom on another molecule, but not a full covalent bond
 hydronium ion – a hydrogen ion attached to a water molecule
 hygroscopic – a substance that absorbs water molecules from the air to become a
hydrate
 ion – an atom or bonded group of atoms with a positive or negative charge
 ion product constant for water – the value of the equilibrium constant expression for
the self-ionization of water
 ionic equation – an equation in which substances that primarily exist as ions in
solution are shown as ions
 ionization – the process where ions form from a covalent compound
 isotope – any of two or more atoms of an element that are chemically alike but have
different masses
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 isotope – any of two or more atoms of an element that are chemically alike but have
different masses; isotopes = atoms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons
 lanthanide – one of the first series of inner transition elements with atomic numbers
58 to 71
 Lewis model – an acid is an electron-pair acceptor and base is an electron-pair donor
 liquid – a form of matter that flows, has constant volume, and takes the shape of its
container
 malleable – property of a metal meaning it can be pounded or rolled into thin sheets
 metal – an element that has luster, conducts heat and electricity, and usually bends
without breaking
 metalloid – an element with some physical and chemical properties of metals and
other properties of non-metals
 neutralization reaction – the reaction of an acid with base, so called because the
properties of both the acid and base are diminished or neutralized
 noble gas – an element from Group 18 that has a full compliment of valence
electrons and as such is unreactive
 non-metal – an element that in general does not conduct electricity, is a poor
conductor of heat, and is brittle when solid. Many are gases at room temperature.
 octet rule – states that atoms lose, gain, or share electrons in order to acquire a full
set of eight valence electrons (the stable electron configuration of a noble gas)
 period – a horizontal row in the periodic table
 pH – a mathematical scale in which the concentration of hydronium ions in solution is
expressed as a number from 0 to 14; the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentration of a solution; acidic solutions have pH values between 0 and 7, basic
solutions have values between 7 and 14, and solutions with a pH of 7,0 is neutral
 physical property – a characteristic of matter that is exhibited without a change of
identity
 pOH – the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration
 polar molecule – a molecule that has a positive pole and a negative pole because of
the arrangement of the polar bonds; also called dipole
 product – a new substance formed when reactants undergo chemical change
 reactant – a substance that undergoes a reaction
 salt – the general term used in chemistry to describe the ionic compound formed
from the negative part of an acid and the positive part of a base
 salt hydrolysis – the process in which anions of the dissociated salt accept hydrogen
ions from water or the cations of the dissociated salt donate hydrogen ions to water
 solid – a form of matter that has its own definite shape and volume, is
incompressible, and expands only slightly when heated
 solute – the substance that is being dissolved when making a solution
 solution – a mixture that is the same throughout, or homogeneous
 solvent – the substance that dissolves the solute when making a solution
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 states o matter – the physical forms in which all matter naturally exists on Earthmost commonly as a solid, a liquid, or a gas
 strong acid – an acid that is completely ionized in water; no molecules exists in the
water solution
 strong base – a base that is completely dissociated into separate ions when dissolved
in water
 tritium – the hydrogen isotope with a mass number of 3
 valence electron – an electron in the outermost energy level of an atom; determine
the chemical properties of an element
 weak acid – an acid in which almost all the molecules remain as molecules when
placed into a water solution
 weak base – a base in which most of the molecules do not react with water to form
ions
Topic 2: General organic chemistry
 addition polymerization – occurs when all the atoms present in the monomers are
retained in the polymer product
 addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two
atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds
 asymmetric carbon – a carbon atom that has four different atoms or groups of atoms
attached to it; occurs in chiral compounds
 chirality – a property of a compound to exist in both left (l-) and right (d-) forms;
occurs whenever a compound contains an asymmetric carbon
 condensation polymerization – occurs when monomers containing at least two
functional groups combine with the loss of a small by-product, usually water
 condensation reaction – occurs when two smaller organic molecules combine to
form a more complex molecule, accompanied by the loss of a small molecule such as
water
 dehydration reaction – an elimination reaction in which the atoms removed form
water
 dehydrogenation reaction – a reaction that eliminates two hydrogen atoms, which
form a hydrogen molecule of gas
 electrophile – a reactant that is attracted to a region of high electron density
 electrophilic substitution – substitution that takes place as a result of an attack by an
electrophile
 elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a
combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an
additional bond between the atoms
 functional group – an atom or group of atoms that always react in a certain way in an
organic molecule
 geometric isomers – a category of stereoisomers that results from different
arrangements of groups around a double bond
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 halogenation – a process by which hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms
(typically Cl or Br)
 homologous series – describes a series of compounds that differ from one another
by a repeating unit
 hydration reaction – an addition reaction in which a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl
group from a water molecule add to a double or triple bond
 hydrogenation reaction – an addition in which hydrogen is added to atoms in a
double or triple bond, usually requires a catalyst and is often used to convert liquid
unsaturated fats into saturated fats that are solid at room temperature
 inductive effect – is the effect charge of a chemical bond has on the orientation on
the adjacent bonds in a molecule. Electron clouds in a bond tend to orient
themselves towards the more electronegative atom involved in the bond.
 isomers – two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but have
different molecular structures
 mesomeric effect – is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical
compound. The effect is used in a qualitative way and describes the electron
withdrawing or releasing properties of substituents based on relevant resonance
structures and is symbolized by the letter M.
o negative (-M) – the substituent is an electron-withdrawing group
o positive (+M) – the substituent is an electron releasing group
 monomer – a molecule from which a polymer is made
 nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule
 nucleophilic substitution – substitution that results from attack by a nucleophile; for
example hydrolysis of haloalkanes
 optical isomers – result from different arrangements of four different groups around
the same carbon atom and have the same physical and chemical properties except in
chemical reactions, where chirality is important
 optical rotation – an effect that occurs when polarized light passes through a
solution containing an optical isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the
right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer
 organic compounds – all compounds that contain carbon with the primary
exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered
inorganic
 polymerization – a reaction in which monomer units are bonded together to form a
polymer
 polymers – large molecules formed by combining many repeating structural units
(monomers); are synthesized through addition or condensation reactions and include
polyethylene, polyurethane, and nylon
 stereoisomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in the same order but
are arranged differently in space
 structural isomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in different orders
with the result that they have different chemical and physical properties despite
having the same formula
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 substituent groups – the side branches that extend from the parent chain because
they appear to substitute for a hydrogen atom in the straight chain
 substitution reaction – a reaction of organic compounds in which one atom or group
of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms
 tautomers – organic compounds that are interconvertible by a chemical reaction
called tautomerization. Usually, the reaction involves the migration of a hydrogen
atom or proton, accompanied by a switch of a single bond and adjacent double bond
Topic 3: Hydrocarbons
 addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two
atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds
 aliphatic compounds – nonaromatic hydrocarbons, such as the alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes
 alkane – hydrocarbon that contain only single bonds between atoms
 alkene – a hydrocarbon in which one or more double bonds link carbon atoms
 alkyne – an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains a triple bond between two
carbon atoms
 aromatic compounds – organic compounds that contain one or more benzene rings
as part of their molecular structure
 asymmetric carbon – a carbon atom that has four different atoms or groups of atoms
attached to it; occurs in chiral compounds
 chirality – a property of a compound to exist in both left (l-) and right (d-) forms;
occurs whenever a compound contains an asymmetric carbon
 cracking – the process by which heavier fractions of petroleum are converted to
gasoline by breaking their large molecules into smaller molecules
 cyclic hydrocarbon – an organic compound that contains a hydrocarbon ring
 cycloalkane – cyclic hydrocarbons that contain single bonds only and can have rings
with three, four, five, six or more carbon atoms
 dehydration reaction – an elimination reaction in which the atoms removed form
water
 dehydrogenation reaction – a reaction that eliminates two hydrogen atoms, which
form a hydrogen molecule of gas
 dehydrohalogenation – the removal of a hydrogen atom and a halogen atom from
neighbouring carbon atoms in a haloalkane
 electrophile – a reactant that is attracted to a region of high electron density
 electrophilic substitution – substitution that takes place as a result of an attack by an
electrophile
 elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a
combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an
additional bond between the atoms
 fractional distillation – the process by which petroleum can be separated into
simpler components, called fractions, as they condense at different temperatures
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 geometric isomers – a category of stereoisomers that results from different
arrangements of groups around a double bond
 homologous series – describes a series of compounds that differ from one another
by a repeating unit
 hydrocarbon – simplest organic compound composed only of the elements carbon
and hydrogen
 hydrogenation reaction – an addition in which hydrogen is added to atoms in a
double or triple bond, usually requires a catalyst and is often used to convert liquid
unsaturated fats into saturated fats that are solid at room temperature
 isomers – two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but have
different molecular structures
 naphtha – a mixture of hydrocarbons forming a flammable liquid, is typically
produced from distillation of petroleum or coal tar
 naphthalene – an organic molecule with chemical formula C10H8 and is made of two
benzene rings fused together; the simplest polynuclear hydrocarbon
 optical isomers – result from different arrangements of four different groups around
the same carbon atom and have the same physical and chemical properties except in
chemical reactions, where chirality is important
 optical rotation – an effect that occurs when polarized light passes through a
solution containing an optical isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the
right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer
 organic compounds – all compounds that contain carbon with the primary
exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered
inorganic
 parent chain – the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in a branched-chain
alkane, alkene, or alkyne
 radical – an atom, molecule, or ion with at least one unpaired electron
 radical chain reaction – a chain reaction propagated by radicals
 saturated hydrocarbon – a hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds
 stereoisomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in the same order but
are arranged differently in space
 structural isomers – a class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in different orders
with the result that they have different chemical and physical properties despite
having the same formula
 substituent groups – the side branches that extend from the parent chain because
they appear to substitute for a hydrogen atom in the straight chain
 unsaturated hydrocarbon – a hydrocarbon that contains at least one double or triple
bond between carbon atoms
Topic 4: Organohalogens, pesticides
 alkyl halide (haloalkanes) – an organic compound containing a halogen atom
covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon atom
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 aryl halide – an organic compound that contains a halogen atom bonded to a
benzene ring or another aromatic group
 DDT – a poisonous chemical for killing insect
 dehydrohalogenation – the removal of a hydrogen atom and a halogen atom from
neighbouring carbon atoms in a haloalkane
 elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a
combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an
additional bond between the atoms
 Freon – represents several different chlorofluorocarbons; damage ozone layer
 functional group – the part of a molecule that is largely responsible for the chemical
behaviour of the molecule
 halogenation – a process by which hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms
(typically Cl or Br)
 herbicides – a class of chemical compound that is toxic to plant life
 hydrolysis reaction – a reaction with water in which a carbon-element is replaced by
a carbon-oxygen bond
 inductive effect – is the effect charge of a chemical bond has on the orientation on
the adjacent bonds in a molecule. Electron clouds in a bond tend to orient
themselves towards the more electronegative atom involved in the bond.
 nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule
 nucleophilic substitution – substitution that results from attack by a nucleophile; for
example hydrolysis of haloalkanes
 ozone – is an allotrope of oxygen containing three oxygen atoms
 pesticide – a chemical substance used to kill harmful insects, small animals, wild
plants and other unwanted organisms
 polar covalent bond – a bond where the electrons are shared unequally; there is
some degree of ionic character to this type of bond
 Teflon – a plastic that is very smooth and does not react chemically with other
substances; it is used in industry and as surface for cooking pans so that food does
not stick to the pan
Topic 5: Nitrogen derivatives
 amide – an organic compound which the –H group of carboxylic acid is replaced by a
nitrogen atom bonded to other atoms
 amine – a compound with a formula derived from NH3 in which various numbers of
H atoms are replaced by organic groups
 amino acid – a carboxylic acid that also contains an amino group
 amino group – the functional group –NH2 characteristic of amines
 base – a proton acceptor (a species to which hydrogen ions, H+, can bond)
 chromophore – the part of the molecule that absorbs or reflects light, determine the
colour of a molecule
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 diazo compound – an organic compound containing two bonded nitrogen atoms as a
terminal functional group; general structure R2C=N+=N diazonium compound (salt) – an organic compound with structure RN=NX, where R
is an aryl ring and X is any anion
 inductive effect – is the effect charge of a chemical bond has on the orientation on
the adjacent bonds in a molecule. Electron clouds in a bond tend to orient
themselves towards the more electronegative atom involved in the bond.
 mesomeric effect – is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical
compound. The effect is used in a qualitative way and describes the electron
withdrawing or releasing properties of substituents based on relevant resonance
structures and is symbolized by the letter M.
o negative (-M) – the substituent is an electron-withdrawing group
o positive (+M) – the substituent is an electron releasing group
 nitro compound – an organic compound containing the nitro functional group –NO2
 nitro group – a functional group containing nitrogen and oxygen in the form –NO2
 nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule
 reduction – the removal of oxygen from, or the addition of hydrogen to , a
compound
Topic 6: Oxygen derivatives
 acid – a proton donor (a source of hydrogen ions, H+)
 addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two
atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds
 alcohol – an organic compound in which a hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen atom
of a hydrocarbon; is used in medicinal products, foods, and beverages, and as a
solvent and starting material in synthesis reactions
 aldehyde – an organic compound containing the structure in which a carbonyl group
at the end of a carbon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a hydrogen
atom on the other side
 amphoteric – describes water and other substances that can act as both acids and
bases
 base – a proton acceptor (a species to which hydrogen ions, H+, can bond)
 carbanion – a carbon atom which has a negative electrical charge
 carbonyl group – arrangement in which an oxygen atom is double-bonded to a
carbon atom
 carboxyl group – consists of a carbonyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group
 carboxylic acid – an organic compound that contains a carboxyl group and is polar
and reactive
 crown ether – a cyclic ether with alternating –CH2CH2O- units
 denatured alcohol – ethanol to which noxious substance have been added in order
to make it unfit to drink
 diol – an organic compound with two –OH groups
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 elimination reaction – a reaction of organic compounds that occurs when a
combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an
additional bond between the atoms
 ester – an organic compound with a carboxyl group in which the hydrogen of the
hydroxyl group is replaced by an alkyl group; may be volatile and sweet-smelling and
is polar
 ester – the product of the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol and
having a formula RCOOR´
 esterification – the formation of an ester
 ether – an organic compound that contains an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon
atoms
 functional group – an atom or group of atoms that always react in a certain way in an
organic molecule
 hydrogen bond – a link formed by a hydrogen atom lying between two strongly
electronegative atoms (O, N or F). The electronegative atoms may be located on
different molecules or in different regions of the same molecule
 hydroxyl group – an oxygen-hydrogen group covalently bonded to a carbon atom
 ketone – an organic compound in which the carbon of the carbonyl group is bonded
to two carbon atoms
 mesomeric effect – is a property of substituents or functional groups in a chemical
compound. The effect is used in a qualitative way and describes the electron
withdrawing or releasing properties of substituents based on relevant resonance
structures and is symbolized by the letter M.
o negative (-M) – the substituent is an electron-withdrawing group
o positive (+M) – the substituent is an electron releasing group
 nucleophile – a reactant that seeks out centres of positive charge in a molecule
 oxidation – combination with oxygen
 phenol – an organic compound in which a hydroxyl group is attached directly to an
aromatic ring
 volatile – a volatile liquid or solid substance will change easily into a gas
Topic 7: Heterocyclic compound
 addition reaction – a reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two
atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds
 base – a proton acceptor (a species to which hydrogen ions, H+, can bond)
 electrophile – a reactant that is attracted to a region of high electron density
 electrophilic substitution – substitution that takes place as a result of an attack by an
electrophile
 furanose – a five member ring structure containing four carbon atoms and one
oxygen atom; is a simple sugar molecule
 heteroatom – any atom other than carbon or hydrogen in an organic molecule
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 heterocyclic compound – a compound containing a ring structure composed of at
least one non-carbon atom
 hydrogenation reaction – an addition in which hydrogen is added to atoms in a
double or triple bond, usually requires a catalyst and is often used to convert liquid
unsaturated fats into saturated fats that are solid at room temperature
 nitrogenous base – heterocyclic base containing nitrogen that forms the base part of
nucleotide molecule
 substitution reaction – a reaction of organic compounds in which one atom or group
of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms
Topic 8: Detergents
 detergent – a cleaning agent; is similar to a soap, but with a general structure R-SO4-,
Na+, where R is a long-chain alkyl group
 soap – a salt of fatty acid
 hydrolysis – a type of decomposition reaction where one reactant is water; organic
hydrolysis reactions involve the reaction of water and a ester.
 ester – the product of the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol and
having a formula RCOOR´
1. SYSTEMATIC INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
VOCABULARY OF THE SYSTEMATIC INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
inorganic chemistry
organic chemistry
inorganic compound
organic compound
periodic table of the
chemical elements (PTE),
group, period
element (chemical element)
symbol
metal
nonmetal
metalloid
nonmetallic element
element categories
main-group elements
crystalline metal
amorphous metal
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crystal strukture
crystal lattice
material, substance
chemical property
colourless
odorless
testless
colour
odoriferous
tasting
conductivity
electric conductivity
thermal conductivity
ductility
standard reference
conditions (normal
conditions)
standard temperature
standard pressure
oxidation states
electronegativity
electronic configuration
excited state
chemical formula
atomic number
excited state
catalyzer
catalyst
solid catalyst
catalyze
covalent compound
electrolysis
solvent
polar solvent
non-polar solvent
solubility
fossil fuel
poison
natural occurrence
laboratory production
industrial production
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application (s)
biochemistry
biochemist
enzyme
ecology
environment
pollution
safety
precaution (s)
safety precaution
as a precaution
extra precaution
fire precaution
harmfull
harmless
carcinogens
teratogen(e)
mutagen(e)
physical property
atom
molecule
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HYDROGEN (H)
1s1
Physical properties
 hydrogen is colourless, odorless and tasteless gas
 there are three isotopes of hydrogen: 1H, 2H, 3H
Chemical properties
 hydrogen gas is formed from molecules of hydrogen
 each molecule is made from two atoms of hydrogen chemically joined together – H2
H–H
↑
single bond
 hydrogen burns in the air (because hydrogen makes explosive mixture with oxygen)
H2 + O2 → H2O
 hydrogen is very reactive element, although it is nonmetal element it can sometimes
react like metal
 hydrogen creates a large amount of the compounds
Natural occurrence
 hydrogen atoms probably make up close to 90 % of the matter in the universe
 stars, such as the Sun, are primarly made of hydrogen
 on Earth is hydrogen occurred mainly in its compounds
Compounds of hydrogen
 hydrogen can take on either a positive charge as H+ cation (becoming a cation
composed of a bare proton) or negative charge H- (becoming an anion as a hydride)
 hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water, most
organic compounds, acids and bases
 hydrogen plays particularly important role in acid-base chemistry in witch many
reactions involve the exchange of proton (H+) between soluble molecules
Laboratory production
 a) in laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc
Zn +2HCl → H2 + ZnCl2
 b) the electrolysis of water, by this reaction is prepared both hydrogen and oxygen
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2H2O (aq) → H2(g) + O2(g)
Industrial production
 economically the moust important processes involve removal of hydrogen from
hydrocarbons
steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperature (700 – 1 100 0C) steam reacts
with metane: CH4 + H2O → 3H2 + CO
Applications
 large quantities of hydrogen are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries –
hydrogenation, production of ammonia, methanol, hydrochloric acid
 hydrogen is also used as a reducing agent
 applications of hydrogen's isotopes:
2
H is used in nuclear fission as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion
reactions
3
H is produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs
1s2 2s2 2p4
OXYGEN (O)
Physical properties
 oxygen is colourless, odorless and tasteless gas
Chemical properties
 oxygen gas is formed from molecules of oxygen
 each molecules of oxygen is made from two atoms of oxygen chemuically joined
together – O2
O=O
↑
double bond
 oxygen gas support combustion, witch means that many elements and compounds
will burn in oxygen gas
 oxygen is very reactive
 oxygen creates a large amount of compounds
 the most common oxidation state of oxygen is
-II, anion O-II is named oxide
Natural occurrence
 oxygen is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust and in the
atmosphere
 there are three forms of oxygen:
a) O2
- molecule O2 constitues 20 % of the volume of air
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- oxygen in the form of O2 is produced durig photosynthesys by algae and plants, O2 is an
essential chemical substance for aerobic organisms
b) O3 (ozone)
- ozone helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation with the high-altitude
ozone
layer
- ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog
c) compounds
1. inorganic compounds
- oxides in the Earth's crust: for example SiO2, Al2O3
- CO2 in the atmosphere
- water
- H2O2 – peroxide
2. organic compounds
- proteins
- carbohydrates
- fats
Laboratory production
 in the laboratory, oxygen is usually prepared by the electrolysis of water, by this
reaction is prepared both oxygen and hydrogen
2H2O (aq) → H2(g) + O2(g)
Idustrial production
 the most common method is distillation of liquefied air into various components,
with nitrogen distilling as a vapor while oxygen is left as a liquid
Applications
 oxygen is oxidizing agent
 medical use – oxygen therapy is used to treat for example for pneumonia, some heart
disorders
 life support and recreation use – scuba diving
 most commercially-produced oxygen is used to smelt iron into steel
NITROGEN (N)
1s2 2s2 2p3
Physical properties
- nitrogen is a colourless, odorless and tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas
Chemical properties
 nitrogen gas is formed from molecules of nitrogen
 each moleceles of nitrogen is made from two atoms of nitrogen joined together – N2
← triple bond
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Fig. 1. Molecule of Nitrogen (www.wikipedia.org)
 due to very strong triple bond in molecule of N2 is molecule of nitrogen inert (the
triple bond in molecule of nitrogen is one of the strongest in the nature)
 the most common oxidation states are +III, +V and - III
Natural occurrence
 N2 molecule is constituing 78 % by volume of Earth's atmosphere (nitrogene is
estimated to be 7th most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe)
 nitrogen is present in all living organisms in proteins, nucleic acids etc.
 nitrogen is a large component of animal waste, usually in the form of urea, uric acid,
ammonium
 nitrogen occurs naturally in a number of minerals: for example KNO 3, NaNO3, NH4Cl
Compounds of nitrogen
1. ammonia – NH3
 NH3 is base, in solution ammonia forms the ammonium cation NH4+
 idustrial production of ammonia
3 H2 + N2 → 2 NH2
ammonia is used in chemical and pharmaceutical industy
2. oxides
 N2O – dinitrogen monoxide known as laughing gas, it was used as a anaesthetic
 NO – nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide) it is used by the body as a signal for short-term
control of smooth muscle circulation
 NO2 – nitrogen dioxide is the reddish and poisonous component of smog
3. acids
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
che mical for mula
che mical name
che mical for mula of
salt
name of salt
example
HNO2
nitrous acid
NO2-I
nitrite
NaNO2 – sodiu m
nitrite
HNO3
nitric acid
NO3-I
nitrate
KNO3 – potassiu m
nitrate
industrial production of nitric acid
1. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O
2. 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
3. 3 NO2 + H2O → 2 HNO3 + NO
 nitric acid has applications in organic chemistry, chemical and pharmaceutical
industry
 its salts are fertilisers
 nitric acid is oxidizing agent

Industrial production of nitrogen
 the most common method is distillation of liquefied air into various components,
with nitrogen distilling as a vapor while oxygen is left as a liquid
Applicatios of nitrogen
 inert atmosphere for air where oxidation is undesirable
 the main use of liquid nitrogen is as a refrigerant (for example biological samples
such as blood, sperms, eggs)
Problems:
Think about the following problems. If necessary, you should look up the meaning in the
textbooks or on the internet.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which role does ozone play in the atmosphere?
What do you know about the ozone hole?
What does global warming mean ?
What is the difference between London’s smog and Los Angeles’s smog?
Write down some compounds of nitrogen which are in oxidation states +V, + III, -III.
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CARBON (C) 1s2 2s2 2p2
Physical properties – carbon is nonmetal, the physical properties vary widely with allotropic
form
Chemical properties – in inorganic compounds the most common oxidation states of carbon
are + IV and +II
- the carbon atom is able to chemically bond to other carbon atoms, as well as many other
different element in organic compounds
Natural occurrence – a) there are several allotropes of pure carbon of witch the best known
are graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon and fullerenes
Graphite – is soft and black, graphite has sheet structure (hexagonal rings, flat sheets are
stocked and loosely bonded through weak Van der Waals forces) → softness, cleaving (the
sheets slip easily past one another)
- conducts electricity
Fig. 2 Structures of Carbon (www.wikipedia.org)
Diamond – is a gem
- is one of the hardest substances known
- has cubic structure
- is electrical insulator
- is the best known thermal conductor
Fullerenes – have a graphite structure
- the properties of fullerens have not yet been fully analyzed
- fullerenes are good nanomaterials
Fig. 3. Fullerenes (www.wikipdedia.org)
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b) compounds
1. Inorganic compounds (limestones, dolomites, oxides)
Oxides
Carbon monoxide (CO)
- it is formed by incomplete combustion 2C + O2 → 2CO
- CO is colourless, odorless gas
- it is toxic, because CO bonds to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen,
which has a lower binding affinity
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- it is formed by complete combustion C + O2 → CO2
- it is a minor component of the Earth‘s atmosphere, its concentration rises in
the atmosphere due to human activities (such as the combustion of fossil fuels)
- CO2 is greenhouse gas (greenhouse gases induce global warming)
- dissolved in water, CO2 forms carbon acid (H2CO3), H2CO3 is unstable
H2CO3 → H2O + CO32- (carbonate ion)
- carbonate ion is salt formed from H2CO3 (for example CaCO3 – kalcite)
2. Organic compounds (the organic compounds are in natural oil, natural gas, coal etc.)
- the organic compounds form living organisms (proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats)
- carbon has the ability to form very long chains interconnecting C – C bonds (this property is
called catenation), C – C bonds are strong and stable
Hydrocarbons – The Alkanes (C–C), The Alkenes (C=C), The Alkynes (C≡C), The Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (benzene structure)
Derivatives of hydrocarbons – a wide variety of organic compounds contain at least one
other element in addition to carbon and hydrogen (for example, Alcohols CH 3-CH2-OH – if a
hydrogen atom on a hydrocarbon is replaced by functional group consisting of covalently
bonded oxygen and hydrogen (-OH) an alcohol is formed)
Applications of carbon
graphite – is used in pencils used for writing and drawing
- is used in electrodes
- is neutron moderator
diamond – gem quality diamond is used in juwelry
- industrial diamonds are used in drilling, cutting and polishing tools for machining metals
and stones
wood, coal, oil and natural gas are used as fuel for production of energy and space heating
SULPHUR (S) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
- name sulphur comes probably from the Arabic word sura, meaning yellow, the latin word
for sulphur, sulphurium, also has the same root.
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Physical properties:
– sulphur is yellow, solid, nonmetal element, there are more than 30 solid allotropes
Chemical properties:
-
reactive element
the most common molecule of sulphur is S8
common oxidation states of sulphur include -2, +2, +4, +6
sulphur forms stable compounds with all elements except the noble gas
Natural occurence:
-
elemental sulphur can be found near hot springs and vulcanic regions in many parts
of the world
common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals such as
pyrite (iron sulfide, FeS2), cinnabor (mercury sulfide, HgS), galena (lead sulfide, PbS)
in organic compounds such as proteins, because sulphur is found in two amino acids
(cystein and methionine)
Compounds of sulphur:
1. inorganic compounds:
a) H2S (hydrogen sulfide)
- has the characteristic smell of rotten eggs
- dissolved in water, H2S is acidic
- dissociation of H2S in water:
H2S + H2O ↔ HS-I + H3O+
HS-I + H2O ↔ S-II + H3O+
S-II = suldide, e.g. CdS, FeS2
b) CS2 (carbon disulfide)
- is non-polar solvent
c) oxides – SO2 – sulphur dioxide, SO3 – sulphur trioxide
- preparation:
S + O2 → SO2
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
- burning sulphur-containing coal and oil produces SO2, which is responsible for acid rains
d) H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)
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- is a strong mineral acid, it is soluble in water at all concentrations
- is one of the top products of the chemical industry
- industrial production:
1. S + O2 → SO2
2. 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
3. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
- dissociation in water:
H2SO4 + H2O ↔ HSO4-I + H3O+
HSO4-I + H2O ↔ SO4-II + H3O+
- SO4-II (sulfates)- the salts of sulphuric acid, e. g. Na2SO4, CaSO4
2. Organic compounds
- amino acids cystein and methionine forms molecules of proteins
Applications:
-
vulcanization of rubber
gunpowder
sulphuric acid
sulphur compounds are also used in detergents, fungicides and agrochemicals
sulfides are also used as preservatives in dried fruit
PHOSPHORUS and ARSENIC
Phosphorus - the name comes from the Greek: (meaning "light") and (meaning "bearer"). A
multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in inorganic
phosphate rocks.
Due to its high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element in nature on Earth.
One form of phosphorus (white phosphorus) emits a faint glow upon exposure to oxygen .
The most important inorganic compound is H3PO4 (phosphoric acid).
Phosphorus is a component of DNA and RNA, as well as ATP, and is an essential element for
all living cells. The most important commercial use of phosphorus-based chemicals is the
production of fertilizers.
Phosphorus compounds are also widely used in explosives, nerve agents, friction matches,
fireworks, pesticides, toothpaste and detergents.
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Arsenic - is a notoriously poisonous metalloid that has many allotropic forms: yellow
(molecular non-metallic) and several black and grey forms (metalloids). Compounds of
arsenic are used as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and various alloys.
The most common oxidation states for arsenic are -3, +3 (arsenates(III) or arsenites, e.g.
As2O3 arsenic trioxide – poisonous compound), and +5 (arsenates(V): the most stable
inorganic arsenic oxycompounds).
METALS
The alkali metals
The alkali metals, found in group 1 of the periodic table (formerly known as group IA), are
very reactive metals that do not occur freely in nature. These metals have only one electron
in their outer shell. Therefore, they are ready to lose that one electron in ionic bonding with
other elements. As with all metals, the alkali metals are malleable, ductile, and are good
conductors of heat and electricity. The alkali metals are softer than most other metals.
Cesium and francium are the most reactive elements in this group. Alkali metals can explode
if
they
are
exposed
to
water.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ft4E1eCUItI&feature=related)
The alkaline earth metals
The alkaline earth elements are metallic elements found in the second group of the periodic
table. All alkaline earth elements have an oxidation number of +2, making them very
reactive. Because of their reactivity, the alkaline metals are not found free in nature.
The transition metals
The 38 elements in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table are called "transition metals".
As with all metals, the transition elements are both ductile and malleable, and conduct
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electricity and heat. The interesting thing about transition metals is that their valence
electrons, or the electrons they use to combine with other elements, are present in more
than one shell. This is the reason why they often exhibit several common oxidation states.
There are three noteworthy elements in the transition metals family. These elements are
iron, cobalt, and nickel, and they are the only elements known to produce a magnetic field.
Fig. 4. PTE (www.wikipedia.org)
Given the QUESTION, identify the ANSWER
1. Which metal is extracted from Bauxite?
Ο Tungsten
Ο Arsenic
Ο Gold
Ο Aluminum
2. Brass is
Ο An Element
Ο A Compound
Ο An Alloy
Ο A Mixture
3. Bronze is an alloy of
Ο Copper and Zinc
Ο Copper and Tin
Ο Lead and Copper
Ο Barium, Zinc and Iron
4. What are metals that can be stretched easily known as?
Ο Ductile Metals
Ο Malleable Metals
Ο Stretchable Metals
Ο Polymer Metals
5. Which of the following metals is often found in pure state?
Ο Iron
Ο Magnesium
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Ο Aluminum
Ο Gold
6. With which metal does oxygen combine to form rust?
Ο Gold
Ο Silver
Ο Iron
Ο Platinum
7. Which metal is extracted from Haematite?
Ο Tin
Ο Iron
Ο Manganese
Ο Cadmium
8. Fill in the missing word
_______ + Oxygen = Magnesium Oxide
Ο Magnesium
Ο Manganese
Ο Metal
Ο Carbon
9. What are metals that can be beaten into various shapes called?
Ο Ductile Metals
Ο Polymer Metals
Ο Beatable Metals
Ο Malleable Metals
10. Which of the following metals is liquid at room temperature
Ο Sodium
Ο Tungsten
Ο Mercury
Ο Cadmium
11. Sodium is very reactive and may burn on exposure to air, hence it is kept under
Ο Water
Ο Oil
Ο Ice
Ο Acids
12. Rocks rich in metals are known as
Ο Ores
Ο Metalloids
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Ο Allotropes
Ο Slag
13. Rust on iron is basically
Ο A Chloride
Ο A Nitride
Ο A Sulphide
Ο An Oxide
14. Which of the following does not belong to the group?
Ο Iron
Ο Sodium
Ο Oxygen
Ο Lead
15. Metals are obtained from their oxides by
Ο Oxidation
Ο Reduction
Ο Electrolytic Separation
Ο Roasting
16. An alloy is a
Ο Solid Solution of two or more metals
Ο Compound of three elements
Ο Mixture
Ο Element in impure form
17. If a metal ore is titled "pyrites" then it most probably has
Ο Chlorine
Ο Oxygen
Ο Nitrogen
Ο Sulphu
18. Often to prevent corrosion, metals are galvanized by covering them with a layer of
Ο Copper
Ο Sodium
Ο Zinc
Ο Tin
19. Iron is magnetic.
ΟTrue
Ο False
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20. Metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity.
Ο True
Ο False
2. THE HISTORY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Tasks: 1. You should read and translate the following article.
2. You should look up terms which you do not understand or ask your teacher.
Why?
Because next lesson is going to be short test about this article!! There will be
vocabulary and some facts (for example: What does it mean theory of vitalism etc.).
Historical highlights
Fig. 5. Friedrich Wöhler (www.wikipedia.org)
At the very beginning of the nineteenth century chemists generally thought that compounds
from living organisms were too complicated in structure to be capable of artificial synthesis
from non-living things, and that a 'vital force' or vitalism conferred the characteristics of
living beings on this form of matter. They named these compounds 'organic', and preferred
to direct their investigations toward inorganic materials that seemed more promising.
Organic chemistry received a boost when it was realized that these compounds could be
treated in ways similar to inorganic compounds and could be created in the laboratory by
means other than 'vital force'. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made
from various fats and alkali. He separated the different acids that, in combination with the
alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that
it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from
organic sources), producing new compounds, without 'vital force'. In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler
first manufactured the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from the
inorganic ammonium cyanate NH4OCN, in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis. Although
Wöhler was, at this time as well as afterwards, cautious about claiming that he had thereby
destroyed the theory of vital force, most have looked to this event as the turning point.
A great next step was when in 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture
quinine, again accidentally came to manufacture the organic dye now called Perkin's mauve,
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which by generating a huge amount of money greatly increased interest in organic
chemistry. Another step was the laboratory preparation of DDT by Othmer Zeidler in 1874,
but the insecticide properties of this compound were not discovered until much later.
The crucial breakthrough for the theory of organic chemistry was the concept of chemical
structure, developed independently and simultaneously by Friedrich August Kekule and
Archibald Scott Couper in 1858. Both men suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could
link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding
could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions.
The history of organic chemistry continues with the discovery of petroleum and its
separation into fractions according to boiling ranges. The conversion of different compound
types or individual compounds by various chemical processes created the petroleum
chemistry leading to the birth of the petrochemical industry, which successfully
manufactured artificial rubbers, the various organic adhesives, the property-modifying
petroleum additives, and plastics.
The pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when
acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly referred to as aspirin) manufacture was started in
Germany by Bayer. The first time a drug was systematically improved was with
arsphenamine (Salvarsan). Numerous derivatives of the dangerously toxic atoxyl were
systematically synthesized and tested by Paul Ehrlich and his group, and the compound with
best effectiveness and toxicity characteristics was selected for production.
Early examples of organic reactions and applications were serendipitous, such as Perkin's
accidental discovery of Perkin's mauve. However, from the 20th century, the progress of
organic chemistry allowed for synthesis of specifically selected compounds or even
molecules designed with specific properties, as in drug design. The process of finding new
synthesis routes for a given compound is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex
natural compounds started with urea, increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol, and
in 1907, total synthesis was commercialized the first time by Gustaf Komppa with camphor.
Pharmaceutical benefits have been substantial, for example cholesterol-related compounds
have opened ways to synthesis of complex human hormones and their modified derivatives.
Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increasing, with
examples such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12. Today's targets feature tens of stereogenic
centers that must be synthesized correctly with asymmetric synthesis.
Biochemistry, the chemistry of living organisms, their structure and interactions in vitro and
inside living systems, has only started in the 20th century, opening up a brand new chapter
of organic chemistry with enormous scope.
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The name organic chemistry came from the word organism. Prior to 1828, all organic
compounds had been obtained from organisms or their remains. The scientific philosophy
back then was that the synthesis of organic compounds could only be produced within living
matter while inorganic compounds were synthesized from non-living matter. A theory
known as "Vitalism" stated that a "vital force" from living organisms was necessary to make
an organic compound. 1828, a German chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882) amazed the
sience community by using the inorganic compound ammonium cyanate, NH 4OCN to
synthesize urea, H2NCONH2, an organic substance found in the urine of many animals. This
led to the disappearance of the "Vitalism" theory.
Today, chemists consider organic compounds to be those containing carbon and one or
more other elements, most often hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or the halogens, but
sometimes others as well. Organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of carbon and its
compounds.
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3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – nomenclature, isomerism, conformation
1. Identify each of the following as an alkane, alkene, or alkyne:
a) C2H2
b) C2H4
c) C2H6
a)
b)
c)
2. Name each of the following alkenes:
a) CH3CH2CH=CHCH3
b) CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3
a)
b)
3. Explain why there is no alkene having only one carbon atom.
4. Write equations for the reaction of ethane with excess oxygen.
5. Write structural formulas for three compounds with the molecular formula C 5H12.
Name these compounds.
a)
b)
c)
6. Draw structural formulas for five isomers of C5H10. Name each one.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
7. Write a formula for a) 2-methylpentane and b) 3-methylpentane.
c) Explain why 4-methylpentane does not exist.
a)
b)
c)
8. Draw structural formulas for a) chair and b) boat conformation of cyclohexane. Underline
more stable conformation of cyclohexane.
a)
b)
10. Which kinds of basic organic compounds (hydrocarbons) do you know?
11. What does it mean hybridisation?
12. What is the difference between nomenclature of hydrocarbons in Czech and English?
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13. The induction effect is typical to ................... (Which kinds of organic compounds is the
induction effect typical to?)
14. The mesomery effect is typical to .................. (Which kinds of organic compounds is the
mesomery effect typical to?)
15. Explain the term isomerism.
16. Which kinds of isomers do you know?
17. What does it mean conformation?
18. Do different conformers have differing properties?
19. Which sorts of organic reactions did you learn about?
4. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
1. Underline polycyclic arenes:
benzene, anthracene, toluene, aniline, naphthalene
2. Write down the chemical formula of the following aromates:
2,4,6 – trinitrotoluene, 1,3 – dimethylbenzene, p – dimethylbenzene
3. Drawn and name isomersof diethylbenzene.
4. Benzo(a)pyrene, is notable for being the first chemical carcinogen to be discovered in
……………. ……………. .
5. Write down the reaction mechanism for chloration of benzene.
6. Write down the reaction mechanism for nitration of toluene.
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7. a) Write down the hydrogenation of benzene.
b) Name the product of this reaction.
c) Which kind of organic reaction is it?
a)
b)
c)
8.Reading-CARCINOGENS
Hundreds of chemicals are capable of inducing cancer in humans or animals after prolonged
or excessive exposure. There are many well-known examples of chemicals that can cause
cancer in humans. The fumes of the metals cadmium, nickel, and chromium are known to
cause lung cancer. Vinyl chloride causes liver sarcomas. Exposure to arsenic increases the
risk of skin and lung cancer. Leukemia can result from chemically induced changes in bone
marrow from exposure to benzene and cyclophosphamide, among other toxicants. Other
chemicals, including benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene dibromide, are considered by
authoritative scientific organizations to be probably carcinogenic in humans because they
are potent carcinogens in animals. Chemically-induced cancer generally develops many years
after exposure to a toxic agent. A latency period of as much as thirty years has been
observed between exposure to asbestos, for example, and incidence of lung cancer.
5. ORGANOHALOGENES COMPOUNDS
1. What role does thyroxine play in the human body?
2. Which organohalogen was used as an anaesthetic agent?
3. What has been applications of DDT?
4. Write down the following chemical reactions:
a) chlofoethane + ammonia
b) 2-chloropropane + sodium hydroxide (t=20C)
c) 2-chloropropane + sodium hydroxide (t=100C)
d) You should prepare butane-2-ol. Choose the right organohalogen as a reactant and
write
down this chemical equation.
e) Write down products of elimination of 2-bromobutane. Explain and name the
products.
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5. What do you know about health hazard of organohalogens? Look up three diseases
caused by
these compounds.
6. CLASSES OF ORGANIC OXYGEN COMPOUNDS
Fill the table:
Class
phenols
Functional
group
- OH
General
formula
Ending for
name
Example
CH3CH2OH
The name of
example
…………….
(ethyl alcohol)
Ar-OH
R-O-R
aldehydes
ether
dimethyl ether
-al
……………..
(acetaldehyde)
-one
propanone
(acetone)
CH3COOH
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……………
(acetic acid)
Gymnázium, Brno, Slovanské nám. 7, WORKBOOK - Chemistry
7. ALCOHOLS AND PHENOLS
1.
Draw hydrogen bonds between two molecules of propanol.
2.
Write down the following formulae and underline which of them are secondary
alcohols:
methanol, phenol, 3-methylphenol, propane-1,1-diol, butane-2-ol, ethanol,
pentane-3-ol
3.
Write down chemical reaction between propanol and hydrochloric acid.
4.
Write down oxidation of butane-1-ol. Name the product!
5.
Write down oxidation of butane-2-ol. Name the product!
6.
the
What will the products be of dehydration of butane-2-ol? Write this reaction, name
7.
products and explain the reaction!
Write down fermentation of glucose.
8.
John (weight of his body is 58 kg) went to the pub. He finished a one-litre-bottle of
red wine. Alcohol content in this wine is 13 % (strong Australian red wine). You should
calculate concentration of ethanol (in ‰) in John`s blood circulation.
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TOXICITY OF ETHANOL
Fig. 6. Toxicity of Ethanol (www.wikipedia.org)
TOTAL RECORDED ALCOHOL
PER CAPITA
CONSUMPTION
(in liters of pure alcohol)
Fig.7. Map of the World (www.wikipedia.org)
If you are interested in this topic, you should check website of WHO (World Health
Organisation). www.who.int/en/
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