D E M O C R A C I E S
O F
D E F E N S E
F O U N D A T I O N
F O R
Saudi Clerics, Wahhabi
Islam and Social Media
Jonathan Schanzer
Steven Miller
F acebook F atwa:
Saudi C lerics, Wahhabi Islam,
and Social Media
J onathan Schanz er Stev en Miller
A division of the
foUndAtion foR defense of deMoCRACies
WA s h i n g t o n , d . C .
C opyright ©
20 12 by F D D P ress
All rights reserv ed
P rinted in the U nited States of America
F irst E dition
F or more information about permission to reproduce selections from this
book , write to: research@ defenddemocracy. org, or P ermissions, F D D P ress,
P . O . Box 33249 , Washington, D . C . 20 0 33
ISBN : 9 7 8 -0 -9 8 19 7 12-6 -1
P ublication design: Basis / www. basisbranding. com
Table of C ontents
Ack nowledgements
Glossary
i
iii
E x ecutiv e Summary
v
Introduction
1
The E v olution of Wahhabism: F rom Tak feer to Twitter
7
The Study
19
Responding to Arab P rotests
29
The Saudi Struggle With Modernity
37
The Social Media Generation
45
Bin L aden and J ihadism
55
C onclusion
6 1
Appendices
1.
2.
3.
C leric Index
C onStrat’s Methodology
C harts
Top C lerics O nline/ Arabic
Top C lerics O nline/ E nglish
Top C lerics on Twitter/ Arabic
Saudi C leric E cosystem/ Arabic
Saudi C leric E cosystem/ E nglish
About the Authors
6 5
7 1
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 8
8 0
Ack nowledgements
This monograph is F D D ’s second study that draws from social media trends in the
Middle E ast. Building upon the intense debate surrounding P@lestinian Pulse,
F D D again partnered with the technology company C onStrat. We ask ed our tech
partners to gather and process 6 months of social media data to better understand
the online activ ism of religious clerics in Saudi Arabia.
E arly on, we wondered whether there would be enough information to write our
study. But we pushed on. After work ing with C onStrat to iron out those initial
k ink s, they once again ex ceeded our ex pectations.
We ex tend a special thank you to Y ounes Safaa, C onStrat’s lead researcher for this
project. H is careful eye for detail, not to mention his insights into Islamic cultural
and linguistic nuances, was indispensable in helping us shape this study.
We also wish to thank Abram Shanedling of The D ershowitz Group. Abram’s
patience, energy, and enthusiasm for this project were a model of professionalism.
Matthew L angley deserv es k udos for the cov er design and layout of this book .
He worked within somewhat difficult legal confines, and balanced the opinions
of two authors, not to mention a host of others.
D uring the proofreading phase, D ebbie Rubin and E lana H arris Schanz er
flagged many mistakes and inconsistencies, and saved us from ourselves.
Two friends of F D D , Ali Alyami and Ali Al-Ahmed, were k ind enough to read our
work and offer suggestions for improv ing it. Both men are nativ es of Saudi Arabia,
and both share a deep interest in seeing their country implement reforms.
At F D D , our colleagues D av id Barnett, D av id D onadio, Sebastian Gork a,
L aura Grossman, and Thomas J oscelyn prov ided v aluable editorial feedback , while
Reuel Marc Gerecht was admirably brutal in assessing our penultimate draft. Interns
Andrew Rauth and P hil C ofone prov ided inv aluable assistance in fact-check ing.
F inally, we offer our deepest thank s to the Myron Z immerman P hilanthropic
F und and the L isa and Michael L effell F oundation. Without their v ision and
support, this project would nev er hav e seen the light of day.
— J onathan Schanz er and Stev en Miller
i
Glossary
ahadith (sing. hadith) sayings of the Prophet Muhammad
da’wa
Islamic call/outreach
deenreligion
fatwa (pl. fatawa) religious opinion
fiqh
Islamic jurisprudence
fitnadiscord
haramforbidden
ifta
issuing a fatwa or fatawa
ikhwan
brothers; refers to the Arabian nomads converted into
a religiously zealous fighting force by Wahhabi leaders
during the early 20th century. Also a term used to
described the Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwan
al-Muslimun)
imam
prayer leader; leader of Muslim community
jahiliya
age of religious ignorance; commonly used to refer to
the Arabs’ religious ignorance in pre-Islamic Arabia
jihad
struggle; fighting in the name of God
jizyah
tax historically levied against non-Muslims in
Muslim nations
khaleefa (also, khalifa) caliph; leader of the unified Muslim community
(ummah), which is governed by the Islamic legal code
(Shari’ah)
kuffar (sing. kafir)
infidels; those who are blasphemous
madrasa (pl. madaaris)school; often used to refer to schools of Islamic
education
iii
FA CEB O O K
FA T W A
Maktab al-Khidamat
Services Office; founded in Peshawar, Pakistan by
Osama bin Laden in 1984 to recruit and train fighters
opposed to the Soviet presence in Afghanistan;
precursor to the al-Qaeda network. Also known as MAK
mujahideen
(sing. mujahid)
Islamic fighters
niqab
full body veil
Quran
Islam’s central holy text, considered to be the word of God
sahwa awakening
al-Salaf al-Salih
righteous ancestors; refers to the first three Muslim
generations as embodied by: the Prophet Muhammad’s
Companions (sahaba); the Companions’ followers
(tabi’in); and the followers’ followers (tabi’i al-tabi’in)
salafi
those who follow the religious example of al-salaf alsalih, Islam’s righteous ancestors
Shari’ah
Islamic legal code
sheikh
religious scholar; tribal leader
shirk
polytheism
sunnah
traditional social and legal customs of Prophet
Muhammad, as preserved in eyewitness accounts from
his disciples of his words, actions and approbations
tafseer (also, tafsir)
Quranic commentary by religious scholars
takfeer (also, takfir)
labeling other Muslims as unbelievers, thereby
excommunicating them from Islam
tawheed (also, tawhid) doctrine of the oneness of God; monotheism; unification
ulema (sing. alim) religious scholars
ummah
worldwide Muslim community
iv
E x ecutiv e Summary
Since the September 11 attack s of 20 0 1, Saudi Arabia has undertak en efforts to
curb state-sanctioned Islamic radicalism and x enophobia. H owev er, some elements
of the sanctioned establishment, coupled with a number of unsanctioned clerics,
continue to produce rulings and opinions that run counter to U . S. interests. The
good news is that this problem has been reduced somewhat. The bad news is that
the problem still ex ists. More worrisome is the fact that many clerics with radical
views are flocking to social media and have ever-growing numbers of followers.
Ahead of the ten-year anniv ersary of the 9 / 11 attack s, the F oundation for D efense
of D emocracies ( F D D ) commissioned a study to determine the ex tent to which the
Saudi clergy maintains a presence on the Internet, and how they and their followers
promote Wahhabi ideology online. F D D selected C onStrat, a Washington, D . C . based technology company, to collect and analyz e the data for this study. 1 C onStrat
used proprietary software usually deployed on behalf of the U . S. gov ernment.
O v er the course of six months ( J anuary 1 through J une 30 , 20 11) , C onStrat’s
researchers collected and coded data from more than 40 ,0 0 0 entries on Arabic and
E nglish language websites, forum threads, and social media posts by Saudi clerics or
social media commentary about the clerics. Those entries are the basis of this study.
It is important to note that, ev en with the wide reach of C onStrat’s proprietary
software, this study could not possibly cov er the entire social media env ironment
in q uestion. Moreov er, the data deriv ed from this study prov ided only one stream
of intelligence about Saudi society, and does not paint the full picture of how
the Saudi religious establishment propagates its ideology. H owev er, as was the
case with our last study that deployed C onStrat’s technology,2 we undertook this
project with the assumption that online discourse can prov ide uniq ue insights into
a specific area of inquiry.
The tone and tenor of the conv ersations C onStrat coded was mix ed, but was
generally mark ed by an absence of ov ert militancy. This does not, howev er,
indicate an absence of intolerant or x enophobic positions. According to the
1 FormoreinformationaboutConStrat,pleasevisitwww.constrat.net.
2 JonathanSchanzer &MarkDubowitz,P@lestinian Pulse: hat Policymakers Can earn rom Palestinian
Social Media,(Washington,DC:FDDPress,2010).
v
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
data scored with C onStrat’s proprietary V X software, v iews that were hostile to
America, the West, and non-Muslim or secular cultures represented nearly 52
percent of the E nglish data, while in Arabic they represented 7 5 percent.
In addition to social media outlets lik e Twitter, F acebook , and Y ouTube,
other technology such as Apple iP hone, iP ad, and iP od touch applications are
popular among the Saudi clerics. This phenomenon contradicts the religious
establishment’s historical opposition to “corrupting” modern technology.
Indeed, the clerics understand that these are powerful tools through which they
can spread their messages.
Saudi Arabia’s success in reducing militant online content is a positiv e sign that
the Saudi government can, when sufficiently motivated, temper the radicalism
that percolates in the k ingdom. This is also a sign that when the U . S. properly
applies pressure, it can hav e a noticeable impact.
H owev er, the k ingdom’s recent attempts to conv ince the West that it is promoting
“religious tolerance” and embracing change do not resonate with the content
mined during this study. Saudi Arabia’s religious establishment— both sanctioned
and unsanctioned— still openly denigrates other religions and cultures, and
fails in many ways to adapt to modern social and scientific concepts. That is
troubling, giv en that Saudi Arabia is often described as one of the U nited States’
most important Middle E ast allies. Indeed, this stark lack of shared v alues has
encumbered the relationship in the past, and does not bode well for the future.
With new media tools in their hands, Saudi clerics are now communicating with
the Saudi public and wider Muslim world on an unprecedented scale. To be
sure, the relatively free flow of information in Saudi Arabia should be welcomed.
But there may be a downside; as the unsanctioned clerics increasingly turn to
various social media platforms, the Saudi regime may find controlling their
messages more difficult. In this way, emboldened clerics may eventually pose a
direct challenge to the regime. Indeed, social media contributed to the upheav al
that rock ed the Middle E ast in 20 11, and American policymak ers should be
aware of this possibility.
The Saudi social media env ironment is further deserv ing of ongoing
observ ation by the intelligence community ( for threats) and State D epartment
( for diplomacy and de-radicaliz ation) . We hav e long held that, coupled
with other reporting streams, online research can greatly enhance our
understanding of complex policy problems. In Saudi Arabia’s case, where
access to the country is ex tremely limited and its press is sev erely restricted,
thorough online research can be of v alue.
vi
M
A
P
o F
S
A
u dI
vii
A
r A
B
I A
Introduction
As the custodian of Islam’s two holy cities, Mecca and Medina, the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia has undeniable influence in the Muslim world. During the
Eisenhower Administration, officials began referring to the Saudi monarch as
the “Islamic pope.”1 As Saudi scholar Madawi al-Rasheed notes, “The symbolic
significance of Saudi Arabia for Islam and Muslims cannot be overestimated.”2
While the royal al-Saud lineage is viewed as the rightful heir to the kingdom,
it lacks religious credentials. To compensate, the monarchy relies on the
descendants of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab, the Al al-Sheikh lineage, who
preach the ascetic Salafi version of Islam indigenous to Saudi Arabia, now
known as Wahhabism. Thus, the Al al-Sheikh and other prominent religious
families provide the House of Saud with religious authority, which bolsters its
credibility at home and defends it from religious detractors abroad.
The Clerical Class
The official religious establishment in Saudi Arabia is structured around several
key institutions, chief among them the Council of Senior Ulema (CSU)3 and
the Permanent Committee for Research and Ifta (issuing religious decrees).4
These religious authorities offer state-sanctioned fatawa (religious decrees) on
major social and political issues in the kingdom, and offer advice directly to the
Saudi king.
While it is difficult to pinpoint exact numbers of Saudi clergy, according to
research conducted by the U.S. Army between 1986 and 1998, “the Ulema
(religious scholars) and their families included an estimated 7,000 to 10,000
persons. However, only thirty to forty most senior scholars among them
1
Rachel Bronson, Thicker Than Oil: America’s Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia, (NY: Oxford University
Press, 2006), p. 74.
2 Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia (2nd edition), (NY: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 5.
3 OndrejBeranek,“TheSwordandtheBook:ImplicationsoftheIntertwiningoftheSaudiRulingFamily
andtheReligiousEstablishment,”BrandeisUniversityCrownCenter,Middle East Brief, No. 28, April 2008,
p.3,www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB28.pdf.
4 ShmuelBachar,ShmuelBar,RachelMachtiger&YairMinzili,“EstablishmentUlamaandRadicalismin
Egypt,SaudiArabia,andJordan,”(Washington,DC:HudsonInstitute,2006),p.18,
www.currenttrends.org/docLib/20061226_UlamaandRadicalismfinal.pdf.
1
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
exercised substantive political influence. These prominent clergy constituted the
members of the Council of Senior Ulema.”5
The religious establishment primarily maintains influence in the judiciary and in
the field of education,6 but it also holds sway in the areas of communication and
national administration.7 Over the years, state-sanctioned clerics have directly
affected U.S. interests. As analyst Nawaf Obaid notes, the Ulema provided
religious cover for the Saudi government when it imposed an oil embargo
following the 1973 Yom Kippur War, allowed U.S. troops onto Saudi soil in 1990,
permitted those forces to remain after the war, and supported the Taliban.8
These are just a few examples. One could also argue that the clerics’ contribution
to the overall Wahhabi proselytizing effort, which resulted in the radicalization
of untold numbers of Muslim youth worldwide, has had a larger impact than all
of those events combined.
But the clerics’ influence should not be overstated. The clerics often act as a
rubber stamp for Saudi state policies. Indeed, they often issue decrees only after
the ruling family makes a policy decision. Furthermore, they largely refrain from
wading into politics, and occasionally issue fatawa solely to remind citizens of
their obligatory submission to Saudi political will.
The government’s control of all clerical appointments confirms this dynamic.9
In early 2009, King Abdullah demonstrated as much when he ordered a major
reshuffling of the Saudi government, including several high-level religious positions.
One official removed was Saleh al-Luhaidan, the chief judge of the Supreme
Judiciary Council and member of the Council of Senior Ulema. Al-Luhaidan
attracted unwanted attention in September 2008 when he declared it permissible to
kill the owners of satellite television channels that promote moral depravity.10
The Unsanctioned Clerics
However, these clerics and the CSU do not represent the entire Saudi religious
establishment. Many other clerics—the unsanctioned ones—do not serve directly
as the state’s religious agents. Though they hold positions at a number of the
5 HelenChapinMetz,ed.,“SaudiArabia:ACountryStudy,”(Washington,DC:GPOfortheLibraryofCongress,1992),http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/54.htm.
6 “TheRoleoftheUlema (ReligiousLeaders),”Saudi Arabia Market Information Resource (SAMIRAD), www.
saudinf.com/main/c3.htm.
7 DavidCommins,The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia,(London:I.B.Tauris,2009),p.105.
8 NawafE.Obaid,“ThePowerofSaudiArabia’sIslamicLeaders,”Middle East Quarterly, September 1999,
pp. 51-58, www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders.
9 “CanSaudiArabiaReformItself?”InternationalCrisisGroup,Middle East Report,July14,2004,p.6.
www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/MiddleEastNorthAfrica/IranGulf/SaudiArabia/CanSaudiArabia
Reform Itself.ashx.
10 “MajorReshuffleinSaudiArabia,” BBCNews,February14,2009,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7890211.stm.
2
I n t r o d u ct Io n
kingdom’s universities and preach at mosques throughout the country, the
government solicits neither their advice nor their fatawa.
Because they face fewer constraints from the regime, the unsanctioned clerics
can offer deeper insights into Wahhabism, including its jihadi strain and its
xenophobic views of non-Muslims and the West. At other times, as was the
case in the late 1970s and early 1990s, they can even pose a direct challenge to
the regime.11
Arguably, the most famous group of unsanctioned clerics in Saudi Arabia were
the Sahwa (Awakening) clerics, who traced their roots back to the 1960s and the
flight of the Muslim Brotherhood to the kingdom from Egypt, Iraq, and Syria,
which were then pan-Arabist, secular regimes hostile to Islamist groups.12 The
Sahwa clerics synthesized traditional Salafi-Wahhabi theological teachings
with the Brothers’ belief that intertwining society and politics is a religious
imperative. Inspired by the Brotherhood’s political activism, the popular Sahwa
reinterpreted the Saudi creed.13
In 1990, as Saddam Hussein’s army advanced into Kuwait, the Sahwa made
headlines for their ardent opposition to King Fahd’s reliance on the U.S.-led
military coalition to defend the Arabian Peninsula. The palace’s decision to
allow non-Muslim forces into the kingdom, legitimized with a fatwa by Grand
Mufti Abdulaziz ibn Baz, stoked the ire of Salman al-Odah and Safar al-Hawali,
two well-known clerical firebrands from the Sahwa. Between 1991 and 1992, the
Sahwa called for greater Islamization of Saudi society, criticized the submissive
state clerics, and demanded that unsanctioned clerics have more say in social
and foreign affairs.14 The Sahwa issued a direct challenge to the Saudis state, via
two widely circulated letters, calling for reforms.
The first was the “Letter of Demands,” signed by 400 scholars, which called for
cleansing the state of corruption, avoiding alliances that violated Islamic law, and
improving the state’s religious institutions. The second, titled “Memorandum of
Advice,” bluntly called for the king to outlaw the teaching of Western law, to create
a half-million man army to fight Israel, and to end foreign aid to atheist regimes.15
11 See:MahmounFandy,Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent, (NY: Palgrave, 1999).
12 StéphaneLacroix,“SaudiIslamistsandThePotentialforProtest,”Foreign Policy,June2,2011,
http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/06/02/saudi_islamists_and_the_potential_for_protest.
13 OndrejBeranek,“DividedWeSurvive:ALandscapeof FragmentationinSaudiArabia,”Brandeis
University Crown Center, Middle East Brief, No.33,January2009,p.3,
www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf.
14 RachelBronson,“RethinkingReligion:TheLegacyofthe U.S.-SaudiRelationship,”Washington Quarterly,
Autumn2005,p.127,www.twq.com/05autumn/docs/05autumn_bronson.pdf.
15 Foradetaileddescription,see:Bronson,Thicker Than Oil, pp. 212-3.
3
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
The government did not tolerate this dissent. In 1994, the regime arrested
al-Odah, al-Hawali, and nearly 1,300 Sahwa affiliates.16 In the eyes of their
followers, the resulting five-year prison term cemented the clerics’ standing as
courageous men. However, upon being released in 1999, under pressure from
the Saudi state, the Sahwa splintered. Some of its members joined other Saudi
Islamist movements, including jihadi groups. The state successfully silenced and
co-opted others.
Today, the line separating the sanctioned religious establishment from the coopted unsanctioned one is blurred, as many clerics now commonly defend the
regime.17 At the same time, some clerics continue to call for reforms. Al-Odah is
now a quasi-government supporter, yet he backed petitions in 2011 that called
for Saudi Shura (Consultation) Council elections, an end to corruption, and a
constitutional monarchy.18
New Messages, New Media
While clerics in the 1990s issued fatawa and tafseer (Quranic commentary by
religious scholars) via audiotape, they now take their messages online. What the
Saudi clerics allow us to view online, in both Arabic and English, offers a glimpse
into the world of Wahhabism and the closed Saudi society.
This offers more than opportunities for sociological observation; there is also
an important national security component. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the
Saudi regime came under fire for funding Wahhabi vitriol and for sponsoring
terrorism through state-funded charities and banks. But it was only after a
terrorist campaign inside the kingdom in 2003 and 2004, fueled by the same
ideology that the country long exported, that the monarchy took steps to censor its
religious network. In fact, the government began to monitor tens of thousands of
mosques and schools, and employed its clerics to help “de-radicalize” extremists.
Eliminating radical online content was also a major focus of this effort.
The Saudi monarchy undoubtedly took some positive steps, but Wahhabi ideology
is still spreading. Ahead of the 10-year anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, the
Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD) commissioned a study to gauge
16 Bachar, Bar, Machtiger & Minzili, Establishment Ulama and Radicalism in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan,
p. 18.
17 When al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) attacked three foreign housing complexes in Riyadh in
May 2003, killing 34 and injuring 200, clerics roundly condemned the attacks and the perpetrators. See
Beranek, “The Sword and the Book.” In December 2004, 35 sheikhs denounced London-based Saudi dissident Saad al-Faqih’s attempts to foment unrest against the regime. See Toby Craig Jones, “The Clerics,
the Sahwa and the Saudi State,” Center for Contemporary Conflict: Strategic Insights, March 2005, p. 4,
www.nps.edu/Academics/centers/ccc/publications/OnlineJournal/2005/Mar/jonesMar05.pdf.
18 “Municipal Elections in Saudi Arabia Next Month,” Al Jazeera, March 23, 2011,
www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011323101416723875.html.
4
I n t r o d u ct Io n
the way the Wahhabi religious establishment, including both sanctioned and
unsanctioned clerics, approaches topics online, from international politics to
Islam. FDD selected ConStrat, a Washington, DC-based technology company, to
collect and analyze the data for this study.19 ConStrat used proprietary software
usually deployed on behalf of the U.S. government.
With protests raging across the Middle East since December 2010, secular
and Islamist reformers have harnessed social media to hasten the downfall of
autocrats. It should then come as no surprise that Saudi clerics conduct much of
their outreach through social media, too.
Over the course of six months (January 1 through June 30, 2011), ConStrat
collected and coded data from more than 40,000 entries on Arabic and English
websites, forum threads, social media posts by Saudi clerics, and social media
commentary about the clerics. These entries form the basis of our study, which
took place during a fascinating time in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East.
It is important to note here that FDD’s research was limited to the analysis of 40,000
entries. Even with the wide reach of ConStrat’s proprietary software, we could not
possibly cover the entire social media environment related to the Saudi clerics. But,
as was the case with P@lestinian Pulse, the last study in which we applied ConStrat’s
technology,20 we undertook this project assuming that a representative sample can
provide unique insights into Saudi religious and societal trends.
Based on our findings, we believe the Saudi religious establishment is less
overtly radical than in the past. However, radical ideas and strong xenophobic
currents still exist. In many ways, the clerical establishment provides religious
cover for the Saudi government when it adopts positions that run counter to our
interests and values.
Facebook Fatwa provides a glimpse of the Saudi religious establishment’s
online activities during a critical moment for the Middle East, U.S.-Saudi
relations, and the kingdom itself, where Wahhabism continues to reverberate
thanks to a potent combination of old traditions and new technology.
19 For more information about ConStrat, please visit www.constrat.net.
20 Schanzer & Dubowitz, P@lestinian Pulse.
5
The E v olution of Wahhabism:
F rom Tak feer to Twitter
In 17 40 , Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab began his mission to eradicate religious
innov ations in Basra, part of present-day Iraq , initiating the Islamic rev iv alist
mov ement now k nown as Wahhabism. 1
Wahhabism is an expression of the ascetic Salafi Islam, a branch of Sunni
Islam that seek s to rev iv e “true” monotheism, as embodied by the P rophet
Muhammad and his followers ( al- Salaf al- Salih) . Wahhabism rests on the
belief that all laws for men are proscribed in the Q uran– Islam’s central holy
tex t, considered the word of God– leav ing v irtually no room for interpretation.
Abdul Wahhab insisted that religious scholars ( ulema) strictly follow only
the Q uran and Sunnah ( traditional social and legal customs of P rophet
Muhammad) for guidance. 2 By relying solely on the Q uran and Sunnah,
Wahhabism challenges and disregards centuries of Islamic jurisprudence
( fiqh) , theology, and traditions. 3
As a result of his strict interpretation of the religion, Abdul Wahhab gained few
friends during the early years. H e left Basra shortly after he began preaching,
and went to al-U yayna in northeastern Arabia. But the leader of al-U yayna soon
forced Abdul Wahhab to leav e the town, after he personally destroyed the tomb
built on the grav e of Z ayd ibn al-Khattab— brother of the second Muslim caliph
U mar— and burned two famous religious work s for their “idolatrous” ex pressions. 4
Ironically, in at least three Saudi towns, Abdul Wahhab himself was denounced as
a misguided religious innov ator for these desecrations. 5
But in 17 44, he found political protection for his mission when he met
Muhammad ibn Saud, the leader of the central Arabian oasis settlement of alD ir’iyya. Abdul Wahhab ex plained his v iew that the people of central Arabia
1 Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, p. 17.
2 “Sunnah,” Encyclopedia Britannica (Online), 2011, www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573993/Sunnah.
3 AhmadMoussalli,“Wahhabism,Salafism,andIslamism:WhoistheEnemy?”Conflicts orum,January2009,
pp.4-6,www.con ictsforum.org/briefings/Wahhabism-Salafism-and-Islamism.pdf.
4 Sheikh Jamaal al Din Zarabozo, he ife, eachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul ahhab,
(SaudiArabia:MinistryofIslamicA airs,Endowments,Dawah,andGuidance,2005),p.30,
www.sultan.org/books/wahhabism.pdf.
5 Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, p. 20.
7
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
ajd) were liv ing in religious ignorance ( j ahiliy a) and should return to a purer
v ersion of Islam. The men pledged their mutual support for each other, thus
sealing the enduring Saudi-Wahhabi pact. 6
(N
The Saudi-Wahhabi mission aggressiv ely ex panded, and became the dominant
religious doctrine in Arabia by the end of the 18 th century. 7 The Wahhabis
conq uered al-Q atif and al-Ahsa in eastern Arabia, ex tended southeast to the
modern-day U nited Arab E mirates, south to the ports of Y emen (w hich they
failed to hold), and northward into Iraq and the Syrian D esert. 8 But SaudiWahhabi ex pansion soon threatened the O ttoman E mpire when it reached the
Hijaz in western Arabia, bringing the Ottomans and Saudis closer to conflict.
The Wahhabis continued to march ev en after Abdul Wahhab’s death in 17 9 2. 9
The mission took control ov er Islam’s two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina,
between 18 0 3 and 18 0 5. 10 With the support of Abdul Wahhab’s followers,
Abdullah ibn Saud became the new Saudi leader. H owev er, the powerful
O ttoman-E gyptian army soon thrust into the Saudi-Wahhabi heartland, and
captured Abdullah. In 18 18 , the O ttomans guaranteed him safe passage to
C onstantinople, only to behead and impale him. 11
The Wahhabi establishment suffered great losses, including the death of some
two doz en Ulema and men of scholarly lineages. Remark ably, this did not
destroy the Wahhabis or their ideology. D escendants of Abdul Wahhab and
Abdullah’s son, Turk i, rev iv ed the mission just six years later,12 but they lack ed
the ex pansionary z eal of Abdullah’s rule.
This second emirate was short-liv ed. It crumbled in 18 8 4 amid fratricidal strife
within the Saudi family. 13 N ev ertheless, this brief period of transition ( 18 24-18 8 4)
was critical to the Wahhabis’ self-preserv ation. They soon reunited with the Saudi
family, and forged the most important oil-producing state of the 20 th century. 14
The Modern S tate
With a mix of might and religion similar to that of the initial Saudi-Wahhabi
conq uest, the al-Saud and Wahhabi loyalists set about reclaiming Arabia from
O ttoman rule under the leadership of Abdulaz iz ibn Saud. With Al al-Sheik h
and British assistance, ibn Saud brought the region under Wahhabi control by
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Ibid.,p.19.
Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, pp. 17-22.
NadavSafran,Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security, (NY:CornellUniversityPress,1988), p. 11.
Zarabozo, he ife, eachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul ahhab, p. 54.
Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, pp. 30-31.
Safran,Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security, pp. 13-14.
Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, pp. 43-44.
Safran,Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security, pp. 16-19.
Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, p. 66.
8
tH
E
E V oL utIon oF
W
A
H
H
A
B IS M
:
F roM
tA
K
F E E r to tW
IttE r
D ecember 19 25, and declared the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 19 32. 15
The success of this re-conq uest was due, in part, to a group of religious z ealots
k nown as the I khwan (B rothers). The I khwan were nomads from the tribal
confederations of Arabia who conv erted to Wahhabism, and serv ed as a military
force for ibn Saud. By 19 14, they dev eloped a reputation as uncompromising
religious soldiers who enforced monotheism, and harshly punished those who
refused to follow the “true path. ” 16
As the I khwan conq uered towns and ruthlessly k illed nomads who refused to
conv ert— including women and children— ibn Saud earned enemies. Between
19 14 and 19 26 , ibn Saud and Wahhabi leaders tried to moderate the I khwan’ s
behav ior. In J anuary and F ebruary 19 27 , ibn Saud and Wahhabi ulema met with
I khwan leaders at a conference in Riyadh. The I khwan demanded strict laws to
gov ern the Shi’a, the minority sect traditionally maligned in Wahhabi Islam. Ibn
Saud accepted their demands, but demanded that they recogniz e him as the only
legitimate authority on matters of foreign policy and j ihad . H e further banned
them from conducting raids on British territory in Iraq and Transjordan. 17
D espite this agreement, the I khwan remained disgruntled about hav ing to
temper their role as raiders and religious enforcers, which afforded them wealth
and opportunities to lord ov er newly conq uered towns in Arabia. 18
F inally, in D ecember 19 28 , the confrontation came to a head, as the I khwan
raided a carav an of merchants in the Wahhabi stronghold of Burayda, which ibn
Saud perceiv ed as an attack on his people. H e responded by sending his troops
to put down the I khwan. The sides battled from March 19 29 to J anuary 19 30 ,
when the I khwan ev entually surrendered.
Rather than simply punishing the I khwan, ibn Saud relied on a mix of
punishment and religious rehabilitation. 19 This was not the last time that
the Saudi state’s z ealous religious indoctrination ultimately wreak ed hav oc
on internal stability. N or would it be the last time the Saudi state applied a
q uestionable cock tail of punishment and rehabilitation to regain control.
O il and the Cold W ar
D uring the 20 th century, notes J im Woolsey, former C IA director and chairman of
the F oundation for D efense of D emocracies, the relationship between the U nited
15
16
17
18
19
Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, pp. 44-46.
Ibid.,pp.56-59.
Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, pp. 88-89.
Ibid.
Ibid.,pp.90-91.
9
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
States and Saudi Arabia “was a reasonably close and relax ed one. ” This was
primarily due to the fact that “we were on the same side in the C old War, and
the Saudis v alued our support ( and we theirs) against Sov iet influence in the
Middle E ast. ” 20
But the cornerstone of the relationship has always been oil. King ibn Saud
awarded the first oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) in 1933,
which the company in turn granted to its subsidiary, the C alifornia Arabian
Standard O il C ompany ( C ASO C ) . F iv e years later, C ASO C struck oil at the
D ammam-7 well, cementing the U . S. -Saudi relationship with a simple formula:
Saudi oil powered the American economy and simultaneously enriched the
monarchy. 21
The v alue of this relationship increased for both sides during World War II,
when the U nited States military needed more oil and the Saudis needed to
protect their oil fields from the Axis powers. Italian warplanes attempted to
bomb oil fields in Bahrain and eastern Saudi Arabia in November 1940, and
though the Italians missed their targets, many of CASOC’s employees fled back
to the U . S. In 19 41, when the Germans threatened to inv ade D hahran, the rest of
C ASO C ’s camp there ev acuated. 22
In 1943, President Roosevelt made Saudi Arabia eligible for the Lend-Lease
program, designed to offer U . S. allies assistance and bolster American security
around the world. Saudi Arabia qualified because of its importance to the
global oil mark et, its strategic location in the P ersian Gulf, and King ibn Saud’s
influence in the Arab and Muslim worlds.23 In 19 44, the Arabian American
O il C ompany ( ARAMC O ) , an outgrowth of C ASO C , began dev eloping the
kingdom’s infrastructure beyond the oil fields. This included roads, railways,
pipelines, ports, and airports to facilitate the oil business, but also included
schools and hospitals. 24
But the Saudi gov ernment felt short-changed when in 19 49 it receiv ed just
$ 39 . 1 million in royalties and fees from ARAMC O , while the U . S. Treasury
receiv ed $ 43 million in U . S. income tax rev enues. H owev er, the Saudis
got ov er their griev ances, as the State D epartment adv anced the “50 / 50 ”
agreement, which div ided oil rev enues ev enly between ARAMC O and the
Saudi gov ernment, and granted the Saudis important tax adv antages. By 19 51,
20 R. James Woolsey, “Foreword,” in Saudi Publications on Hate Ideology ill American Mos ues,
(Washington, DC: Freedom House, 2005), p. 7.
21 Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, pp. 17-21.
22 Ibid., p. 20.
23 Ibid., p. 40. According to Bronson, the U.S. provided the Saudis with 99 million in aid between 1940 and
1947, just 25 percent of which was to be repaid.
24 Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, p. 92.
10
tH
E
E V oL utIon oF
W
A
H
H
A
B IS M
:
F roM
tA
K
F E E r to tW
IttE r
ARAMC O paid U . S. income tax es of just $ 6 million, while it paid the Saudi
gov ernment almost $ 110 million. 25
Throughout the 20 th century, the U . S. -Saudi relationship remained mostly
stable. Of course, the Arab-Israeli conflict was a challenge. The most significant
breach of the U . S. -Saudi relationship came in O ctober 19 7 3, when P resident
N ix on helped Israel battle back against a surprise attack from the Syrians and
E gyptians. As the war ensued, and the U . S. helped Israel regain its footing,
Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil-producers imposed an embargo that sent oil
prices rising 7 0 percent. 26
While painful, the embargo lasted less than six months. Since then,
notwithstanding occasional crises, the Saudi gov ernment has had a strong
interest in keeping oil flowing and maintaining smooth relations with the U.S.
As global demand for oil increased, the wealth of the royal family grew.
R olling B ack Com m u nism
Rolling back C ommunism was another k ey aspect of the U . S. -Saudi
relationship after World War II. To the Saudis, the C ommunists were godless
ex pansionists who allied with secular pan-Arabist regimes. Similarly, the
C ommunists not only threatened America’s allies across E urope and Asia, but
also the country’s core v alues, including political freedoms, free enterprise,
and freedom of religion.
In the 1970s, oil wealth enabled the Saudis to fight Communism with more
than $ 7 . 5 billion in foreign and military aid to countries lik e E gypt, Syria,
P ak istan, N orth Y emen, Sudan, and others. Saudi funding was particularly
instrumental in supporting anti-Soviet (and anti-Libyan) operations and
alliances in Angola, Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. The Saudis’ financial role in
combating C ommunism became increasingly v ital, especially as the U nited
States struggled with the fallout from V ietnam, Watergate, and domestic
intelligence scandals. 27
Though successful, financing covert operations and forming anti-Soviet
coalitions were not the Saudis’ only strategies. They also employed religion.
E x p orting R adicalism
In 19 6 2, ibn Saud’s son, F aisal, who became k ing in 19 6 4, founded the Muslim
World League (MWL) to facilitate the global propagation of Wahhabism. Faisal
intended the MWL to challenge Shi’a, Sufis, and other “heretical” Muslim sects.
25 Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, pp. 55-56.
26 Al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, pp. 131-134.
27 Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, pp. 129-130.
11
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
To further that objective in South Asia, the MWL backed the Deobandis28 and
other Salafi fundamentalist groups ideologically ak in to Wahhabis. Meanwhile, the
Saudis sent missionaries and funding for Islamic schools to countries in West Africa,
including N igeria, Mali, Ghana, Iv ory C oast, and Guinea. 29
As the first major Islamic organization created by the Saudis, the MWL
proved integral to spreading the Wahhabi mission. As chairman of the MWL’s
C onstituent C ouncil during the Afghan j ihad of the 19 8 0 s, Saudi Grand
Mufti Abdulaz iz ibn Baz emphasiz ed the responsibility of Islamic states and
organiz ations to support muj ahid een (Islamic fighters) wherever they fought.30
Several Saudi-based subsidiaries of the MWL soon emerged around the
world, including the World Assembly of Muslim Y outh (W AMY ) in 19 7 2, the
International Islamic Relief O rganiz ation (I IRO ) in 19 7 9 ,31 and al-H aramain
F oundation in the early 19 9 0 s. 32 WAMY ’s goal was to spread monotheism
( tawheed ) and to arm “the Muslim youth with full confidence in the supremacy
of the Islamic system ov er other systems. ” 33 WAMY distributed work s from
prominent Muslim Brotherhood ideologue Sayyid Q utb, as well as Mawlana
Abu al-Ala Mawdudi, the leader of the radical P ak istani political party J amaati-Islami. 34 As recently as 20 0 3, WAMY and the IIRO still funded the P alestinian
terrorist organiz ation H amas. 35
F rom 19 7 3 to 20 0 2, the Saudi gov ernment spent more than $ 8 0 billion on
Islamic institutions and activ ities in the non-Muslim world alone, fueling the
28 ThewebsiteoftheDeobandireligiousinstitutionDarul-Uloom,foundedinDeoband,India,citesapassagefromthebook Modern Islam in India, byProfessorW.CantwellSmithofMcGillUniversity: “Deoband
isthoroughlydissatisfiedwiththingsastheyare,anditisvigorousanddeterminedinitse ortsto
improvethem.ItsaimistoresuscitateclassicalIslam,ridtheMuslimsofthetheologicalcorruption s ,
theritualdegradation s andthematerialexploitation s towhichtheyhavefallenpreysincetheBritish
occupation Deoband Ulama’arepuritanicallystrict.Theyworkassiduouslytoovercomeanddestroy
backsliding,superstitions,saint-worshipandalltheparaphernaliaofignorance,povertyandfearina
depressedanddecadentagrariansociety.”SeetheDarul-Uloomwebsitewww.darululoom-deoband.com/
english/index.htm.
29 Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, pp. 152-3.
30 DoreGold,Hatred s ingdom: Ho Saudi Arabia Supports the e
lobal errorism,(Washington,DC:
RegneryPublishing,2004),p.119.
31 FortheInternationalIslamicReliefOrganization’swebsite,seewww.egatha.org/portal/index.
php?option com_content&view frontpage&Itemid 21.
32 NationalCommissiononTerroristAttacksUpontheUnitedStates, he
Commission Report,July22,
2004,pp.170&372,www.911commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf.
33 Lorenzo idino,“TheMuslimBrotherhood’sConquestofEurope,”Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2005,
pp.25-34,www.meforum.org/687/the-muslim-brotherhoods-conquest-of-europe.
34 SayyidQutb,Milestones,(Lahore: aziPublications,2007).
35 Gold,Hatred s ingdom, p. 226.
12
tH
E
E V oL utIon oF
W
A
H
H
A
B IS M
:
F roM
tA
K
F E E r to tW
IttE r
construction of more than 1,50 0 mosq ues, 150 Islamic centers, 20 2 Muslim
colleges, and 2,0 0 0 Islamic schools. 36 As of 20 0 2, Saudi funding produced an
estimated 10 ,0 0 0 D eobandi-run schools in India, P ak istan, and Bangladesh.
O ther targets for Wahhabi outreach were countries with large Muslim
populations lik e Albania, Kosov o, and Bosnia, where the Saudis hav e spent more
than $ 6 0 0 million alone. As a result of this outreach, nearly 8 0 percent of all
Islamic institutions in the U . S. and C anada are Saudi-sponsored, not to mention
mosq ues and Islamic centers across Western E urope. 37
Late 1979 marked a turning point in the evolution of modern Wahhabism. King
Khaled faced an internal challenge when the Salafi separatist group al- J ama’ a
al alafi aal
htasiba( J SM) and its leader J uhayman al-O taibi seiz ed the
Grand Mosq ue in Mecca on N ov ember 20 . U ltimately, with back ing from the
Ulema, Saudi forces mov ed in to end the two-week stand-off. 38 Al-O taibi and 6 2
other J SM members were captured and publicly beheaded. 39
In addition to the Grand Mosq ue tak eov er, the country’s estimated 15 percent
Shi’a population drew inspiration from the Islamic Rev olution in Iran, and staged
protests in the k ingdom’s oil-rich E astern P rov ince,40 where Shi’a represent nearly
7 5 percent of the population. 41 C ompounding the Saudi monarch’s anx iety, the
Sov iet U nion inv aded Afghanistan in D ecember 19 7 9 , spark ing fears that the
country would become a launching point for Sov iet ex pansion into southwestern
Asia and the Persian ulf oil fields.
In the eyes of King Khaled, the combination of these ev ents threatened to
undermine Saudi Arabia’s leadership of Sunni Muslims, so he undertook drastic
measures to reaffirm his religious credentials to Islamists at home and abroad. He
accomplished both objectiv es by lev eraging Saudi oil wealth to cultiv ate a network
36 AlexanderAlexiev,“TheWagesofExtremism:RadicalIslam’sThreattotheWestandtheMuslimWorld,”
Hudson Institute, March2011,p.44,www.hudson.org/files/publications/AAlexievWagesofExtremism032011.pdf.
37 AlexanderAlexiev,“TheEndofanAlliance,” ational Re ie , October28,2002,http://old.nationalreview.com/ ashback/ ashback-alexiev112602.asp.
38 See:YaroslavTrofimov, he Siege of Mecca: he
Uprising at Islam s Holiest Shrine,(NY:Anchor
Books, 2007).
39 “MosqueHas iolentPast,” he e ork imes,August2,1987,www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/world/
mosque-has-violent-past.html?src pm.
40 “TheShiiteQuestioninSaudiArabia,”TheInternationalCrisisGroup, Middle East Report, No. 45,
September 19, 2005, p. 1, www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle 20East 20North 20Africa/
Iran 20Gulf/Saudi 20Arabia/The 20Shiite 20Question 20in 20Saudi 20Arabia.pdf Alsosee:
TobyCraigJones,“RebellionontheSaudiPeriphery:Modernity,Marginalization,andtheShiaUprisingof
1979,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, ol.38,Issue2,May2006,pp.213-233.
41 MaiYamani,“SaudiArabia’sShiaStandUp,”Project Syndicate, March11,2009,www.project-syndicate.
org/commentary/yamani20/English.
13
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
of religious schools around the world that produced new generations of Muslim
fighters for the battlefields in Afghanistan and beyond.
In a joint effort to defeat the Sov iets, Washington supplied weapons to the
muj ahid een in Afghanistan. 42 As these fighters scored successes against the
Sov iet army, C ongress ex panded its funding for the weapons program, which the
Saudis matched dollar for dollar. 43
By some estimates, between 17 5,0 0 0 and 250 ,0 0 0 muj ahid een fought in
Afghanistan during the war. 44 The Arab contingent of fighters included roughly
5,0 0 0 Saudis, 3,0 0 0 Algerians, 3,0 0 0 Y emenis, 2,0 0 0 E gyptians, and scores
of others from Tunisia, Iraq, Libya, and Jordan.45 And though U . S. intelligence
undoubtedly observ ed the effects of religious indoctrination on the muj ahid een,
the C IA nev er threatened to stop supplying them with weapons.
After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989, many Saudi fighters
returned home as war heroes. A sense of inv incibility perv aded these “Afghan
Arabs. ” 46 Perhaps no one demonstrated that sense more than Osama bin Laden,
the wealthy son of a Saudi building magnate.
Bin Laden left his life of luxury in Saudi Arabia to become a guerrilla fighter in
1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Inspired by an influential
P alestinian professor and Muslim Brotherhood leader named Abdullah Az z am,
bin Laden founded aktabal hi a at (Services Office, or MAK) in 1984, and
received financial donations from Saudi intelligence, the Saudi Red Crescent,
and the MWL.47 With that funding, MAK recruited thousands of muj ahid een,
financed their travel to Afghanistan, and trained them in guerrilla tactics and
operations. 48 After the Sov iet defeat, MAK became the core of the al-Q aeda
network. Its fighters returned to their countries of origin with the intent to create
new, local Islamist militant groups.
When Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi army invaded Kuwait in 1990, bin Laden
“proposed to the Saudi monarchy that he summon muj ahid een for a j ihad to
42 CharlesC.Cogan,“PartnersinTime:TheCIAandAfghanistanSince1979,” orld Policy Journal, Vol. 10,
No. 2, Summer 1993, p. 76, www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/40209308?uid 3739584&uid 2129&uid 2&
uid 70&uid 4&uid 3739256&sid 21100651139186.(RequiresJSTORaccounttoaccess)
43 Coll, Ghost Wars, pp. 81-106.
44 PeterBergen,Holy ar, Inc : Inside the Secret orld of sama bin aden,(NY:FreePress,2001),p.55.
45 RichardEngel,“InsideAl-Qaeda:AWindowintotheWorldofMilitantIslamandtheAfghanAlumni,”
Jane s International Security,September28,2001,republishedatwww.freerepublic.com/focus/fnews/559098/posts.
46 RaymondIbrahim,“Al-Qaeda,” he orld Almanac of Islamism, http://almanac.afpc.org/al-qaeda.
47 Gold,Hatred s ingdom, pp. 128-9.
48 he
Commission Report, p. 55.
14
tH
E
E V oL utIon oF
W
A
H
H
A
B IS M
:
F roM
tA
K
F E E r to tW
IttE r
retak e Kuwait. H e was rebuffed, and the Saudis joined the U . S. -led coalition. ” 49
Shortly thereafter, bin Laden publicly challenged the Saudi regime, convinced
that it did not rule Saudi Arabia in a manner consistent with Islamic law. H e
recorded speeches decrying the regime, and distributed them throughout
the country. 50 As bin Laden later said, the government “betrayed the ummah
[w orldwide Muslim community] and joined the kuffar infidels , assisting and
helping them against Muslims. ” 51
By April 1991, under pressure from the Saudi security services, bin Laden, his
family, and an estimated 30 0 to 48 0 dedicated j ihad i cadres left for Sudan. 52 It
was there that bin Laden created his organization, which the Saudis disavowed,
but was nonetheless an outgrowth of Wahhabi ideology. U nder pressure from
Washington, Khartoum reportedly tried to cut a deal with the Saudis in 19 9 5 to
extradite him, but it fell through. Finally, in 1996, bin Laden left for Afghanistan.53
From 1996 through 2001, conflicts in the Muslim world (including in Chechnya,
Kosovo, and the Palestinian Territories) allowed bin Laden to attract a wave of Saudis
to al-Q aeda’s training camps in Afghanistan. 54 U . S. intelligence agencies estimated
that between 10,000 and 20,000 fighters trained in bin Laden’s camps during that
time. As al-Q aeda dev eloped into a deadly terrorist network , Saudi indiv iduals and
organizations funded its operations. Specifically, T he 9 / 1 1 R ep ort found that Saudi
and ulf financiers funneled money to jihadists in Afghanistan, and later to alQaeda, through an informal financial network of charities and non-governmental
organiz ations, k nown as the “Golden C hain. ” 55
The F ight against J ihadism in S au di A rab ia
The Saudi-U . S. relationship came under sev ere strain after September 11, 20 0 1,
as Americans learned that 15 of the 19 hijack ers were Saudis and followers
of bin Laden. Authorities raided, shut down, or froze the assets of nearly 0
Islamic institutions, most of them funded by Saudi Arabia, because of link s to
49 Ibid.,p.57.
50 Bergen,Holy War, Inc., pp. 77-78.
51 NewsHourwithJimLehrer,“BinLaden’sFatwa,”PBS,www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/
fatwa_1996.html.
52 YonahAlexander&MichaelSwetnam,Usama bin aden s al aida: Pro le of a errorist et ork,(NY:
TransnationalPublishers,2001),p.38.
53 John-ThorDahlburg&AlexRodriguez,“OsamabinLaden,BorntoPrivilege,DiesaPariah,”The Los
Angeles imes, May2,2011,http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/02/local/la-me-osama-bin-laden-20110502-4.
54 ThomasHegghammer,“TerroristRecruitmentandRadicalizationinSaudiArabia,”Middle East Policy,
ol.13,Issue4, December2006,http://chenry.webhost.utexas.edu/usme/2007/Saudi-Terrorist_
Recruitmen_87543a.pdf.
55 he
Commission Report,pp.55&67.
15
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
terrorist activities. Those organizations included the Muslim World League,
World Assembly of Muslim Y outh, SAAR F oundation, and the School of Islamic
and Social Sciences. 56 Under fire, the Saudis took tentative steps to stem the
flow of those toxic funds. For example, the Saudi and U.S. governments jointly
designated several branches of the Al Haramain Foundation as financiers of
terrorism under U N Security C ouncil Resolution 126 7 . 57
But the Saudi gov ernment was slow to implement a comprehensiv e
counterterrorism strategy, and soon paid for its hesitation in blood. In early
20 0 2, between 30 0 and 1,0 0 0 Saudi and foreign al-Q aeda members returned to
the k ingdom after the U . S. inv asion of Taliban-ruled Afghanistan. 58 They formed
independent cells and prepared for local operations by stock piling weapons, renting
safe houses, setting up training camps, and recruiting other “Afghan Arabs. ” 59
V iolence erupted on the streets of Saudi Arabia in 20 0 3 and 20 0 4, as al-Q aeda in
the Arabian P eninsula ( AQ AP ) launched more than 30 attack s inside the k ingdom,
killing at least 91 foreign nationals and Saudi civilians and 41 security officers, as
well as injuring nearly 7 30 people. 6 0 The group assassinated senior officers in the
Ministry of Interior, k illed nine people at the U . S. consulate in J eddah in 20 0 4,
and targeted the k ingdom’s largest oil processing facility at Abq aiq . 6 1
A small cohort of clerics in the k ingdom endorsed the campaign, including
H amud ibn U q la al-Shuaibi, Abdullah ibn al-J ibreen, N asir al-F ahd, Ali alKhudeir, and Ahmed al-Khalidi (t he latter three were arrested in the fall of 20 0 3
and later renounced their support for militancy on telev ision). 6 2 They propagated
messages v ia the internet, accusing the Saudi gov ernment of subserv ience to
infidels, and therefore deeming it a legitimate target for j ihad . 6 3
The regime downplayed their v iews as “dev iant,” yet their think ing was
undeniably molded by the Saudi system. Al-Shuaibi, for ex ample, came
56 Alexiev,“TheEndofanAlliance.”
57 “CombatingTerrorism:U.S.AgenciesReportProgressCounteringTerrorismandItsFinancinginSaudi
Arabia,butContinuedFocusonCounterTerrorismFinancingE ortsNeeded,”U.S.GovernmentAccountabilityO ce,September2009,p.9,www.gao.gov/new.items/d09883.pdf.
58 Hegghammer,“TerroristRecruitmentandRadicalizationinSaudiArabia,”p.42.
59 ThomasHegghammer,“Islamist iolenceandRegimeStabilityinSaudiArabia,”International A airs, Vol.
84, No. 4, 2008,http://hegghammer.com/_files/Hegghammer_-_Islamist_violence_and_regime_stability_in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf.
60 AngelRabasaetal.,Deradicalizing Islamist E tremists,(SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation,2008),p.56,
www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2010/RAND_MG1053.pdf.
61 BruceRiedelandBilalY.Saab,“AlQaeda’sThirdFront:SaudiArabia,”Washington Quarterly,Spring2008,
p.38,www.twq.com/08spring/docs/08spring_riedel.pdf.
62 TobyCraigJones,“TheClerics,theSahwaandtheSaudiState,”p.4.
63 Commins,“TheJihadiFactorinWahhabiIslam,”p.13.
16
tH
E
E V oL utIon oF
W
A
H
H
A
B IS M
:
F roM
tA
K
F E E r to tW
IttE r
from the Wahhabi heartland town of Buraida, studied under Grand Muftis
Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al al-Sheik h and Abdulaz iz Abdullah ibn Baz , and
taught sev eral prominent clerics, including current Grand Mufti Abdulaz iz
Al al-Sheik h. 6 4 For his part, al-Jibreen formerly worked within the official
religious establishment at the P ermanent C ommittee for Research and Ifta
( issuing fatawa) . 6 5
The Crack down
The Saudis launched an unprecedented crack down, designed to root out terror
finance and radicalism from the kingdom. The approach, according to the Saudi
gov ernment, focused on “men, money, and mindset. ” 6 6 Between 20 0 3 and 20 0 8 ,
Saudi security forces brok e up al-Q aeda cells and arrested or k illed militants
suspected of planning attack s. Officials from the Ministry of Islamic Affairs
monitored tens of thousands of the country’s approx imately 7 0 ,0 0 0 mosq ues, in
addition to schools and websites. 6 7
The gov ernment also launched a de-radicaliz ation program designed to combat
“dev iant” ideologies, a term it prefers ov er “ex tremists” or “terrorists. ” 6 8 Its
ov erarching “soft” counterterrorism strategy is k nown as P RAC , or P rev ention,
Rehabilitation, and Aftercare. 6 9 Largely administered by the Ministry of Interior,
the Saudi program aims to: educate the Saudi population about the dangers of
ex tremism; de-radicaliz e and re-educate ex tremists; and reintegrate indiv iduals
who completed the rehabilitation phase. 7 0 While recidiv ism rates are fuz z y and
undoubtedly higher than reported,7 1 it is still remark able that the Saudi regime
began battling the ideology it had promoted for years.
In the end, the counter-terror finance campaign was perhaps the most impressive
centerpiece of the new Saudi policy. As late as 20 0 7 , former U ndersecretary of the
64 ForHamudibnUqlaal-Shuaibi’spersonalwebsite,seewww.al-oglaa.com.
65 ForAbdullahibnal-Jibreen’spersonalwebsite,seehttp://ibn-jebreen.com/?t books&cat 200&book 75
&toc 4754&page 4280&subid .
66 “InitiativesandActionstoCombatTerrorism,”(Washington,DC:RoyalEmbassyofSaudiArabia,2011),
www.saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Reports/Counterterrorism.pdf.
67 “CombatingTerrorism,”U.S.GovernmentAccountabilityO ce,p.26.
68 Rabasa et al., Deradicalizing Islamist E tremists, pp. 57-77.
69 JohnHorgan& urtBraddock,“RehabilitatingtheTerrorists?ChallengesinAssessingtheE ectivenessof
De-radicalizationPrograms,” errorism and Political iolence, Vol. 22, 2010, pp. 267-291,
www.start.umd.edu/start/publications/Derad.pdf.
70 ChristopherBoucek,“SaudiArabia’s So ’CounterterrorismStrategy:Prevention,Rehabilitation,and
A ercare,”CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,September2008,
http://carnegieendowment.org/files/cp97_boucek_saudi_final.pdf.
71 RobL.Wagner,“ForSaudiTerrorSuspects,aLegalFog,” he Jerusalem Post, October 19, 2011, www.
jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id 242421&R R44.
17
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence Stuart Levey said, “If I could
somehow snap my fingers and cut off the funding from one country, it would
be Saudi Arabia. ” 7 2 But in recent years, Treasury officials admit that U.S.-Saudi
cooperation on terror finance found its groove. As one former official who worked
v ery closely on this issue stated, “To be sure, it’s a different atmosphere. There is
much more political will in Saudi on [ this] issue than before. ” 7 3
Still, while the Saudis largely cut funding to al-Q aeda, considerable funds continue to
flow to other jihadist organizations. On May 22, 2011, the Pakistani newspaper D awn
reported that nearly 100 million in annual financial support for Salafi Deobandi and
Ahl-i-H adith clerics in southern P unjab originated in Saudi Arabia and the U AE . To
find young subjects for martyrdom operations, the organizations targeted families
with multiple children and severe financial difficulties, initially under the pretense of
charity. C lerics indoctrinated the children, while teachers assessed their procliv ity “to
engage in v iolence and acceptance of jihadi culture. ” In ex change for each child, the
organiz ations doled out av erage cash payments of $ 6 ,50 0 . 7 4
But what of the problems associated with internet radicaliz ation emanating from
Saudi Arabia? H as j ihad i messaging continued to plague Saudi Arabia? O r has it
waned as a result of the Saudi authorities’ efforts?
The F oundation for D efense of D emocracies (F D D ) commissioned a study in
J anuary 20 11 to ex amine the Saudi clerical presence online, and the ex tent to
which clerics and their followers promote Wahhabi ideology. A decade after the
September 11 attack s, and a decade after the worst crisis in U . S. -Saudi relations,
F D D sought to learn: Is Saudi-sponsored radicaliz ation still a problem online?
72 BrianRoss,“U.S.:SaudisStillFillingAlQaeda’sCo ers,”ABC News,September11,2007,
http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2007/09/us-saudis-still/.
73 JonathanSchanzer,“SaudiArabia’sTerrorFinanceProblem,”The Weekly Standard, September 7, 2011,
www.weeklystandard.com/blogs/saudi-arabia-s-terror-finance-problem_592744.html.
74 QuratulainSiddiqui,“SaudiArabia,UAEFinancingExtremisminSouthPunjab,”Dawn, May22,2011,
www.dawn.com/2011/05/22/saudi-arabia-uae-financing-extremism-in-south-punjab.html.
18
The Study
To understand how Saudi clerics and their followers use the internet to ex press
and disseminate religious ideas, F D D commissioned C onStrat. The company
surv eyed online content that Saudi clerics posted themselv es, content that
generally referenced the Saudi clerical establishment, or content that referenced
any of the Saudi clerics by name.
D uring the six -month period, internet users in E gypt posted the lion’s share of
content that referenced Saudi clerics, with 29 ,8 0 8 entries. To a certain ex tent,
this is a matter of simple math. E gyptian internet users v astly outnumber those
in Saudi Arabia. The E gyptian gov ernment reported in F ebruary 20 11 that the
number of internet users in the country was 23. 51 million. 1 In comparison, a
report by the U N H igh C ommissioner for Refugees listed the number of internet
users in Saudi Arabia at 11. 2 million. 2
H owev er, the main reason for the relativ e dearth of Saudi internet activ ity is that
the k ingdom has a high lev el of censorship. In J anuary 20 0 8 , the Saudi Ministry
of C ulture and Information enacted new laws restricting the use of technology. 3
Perpetrators could receive long prison terms and harsh fines for
1
2
3
n
Anything contrav ening a fundamental principle or legislation, or
infringing the sanctity of Islam and its [ Shari’ ah], or breaching public
decency;
n
Anything contrary to the state or its system;
n
Reports or news damaging to the Saudi Arabian armed forces, without
the approv al of the competent authorities;
n
Anything damaging to the dignity of heads of states or heads of
“Egypt’s MCIT: Egypt Has 23.51 Million Internet Users, 71.46 Million Mobile Subscribers, and 3972 ICT
Companies,” Arab Crunch, April28,2011,http://arabcrunch.com/2011/04/egypts-mcit-egypt-has23-51-million-internet-users-71-46-million-mobile-subscribers-3972-ict-companies.html.
“Internet Entries 2011 – Saudi Arabia,” he United ations High Commissioner for Refugees, March 11,
2011,www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,SAU,,4d82268d28,0.html.
“Saudi Arabia,” pen et Initiati e, August6,2009,http://opennet.net/research/profiles/saudi-arabia.
19
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
accredited diplomatic missions in the k ingdom, or harms relations with
those countries;
n
Any false information ascribed to state officials or those of private or
public domestic institutions and bodies, liable to cause them or their
offices harm, or damage their integrity;
n
The propagation of subv ersiv e ideas or the disruption of public order or
disputes among citiz ens;
n
Any slanderous or libelous material against indiv iduals. 4
O n J anuary 1, 20 11, the Ministry of C ulture enacted a new regulation that
further restricted online media. The E x ecutiv e Regulation for E lectronic
P ublishing Activ ity req uired all news sites, discussion forums, mobile phone tex t
messaging (a nd other mobile phone-based content), and email groups to obtain
a gov ernment license. The regulation mak es the necessary license av ailable only
to Saudis who also must be at least 20 years old and hav e a high school degree. 5
Thus, while Saudi Arabia has proportionally large internet accessibility in
relation to other Arab states, government censorship limits usage significantly.6
H owev er, these strict internet laws did not prev ent clerics from being activ e
online. O f particular interest to F D D was the ex tent to which Saudi clerics
operate within the state’s “red-lines. ”
C onStrat utiliz ed its proprietary software to mine the internet for entries that
could yield insight into the potential influence of Saudi clerics. Two ConStrat
researchers with native Arabic language fluency analyzed Arabic data, while two
other researchers with specializ ed academic and practical training in Arabic
language and culture analyz ed the E nglish data.
In the first phase of this study, ConStrat analyzed hundreds of tafseer ( religious
commentary) and fatawa ( religious opinions) from the personal websites of Saudi
clerics, as well as other websites that publish their commentaries and opinions. In this
phase, C onStrat’s research yielded data on 7 5 sanctioned clerics and 19 unsanctioned
clerics from Saudi Arabia. H owev er, only 30 of these clerics maintained websites— 20
in Arabic and 10 in E nglish. These 30 clerics’ websites published a total of 1,7 52
fatawa and tafseer in Arabic and 8 40 in E nglish. F rom these comments and opinions,
researchers randomly selected and coded more than 50 0 entries.
4
Chiara Bernardi, “Saudi Bloggers, Women’s Issues and NGOs,” Arab Media Society, Issue 11, Summer
2010, www.arabmediasociety.com/?article 757.
5 “SaudiArabia:RescindNewOnlineRestrictions,”HumanRightsWatch,January7,2011,
www.hrw.org/news/2011/01/07/saudi-arabia-rescind-new-online-restrictions.
6 “The Internet in Arab Countries,” Al-Bab, June27,2009,www.al-bab.com/media/internet.htm.
20
tH
E
S
tudY
F or the second part of the study, C onStrat used two software platforms to
mine the social media env ironment to ex plore how Saudi clerics’ messages
disseminate. C onStrat’s proprietary V X technology collected data from online
message boards, more commonly k nown as forums. Researchers used the names
of 6 9 prominent Saudi clerics, written in Arabic and Roman script (w ith v arying
spellings), to conduct k ey word searches of forums in both languages. The
technology searched millions of forums (i ncluding password-protected forums),
multiple times per day for relev ant data. V X also identified the forums hosting
the most discussions about Saudi clerics, and the fatawa forum users were
discussing most often.
C onStrat also utiliz ed the mark et research software A L T E R I A N SM 2 to analyz e
Arabic and E nglish mentions of Saudi clerics on social media platforms such
as Twitter, F acebook , Y ouTube, and Blogger. SM 2 ’s Social Media Warehouse
contains data from more than 9 billion social media mentions, blogs, tweets,
posts, images, and conv ersations. SM 2 continuously scans and index es online
conv ersations to add to this warehouse, and collects more than 40 million new
results daily. This includes mainstream news sites, as well as message boards,
Twitter, P lurk , Wik is, Y ouTube, F lick r, N ing, F acebook , and L ink edIn.
According to SM 2 , Twitter was the single most activ e social media platform for
all Saudi clerics, with 8 4. 29 percent of the total content by source. Though some
clerics did not maintain Twitter accounts, “tweets” and “re-tweets” containing
their fatawa, Y ouTube v ideos, and announcements about their activ ity were still
common.
Relativ e to their Arabic-speak ing counterparts, E nglish social media users were
less interested in the clerics. F or perspectiv e, E nglish users mentioned the three
most popular clerics— sanctioned clerics Abdul Rahman al-Sudais and Saleh
al-F awz an, and unsanctioned cleric Salman al-O dah— 59 0 times. By contrast,
Arabic users mentioned the top clerics— sanctioned clerics Saleh al-F awz an and
Abdulaz iz ibn Baz , along with Salman al-O dah— 31,36 8 times.
In the end, C onStrat collected and coded data for nearly 40 ,0 0 0 entries from
Arabic and E nglish websites, forum threads, and social media posts.
A ssigning S entim ent
O ne of the primary objectiv es of this study was to gauge how Saudi clerics and
web-users talk about their ideas. To better understand the ov erall tone of the
Saudi internet env ironment, C onStrat coded sentiment on a spectrum from
moderate to militant.
We fully ack nowledge that sentiment analysis— particularly one that describes
religious figures and ideas as radical or moderate—is a sensitive and widely
21
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
debated subject. Radical and moderate are relativ e terms. The goal was to
broadly gauge sentiment as a means to collate and analyz e it further. C onStrat’s
labels were created with the following contours.
M
O D E R A T E : E x presses pluralistic v iews and commitment to peaceful coex istence with all sects and religions; supports Muslim integration in nonIslamic societies and with modernity; and activ ely refutes teachings that support
war against non-Muslims to spread Islam.
n
E x amp le 1 “It is the duty of citizens as well as governments to fight all
forms of terrorism. ” (G rand Mufti Abdulaz iz Al al-Sheik h) 7
n
E x amp le 2 “Islam is established on the basis of coexistence between
those who differ, ev en when those differences are in faith. ” (S alman alO dah) 8
N E U T R A L : E x presses v iews that are generally dev oid of sentiment, but
may demonstrate a desire to adhere to religious laws. These entries could be
described as banal in nature.
n
E x amp le 1 Ruling on the steps of properly cleaning the body after
engaging in sex with a spouse. (A bdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al
al-Sheik h) 9
n
E x amp le 2 Ruling on instances when the bank pursues the co-signer and/
or co-signee of a contract. The cleric said, “These are legal matters between
you and the bank with which I do not interfere. ” (S aleh al-F awz an) 10
C O N S E R V A T I V E : Expresses views that reflect rigidity on socio-economic
matters; reluctance to adapt to modernity; encourages associating only with other
Muslims; prov ides strict interpretation of Q uran and Shari’ ah in daily life.
7
8
9
10
11
12
n
E x amp le 1 : “It is allowed for a woman to go see a male gynecologist if
there are no female doctors av ailable, but he [ the doctor] shall not be with
her [ the patient] alone in the same room. ” ( Abdullah ibn al-Q aoud) 11
n
E x amp le 2 : “The Islamic State is allowed to set legislation to promote
the public interests as long as that legislation does not contradict Islamic
L aw. ” (P ermanent C ommittee for Research and Ifta) 12
FortheGrandMu i’spersonalwebsite,seewww.mu i.af.org.sa.
http://en.islamtoday.net/node/1715.
www.saaid.net/Warathah/1/shaikh-m.htm.
www.alfawzan.af.org.sa/node/4305.
http://alqaoud.net/word.php?t 2.
http://en.islamtoday.net/quesshow-118-575.htm.
22
tH
E
S
tudY
R A D I C A L : E x presses v iews that embrace disdain for other Muslims, religions,
and cultures; demands dissociation of believ ers from “non-believ ers; ” allows
treachery (t heft, deceit, etc. ) against “non-believ ers. ”
n
E x amp le 1 Muslims should sever all relations with relatives who do
not pray on a regular basis. N on-practitioners should be considered
apostates. (S aleh al-F awz an) 13
n
E x amp le 2 “Muslims should only use force when they are compelled to
unless there is some cause on the part of the infidels , such as their fighting
the Muslims, or helping other enemies of the Muslims, or prev enting them
from following the path of Allah. ” ( Muhammad al-Munajjid) 14
M
I L I T A N T : E x presses v iews that endorse religious v iolence; supports j ihad
against “non-believ ers,” including for the purpose of spreading Islam; and
endorses k illing for the sak e of the Muslim nation ( ummah).
n
E x amp le 1 “ j ihad means fighting the infidels and the like. This is the
duty of the people of the country that has been dominated or occupied
by the infidels. The rest of the Muslims must assist and support them.”
(S alman al-O dah) 15
n
E x amp le 2 “ Martyrdom operations are legitimate in religion, a j ihad
for Allah, if the intention of the perpetrator is pure. They are one of the
most successful means of j ihad and effectiv e means against the enemies
of this religion. ” (H amud ibn U q la al-Shuaibi) 16
While such labels were often useful in helping C onStrat identify moderate or
radical sentiment, assigning such labels to define clerics proved impossible.
C lerics who forwarded moderate statements also generated radical ones. F or
ex ample, Abdul Rahman al-Sudais’ message for Muslims to peacefully co-ex ist
and uphold moderate Islamic teachings17 stands in stark contrast to his calls for
takfeer against Sufis, as well as his reference to Jews as “monkeys and pigs.”18
L ik ewise, Saleh al-F awz an’s ruling that the suicide bombing of a C optic church
13
14
15
16
17
www.alfawzan.af.org.sa/node/9116.
www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/21757.
www.islamtoday.net/salman/artshow-28-138541.htm.
www.al-oglaa.com/?section subject&SubjectID 169.
“Al-SudaisSpeaksaboutChallengesFacingIslam,”Arab e s, April 21, 2011,
http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article369488.ece.
18 R.Upadhyay,“MeccaImam’s isittoIndia:SomeObservations Analysis,” ordpress, June1,2011,
http://sunninews.wordpress.com/2011/06/02/mecca-imam E2 80 99s-visit-to-india-some-observations- E2 80 93-analysis/.
23
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
in Alex andria, E gypt, was the work of Satan19 is difficult to reconcile with his ruling
that Muslim co-work ers who do not pray are kuffar (infidels), and must be killed.20
Primarily, sentiment proved useful in flagging notable posts for the analyses in
the chapters that follow.
P rocessing the D ata
C onStrat also div ided its data into sev en thematic topics to ascertain what issues
were on the minds of Saudi religious leaders and their audience
E C O N O M I C : Commentary related to issues such as the financial markets,
bank ing, money lending, and domestic and international economic policies.
E conomics comprised 1 percent of the ov erall content in E nglish, and 4 percent
of the ov erall Arabic content. Most of the fatawa came in the form of q uestions
and answers between web-users and clerics. O ne fatwa banned employment
in the information technology field if the websites involved contain pictures or
gender mix ing. The fatwa also banned selling products that could lead to heresy,
lik e “grapes to be used in wine” or “wood to be used for a cross. ” 21 F ormer Grand
Mufti Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al al-Sheik h also forbade “helping C hristians
celebrate C hristmas” by selling greeting cards, gifts, and C hristmas trees. 22
S O C I A L : C ommentary related to social issues such as women’s rights, human
rights, child rearing, crime, and punishment comprised 22 percent of the
ov erall E nglish content and 35 percent of the Arabic content. The Saudi ban on
a woman’s right to driv e was the most discussed topic during the observ ation
period. 23 D iscussions also cov ered adultery24 and Western customs. 25 The ov erall
dominance of conservative and radical ideas reflected general resistance to
social reforms by clerics and their followers. A handful of militant posts openly
endorsed the use of v iolence against reformists.
D A I L Y R E L I G I O U S P R A C T I C E : C ommentary related to how Muslims
should practice their religion in their daily liv es made up 29 percent of the
ov erall E nglish language content, and 47 percent in Arabic. Most discussion
focused on technicalities, such as the proper ways to perform ablution and
19 “SaudiClericSeesDevilbehindSuicideAttacks,” he Daily Star, January8,2011,www.dailystar.com.lb/
News/Middle-East/Jan/08/Saudi-cleric-sees-devil-behind-suicide-attacks.ashx axzz1WihSlAp .
20 www.alhilalclub.com/vb/showthread.php?t 268543.
21 www.neqashalhb.com/showthread.php?t 12182.(Loginrequired Accessedvia onJanuary26,2011)
22 www.mahaja.com/showthread.php?12388.
23 http://cn.last.fm/forum/23/_/717902?setlang zh.
24 http://baytulaswad.blogspot.com/2011/06/does-marriage-of-adulterer-to.html.
25 www.friendswhisper.com/?p 540.
24
tH
E
S
tudY
prayer. O ne contentious issue that elicited more radical responses was
worshipping at grav esites,26 which is a practice that Wahhabis oppose. The
majority of req uests for religious guidance came in the form of req uests for
clarification. For example, one ruling declared a woman’s prayer invalid if she is
wearing jewelry while praying. 27
D O M E S T I C P O L I T I C S : C ommentary related to the Saudi gov ernment and
its policies made up 9 percent of the ov erall E nglish language content, and 8
percent of Arabic content. Most of the conv ersations focused on unrest in Saudi
Arabia during the protests of the regional “Arab Spring. ” While the March 11
protests were not widespread in the k ingdom (t he gov ernment warned of dire
conseq uences in the ev ent of unrest), q uestions surrounding reform prompted
timid discussions about Saudi gov ernance.
I N T E R N A T I O N A L P O L I T I C S : C ommentary related to foreign gov ernments
and international politics comprised 8 percent of the ov erall E nglish content
and 12 percent of the Arabic content. Most of the radical to conserv ativ e posts
represent a hostile stance against the “Arab Spring. ” N otably, cleric Rabia
al-Madk hali spok e out against protesting as a means to achiev e reform, and
branded rev olutions as a “L eninist, Stalinist ev il. ” 28 H owev er, the commentary
on clerical rulings v aried greatly. “Arab Spring” supporters regarded democratic
reforms as the best path toward freedom from dictatorships. C onv ersely,
conserv ativ e and radical commentators aspired to rev iv e the “age of glory” for
the Muslim world by reinstating the rule of an Islamic C aliphate. 29
S E C T A R I A N : C ommentary related to other Muslim sects and other religions,
including the practice of takfeer ( whereby one Muslim ex communicates another)
and v iolence against people of other sects and religions, made up 13 percent of the
ov erall E nglish content and 4 percent of the Arabic content. The more conserv ativ e
and radical rhetoric focused on div isions between Sunni and Shi’a sects. 30 Almost
all Sunni mentions of the Shi’a came in the form of insults. Many posts reflected
hostility toward Iran, an enemy of the Saudi state.
26 www.ummah.com/forum/showthread.php?296372- isiting-graves-of-awliya.
27 www.almeshkat.net/vb/forumdisplay.php?f 2.(Threadnolongeravailable Accessedvia onJune18,
2011)
28 http://forums.naseej.com/showthread.php?175845- E5 E1- C7 E1 CE D1 E6 CCDD ED- C7 E1 E3 D9 C7 E5 D1 C7 CA- E6- C7 E1 DE ED C7 E3C8 C7 E1 CB E6 D1 C7 CA- E3 E4- E3 E4 E5 CC- C3 E5 E1- C7 E1 D3 E4 C9- E6C7 E1 CC E3 C7 DA C9 BF- ED CC ED C8- C7 E1 DA E1 C7 E3 C9- C7 E1.(Nolonger
live AccessedonOctober15via )
29 www.ummah.com/forum/showthread.php?282608-Jihad-or- hilafah-which-comes-1st.
30 http://islamicsystem.blogspot.com/2011/06/sectarian-card-shia-and-sunni-divisions.html.
25
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
M
I L I T A R Y : C ommentary related to military matters, particularly the U . S.
presence in the region, and the issue of j ihad , made up 16 percent of ov erall
conv ersations in E nglish, but just one percent in Arabic. O ne entry suggested
that indiv iduals can always practice j ihad in defending against inv asions, but
ex pansionary or offensiv e j ihad to establish more “space” for Islam must be
carried out on direct orders from the C aliph. 31
B road F indings
FDD’s study yielded five broad findings
1 .
The tone of the conv ersations was mix ed, but was generally mark ed by an
absence of ov ert radicaliz ation. Militant entries that ex plicitly endorsed or
condoned v iolence accounted for a marginal number of the total entries
scored. This does not, howev er, indicate an absence of intolerant or
x enophobic positions. C onserv ativ e to radical entries represented roughly
half of the E nglish data, while in Arabic they represented about 7 5 percent.
2 .
Sanctioned clerics Saleh al-F awz an and Abdulaz iz ibn Baz , along with
unsanctioned cleric Salman al-O dah, accounted for the bulk of Arabic data
with 31,36 8 out of the total 38 ,525 posts related to one of them. They were
also the most popular clerics on Twitter.
In E nglish, sanctioned clerics Abdul Rahman al-Sudais and Saleh al-F awz an,
along with Salman al-O dah, garnered approx imately 50 percent of all social
media mentions.
3 .
Message Boards/Forums carried the lion’s share of the Arabic content
related to Saudi clerics with 17 ,534 hits, or 45. 51 percent of the total
posts collected by A L T E R I A N . Micro-blogs (T witter, P lurk , Identi. ca, etc)
accounted for 25 percent of total posts, while “O ther Media,” which included
mainstream media sites, represented 23 percent.
4 .
In addition to social media outlets lik e Twitter, F acebook , and Y ouTube,
Apple’s iP hone, iP od touch, and iP ad applications are gaining popularity
among Saudi clerics to disseminate their messages. This phenomenon
contradicts the religious establishment’s historical opposition to
“corrupting” modern technology.
5 .
The v olume of content related to Saudi clerics and their messages was
significantly higher in Arabic than in English, suggesting that Saudi clerics
31 www.ummah.com/forum/showthread.php?282608-Jihad-or- hilafah-which-comes-1st.
26
tH
E
S
tudY
have yet to fully penetrate American/Western society, at least in the online
arena. H owev er, E nglish language web-users were far more concerned
with militant issues than their Arabic-speak ing counterparts; 16 percent of
E nglish conv ersations were military related, as opposed to just 1 percent of
Arabic conv ersations.
Cav eats
C onStrat’s data helped to prov ide an interesting glimpse into the Saudi clerical
establishment, its followers, and the broader Saudi online env ironment. Indeed,
we believ e that much can be learned from this data, particularly in light of
Saudi society’s insular nature. But the data deriv ed from this study prov ides
only one stream of information on Saudi society. It does not paint a full picture
of how the Saudi religious establishment propagates its ideology, which
includes outreach through radio, telev ision, print media, mosq ue sermons,
and tex tbook s. Moreov er, ev en with C onStrat’s adv anced analytical tools, the
internet is much too large to capture ev ery mention of Saudi clerics.
N ev ertheless, we believ e that this study can help illuminate our understanding
of Saudi Arabia, the way Wahhabi messages propagate on the internet, and how
online data can be used as intelligence, particularly when consumed alongside
other streams of information.
27
Responding to Arab P rotests
O n D ecember 17 , 20 10 , Tunisian street v endor Muhammad Bouaz iz i immolated
himself in protest after the country’s authorities confiscated his wares. This
ev ent spark ed mass demonstrations that ev entually deposed dictator Z ine E l
Abidine Ben Ali on January 14, 2011.
Across the Middle E ast, the masses celebrated the drama in Tunisia as a
step toward democracy. This was the first time that mass protests forced an
Arab leader from office. By January 2 , hundreds of thousands of protesters
gathered in Egypt’s Tahrir Square, also calling for the end of their regime. At the
same time, protest movements sprouted in Jordan, Syria, and Yemen. Media
commentators called it the “Arab Spring.”
For the Saudis, concerned with preserving their autocratic state, this was the
dead of winter.
U nder intense domestic and international pressure, E gyptian dictator H osni
Mubarak stepped down on February 11. Days later, protests erupted in Benghazi,
Libya, and ultimately mushroomed into a full-scale civil war that toppled
Moammar al-Qadhafi in October. By March, sporadic protests in Syria evolved
into an ongoing, full-scale uprising. Yemen’s masses flooded the streets of
Sana’a, and even Bahrain experienced spasms of unrest.
Saudi Arabia, however, remained relatively quiet during the zenith of the Arab
protests. Small-scale demonstrations were reported in majority-Shi’a areas
in the east, but calls for a massiv e rev olution on March 11, organiz ed by youth
activists through Facebook, never materialized.
To some extent, the lackluster turnout was a surprise. The corruption, poverty,
and lack of freedoms that set off uncontainable protests in neighboring Arab
countries certainly exist in Saudi Arabia. And as French academic St phane
Lacroix observed, “a new generation of young political activists is gaining
increasing influence. They are connected through social networks, especially
Facebook and Twitter, and count among their friends’ numerous young
Egyptian and Yemeni activists, whose revolutionary know-hows’ they have
29
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
been sharing in the last few months.”1
But the Saudi regime enjoyed the support of its sanctioned clerics, who served
as a counterweight to challenges facing the monarchy during the early months of
the Arab protests.
O n S elf - I m m olation
Shortly after Bouaz iz i’s self-immolation, Saudi Grand Mufti Sheik h Abdulaz iz Al
al-Sheik h issued a fatwa ruling that Islam forbade self-immolation, describing it
as a “heinous crime and a great calamity.”2
N asir al-O mar, the Saudi cleric who famously announced in 2006 that America
was collapsing and the Islamic nation was entering “a great phase of j ihad ,”3
issued a similar fatwa describing suicide as among the greatest sins in the
Q uran and Sunnah.4
O ther clerics across the political spectrum also issued fatawa banning selfimmolation. The online reactions, however, varied greatly. For example, one
user on the E nglish-language forum p akp assion.net noted, “The act of one
such person in Tunisia spark ed off a mov ement that pretty much toppled an
autocratic government and sent shivers in the rest of the world—including
the citadel of Islam Saudi Arabia .” Another user wondered why this fatwa
banning self-immolation did not apply to suicide bombers as well. Some
charged that the clerics who banned self-immolation were puppets of the
Saudi regime.
W
arnings f rom the S anctioned Clerics
In March, media outlets and analysts speculated on the lik elihood of the
Arab protest movement reaching the kingdom. The Council of Senior Ulema
responded by condemning all protests.
“The Council of Senior Ulema calls on everybody to exert every effort to increase
solidarity, promote unity and warn against all causes giving rise to the opposite.
In this connection, it stresses the importance of mutual adv ice, understanding,
cooperation in righteousness and piety and forbidding sin and transgression and
warns against injustice, evildoing and ingratitude.”6
1 StéphaneLacroix,“SaudiIslamistsandthePotentialforProtest,”Foreign Policy,June2,2011,http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/06/02/saudi_islamists_and_the_potential_for_protest&reason 0.
2 http://ksa.daralhayat.com/ksaarticle/225894.
3 www.kavkazcenter.com/eng/content/2006/05/05/4658.shtml.
4 http://almoslim.net/node/140211.
5 “SaudiClericsIssueFatwaAgainstSelfImmolation,”www.pakpassion.net/ppforum/showthread.
php?p 3378492.
6 www.salafitalk.net/st/viewmessages.cfm?Forum 9&Topic 12255.
30
rE
S
P
o n d I nG
t o
A
r A
B
P
r o t E
S
t S
More important, the statement warned “against deviant intellectual and
partisan tendencies as the people of this country are a single unit following the
ex ample of the Salaf [r ighteous ancestors], their successors and the old and
contemporary Muslim imams when it come s to preserving unity.”7
In essence, the Saudi gov ernment appealed to its citiz ens’ Islamic sensibilities v ia
the clerical establishment, without having to explicitly threaten them directly.
Cru shing S k u lls
Other clerics did threaten the citizens with violence. Saad al-Buraik’s fatwa,
broadcast on the Saudi-owned Al Majd T , called for “smashing the skulls of
those who organize demonstrations or take part in them.”8
While the regime likely welcomed the statement, it stoked heated debates
among some web-users on discussion forums. One user wrote “Sons of
Wahhab, their ill-intentions show on their faces. They deserve to be skinned
and hanged from their beards that look like the hair on my aunt’s donkey.” In
response, a user named Nasir al-Mubarak wrote “ I heard you say sons of
Wahhab, why don’t you finish the word, you coward. It is Wahhabism, thank
od, and I am one of them.”9
The al-Buraik controv ersy caught the attention of T he N ew Y ork T imes. Writing
in “Room for Debate,” Madawi al-Rasheed of Kings College, London ripped into
the cleric. “Al-Buraik, an extremist but also a government loyalist, preaches
hate against anybody who does not worship the Al-Saud, obey their orders, and
maintain silence over their excesses,” she said. “He is part of a prolific network
of preachers embedded in state-funded institutions. His fatawa] against Shi’a
and Sunni activists are notorious. He is one of the extremists retained by the
gov ernment to preach obedience at home and j ihad abroad.”
Al-Rasheed’s observ ations ex tended beyond al-Buraik , and addressed the
controversial role of clerics in Saudi Arabia. Specifically, she noted, “Like so
many Saudi religious scholars, al-Buraik became ex cited at the prospect of j ihad
in Iraq against Americans and Shi’a. When jihadis brought bombs to Riyadh and
Jeddah, he felt that they had misunderstood the message. J ihad outside Saudi
Arabia is fine but don’t bring it home. It may only be practiced at home against
Westernized Saudi liberals who corrupt the purity of the nation or the Iranian
fifth column, the Saudi Shi’a.”10
7 Ibid.
8 http://aljazeeratalk.net/forum/showthread.php?s eba60a156105ed071a8930bde0605a6f&p 3662105
post3662105.(Threadnolongeravailable Accessedvia onMarch17,2011)
9 Ibid.
10 Madawial-Rasheed,“PreachersofHateAsLoyalSubjects,”The New York Times,March14,2011,www.
nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/03/14/how-stable-is-saudi-arabia/preachers-of-hate-as-loyal-subjects.
31
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
Clerics withou t B orders
As Shi’a protesters threatened the stability of the pro-Saudi regime in Manama,
13 Saudi clerics issued a fatwa that warned of “illicit schemes in Bahrain.” The
clerics stated “Any observer of the demonstrations in Bahrain would realize that
they are outside the realm of demanding rights and fall under the circle of the
implementation of suspicious schemes and agendas. This represents a forefront
for a Safawi Magian oroastrian expansion that dreams of seizing the Arab
ulf and forming a Persian crescent.”11
The fatwa sparked commentary from a number of users, who were divided over
whether deploying Saudi forces to Bahrain would help calm or escalate the crisis.
In March, users discussed a fatwa by Abdul Rahman al-Barrak denouncing
demonstrations in Y emen as haram (forbidden). “His eminence Sheikh Abdul
Rahman al-Barrak considered the conflicts Yemen is witnessing, these days,
to be a fitna discord that must be avoided... Shun turmoil, as most of those
engaged in [d emonstrations] are seek ing mundane demands, rather than
promoting the Word of Allah bloodshed in this conflict is haram.”12
Al-Barrak’s statement was not roundly appreciated. One user stated, “You ought
to leav e the fatwa to the clerics of the country, as they are more knowledgeable
about their own situation.” Another, using a slightly more diplomatic tone,
pleaded, “With all due respect to Sheikh al-Barrak, we would rather if he left this
issue to the clerics of Yemen, od bless you.”13
A l- O dah’ s A rab S p ring
In early February, as the Egyptian uprising was in full swing, Salman al-Odah
broke rank and expressed his support for the Egyptian demonstrators. According
to a G ulf N ews report, al-Odah was “discussing the situation with friends on
Facebook and Twitter,” and cheering for genuine reform.14 H e apparently
crossed the line. Days later, al-Odah issued a statement on Twitter informing his
followers that Saudi authorities canceled his popular television show on MBC
T .1 While he conspicuously av oided tak ing a stance on protests in the k ingdom,
al-Odah continued to criticize other regimes. One YouTube video posting, a
mosque sermon issued in March, shows al-Odah challenging the legitimacy of
the al-Qadhafi family to govern Libya.16
11
12
13
14
www.nationalkuwait.com/vb/showthread.php?t 178129. (Access requires a password)
http://almoslim.net/node/143433.
Ibid.
Abdul Nabi Shaheen, “Two Prominent Clerics Want Mubarak to Go,” Gulf News, February 9, 2011,
http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/two-prominent-clerics-want-mubarak-to-go-1.759043.
15 Fatima Sidiya, “Ministry Rejects Al-Odah’s Allegation over Talk Show,” Arab News, February 14, 2011,
http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article262270.ece.
16 www.youtube.com/watch?v Hq09gWzSdNA.
32
rE
S
P
o n d I nG
t o
A
r A
B
P
r o t E
S
t S
Al-Odah sparked another dramatic episode when, in early April, he chastised
Turk ish P rime Minister Recep Tayyip E rdogan’s reluctance to support
protesters in Libya and Syria. Al-Odah tweeted, “With all due respect, do not be
a supporter to the criminals. It is the right of the Syrian and Libyan people to
have the freedom your people have, so do not shake hands with those that are
stained with the blood of its people.” Al-Odah’s website, I slam T od ay , hosted a
vibrant discussion on this challenge to the Turkish head of state. One user asked
al-Odah why his tweet was “not directed to the ulf leaders during the three
revolutions and now you are directing this message to Erdogan ” Others came
to Erdogan’s defense. One user asked, “Why don’t we give Erdogan the benefit of
the doubt and assume that he understands politics better than most others ”17
Al-Odah continued to advocate for the Arab protesters into the early summer.
In June, the cleric reminded his website’s readers about South African
leader Nelson Mandela, who “adopted peaceful disobedience and peaceful
coexistence.” Recalling that Robben Island Prison, where Mandela was
incarcerated, became an historic monument, al-O dah mused that prisons in the
Arab world could also become monuments for freedom. Speaking broadly about
the protests across the region, he said, “I do not hide my optimism about what is
happening ”18
Clerics v s. A u tocrats
Other clerics also jumped in to denounce dictators. In late May, the Saudiowned al- A rabiy a carried Aidh al-Qarnee’s claim that it was fitna(d iscord)
for Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh to remain in power. His statement
contrasted sharply with Abdul Rahman al-Barrak’s March declaration that
Yemen’s protesters were the cause of fitna. Al-Qarnee advised Saleh to resign
immediately to stop the country’s bloodshed, and urged the Y emeni people to
accept Saleh’s immediate resignation (if one were given) and forgive him.19
Debate over the statement varied, but most users disagreed with al-Qarnee.
One noted, “Sheikh al-Qarnee’s advice is not accurate here. The Yemeni
president is better than others especially since his constitution is the Islamic
Shari’ ah and he does not fight the scholars.” Another added, “I beg you Sheikh
al-Qarnee, stay in mosques and only worry about prayer sermons.” One other
user praised him for voicing his disapproval, saying, “Our hero sheikh, I swear
you are a hero. At least he said his advice and did not swallow his tongue and
remain silent ”20
17
18
19
20
http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-148590.htm.
http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-151726.htm.
www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/05/22/150092.html. (Link no longer available Accessed May 25, 2011)
Ibid.
33
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
As the Arab protests intensified, a handful clerics who initially frowned upon
regional protests appeared to experience a change of heart. Some broke ranks
from their institutions, while others seemed to contradict themselves over time.
For example, in a clear break from the Council of Senior Ulema, Saleh alLuhaidan called directly for Hosni Mubarak to step down, urging that he meet
demonstrators’ demands to preserve security and stability in Egypt. (By way of
background, al-Luhaidan made headlines in 200 for condoning j ihad against
American forces in Iraq.)21
Al-Luhaidan was not necessarily a cheerleader for the protesters, but rather an
opponent of the Arab dictators trying to quell them. In late April, he issued a
fatwa calling for j ihad against the “atheist” Syrian government. The statement,
first released on YouTube, was a reaction to the Syrian crackdowns that killed
270 protesters.22 Al-L uhaidan boldly pronounced, “The Baath P arty is fascist and
malignant. It pretends to want to resurrect Arabs anew. However, Arabs have
seen nothing but evil from them I call on the Syrian people to be diligent in
resisting the Syrian regime even if there are casualties.”23
Nasir al-Omar, whose early fatwa against self-immolation serv ed to temper
the enthusiasm of protest movements, also shifted his stance. In June, amid
continued unrest, he joined al-Qarnee in calling on the Yemeni regime to cease
its “bloody crimes against defenseless people.”24 In J uly, the Association of
Muslim Scholars, where al-Omar serves as secretary-general, condemned the
“massacres” in Syria and called for the end of the Assad regime.2
Abdul Rahman al-Barrak, who denounced protests in Yemen, appeared to
reverse his position on Egypt in late May. According to one fatwa, the protests
in Egypt were “a testimony to od’s power Praise the Lord for what happened;
which was needed for the people of Egypt and the evil is removed.”26
Exactly what emboldened these clerics to reverse course and support the Arab
protests is still unclear. However, the Saudi regime tolerated their support for
the Arab street, apparently assured that its security was intact.
21 LisaMyers,“MoreEvidenceofSaudiDoubletalk?”MSNBC,April26,2005,
www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7645118/.
22 www.sarayanews.com/object-article/view/id/65679&reason 0.
23 http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-149525.htm.
24 www.almoslim.net/node/147641?sms_ss twitter 26at_xt 4ded07c85870cb5f,0&reason 0.
25 http://almoslim.net/node/149506&reason 0.
26 www.ajurry.com/vb/showthread.php?s e0a50e83a3fa8b4edbbf31f95d04 c8&p 56227 post56227.
34
rE
S
P
o n d I nG
t o
A
r A
B
P
r o t E
S
t S
Clerics u nder F ire
The online community was well aware of the clerics’ hypocrisy. After
demonstrations planned for March 11 failed to materializ e in Saudi Arabia, one
posting on almoslim.net noted that, “successive fatawa from the Council of
Senior U lema, and from other clerics in Saudi Arabia and its adv ocates had a
clear impact—although not the only impact—in thwarting the demonstrations ”
To this, one user lamented, “I wish the scholars used their influence to pressure
the leaders to implement real, sweeping reforms instead of pressuring the poor
nation.”27
O ne user on the al- J az eera T alk discussion board criticized King Abdullah’s 37
billion financial package in February 2011 as an attempt to buy off his citizens.28
“The king’s decisions were a failed attempt to bribe the constituents and an
admission to the pressure exerted by reform movements.” Of particular note
was his criticism of the Ulema. “The courtship of scholars and others belonging
to the religious bodies,” he noted, “ can only be explained as a reward for their
support of the state’s position and an encouragement to continue to do so in the
face of any upcoming challenges.”29 One female user wrote, “Religion in Saudi
serves the interests of the Al Saud, which means politicized religion.”30
Among internet users, there was consensus that the Saudi clerical establishment
was a bulwark for the regime during the “Arab Spring.” Indeed, while a number
of clerics shifted their views and challenged other regional leaders, they
refrained from openly challenging the Saudi monarchy. As some clerics have
learned, even they can pay a high price for dissent.
27 www.almoslim.net/node/143304.
28 UlfLaessing,“SaudiLaunches 37BillionBenefitPlan,”Reuters,March1,2011,
www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/01/us-saudi-finmin-idUSTRE7204 320110301.
29 http://aljazeeratalk.net/forum/showthread.php?t 327235.(Threadnolongerlive AccessedonMarch
30,2011via )
30 www.omaniaa.net/avb/showthread.php?t 251183.(Threadnolongerlive AccessedonMarch30,2011
via )
35
The Saudi Struggle with Modernity
C onStrat culled many discussions on recent and past fatawa that aptly
demonstrated Saudi Arabia’s struggle with modernity. F or ex ample, one fatwa
forbade giving flowers when visiting the sick, and furthermore prohibited the
flower trade altogether.1 A fatwa by Abdullah ibn al-J ibreen insisted that the
Earth is flat and the sun revolves around it,2 while Saleh al-F awz an declared that
open buffets are a heresy. 3
Saudi Arabia, often diplomatically described as “deeply conserv ativ e,”
continues to struggle with Western ideas that are pulling the country—
sometimes kicking and screaming—into the age of modernity. During our
study, hundreds of fatawa and discussion threads confirmed this. These
examples are a stark reminder that Wahhabism has not yet adapted to modern
science, let alone the concepts of gender eq uality and tolerance that most
countries embrace today.
F em ale D riv ers
The question of female drivers in Saudi Arabia surfaced after the arrest of Manal
al-Sharif, a woman who organiz ed a bold campaign ( by Saudi standards) to
legalize female driving. Her cause was made famous by a YouTube video of her
breaking the law and driving on Saudi streets.4
The debate was certainly not new to Saudi Arabia. In 1990, several dozen
women held a public protest, calling for women to enjoy eq ual driv ing rights.
As analyst Rachel Bronson noted, “The protests succeeded in capturing
international attention, but also galvanized the Islamic opposition. The driving
protest, and with it any hope for increased liberaliz ation in Saudi society, was
easily and effectively snuffed out. The same cannot be said for the increasingly
radicalized Islamic opposition.”5 Indeed, the official clergy played a leading
1
2
3
4
5
www.humanf.org/vb/showthread.php?t=79246. (Accessed via VX on June 15, 2011)
www.djelfa.info/vb/showthread.php?p=6360171.
www.humanf.org/vb/showthread.php?t=79246. (Accessed via VX on June 15, 2011)
“Manal Al Sharif Driving in Saudi Arabia,” YouTube, May 27, 2011,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=sowNSH_W2r0.
Bronson, Thicker Than Oil, pp. 210-211.
37
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
role in banning women from driv ing, as the C ouncil of Senior U lema issued a
fatwa prohibiting them from doing so. 6
O nline, some two decades later, the debate resurfaced. The issue sharply divided
web-users, and conv ersations often escalated to name-calling. Surprisingly, both
male and female bloggers were proportionally represented on both sides. 7
Much of the conversation revolved around a statement by Deputy Minister of
Internal Affairs Prince Ahmed ibn Abdulaziz, confirming that the ban “is still in
effect” and those who “v iolate the ban will be sev erely punished. ” 8 Web-users
cited former rand Mufti ibn Baz ’s fatwa from 1991 to confirm their opposition
to the “Westerniz ation” of Saudi society. 9
Then, Abdul Rahman al-Barrak, a blind cleric who is known to support gender
segregation, wished death upon all women who seek to drive, and called for
Manal al-Sharif to be imprisoned.10 Al-Barrak described female drivers as,
“women who open the gates of evil, seeking to westernize the country.”11
But Aidh al-Qarnee challenged al-Barrak. In a post on Salman al-Odah’s I slam
T od ay website, al-Q arnee found “no ev idence prev enting women from driv ing a
car,” and ex plained that “this matter should be handled by a scholarly committee
to be ex amined in order to av oid… controv ersy. ” Al-Q arnee disagreed that the
kingdom would become like other Western nations, and highlighted drawbacks
to prev enting women from driv ing, “such as hav ing to be alone in a car with the
driver on the way to work or souq market .”12
In December 2011, the Permanent Committee for Research and Ifta, one of
the highest religious bodies in the kingdom, drafted a report on the potential
impacts of repealing the driving ban. The report suggested that allowing
women to drive would “provoke a surge in prostitution, pornography,
homosexuality, and divorce,” and further stated that within 10 years, there
would be “no more v irgins. ” 13 O ne woman, 34-year-old Shaima J astaniya, was
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
“Women Driving Issue Needs No Fatwa: Saudi Cleric,” Al-Arabiya, May 25, 2010,
www.alarabiya.net/articles/2010/05/25/109562.html.
For some examples of the discussion, see: www.almeshkat.net/vb/showthread.php?t=100051 and
http://noor-elislam.net/vb/showthread.php?t 13855.
http://awwamn.blogspot.com/2011/05/blog-post_5121.html.
www.traidnt.net/vb/traidnt1863772-14/#post16753988.
“SaudiClericBacksGenderSegregationwithFatwa,”Reuters,February9,2010,http://in.reuters.com/
article/2010/02/23/idINIndia-46408620100223?pageNumber 1&virtualBrandChannel 0&sp true.
http://alanba.com.kw/AbsoluteNMNEW/templates/last2010.aspx?articleid 198634&zoneid 29.
Ibid. Seealso:http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-151273.htm.
“SaudisFearThereWillBe NoMore irgins’andPeopleWillTurnGayIfFemaleDriveBanIsLi ed,”The
Daily Mail, December1,2011,www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2068810/Saudis-fear-virgins-peopleturn-gay-female-drive-ban-li ed.html.
38
tH
E
S
A
u dI
S
t r u G
G
L
E
W
I tH
M
o d E
r n I t Y
sentenced to 10 lashes in September for defying the driving-ban, though King
Abdullah later commuted her sentence. 14
S ex S egregation
In January, more than 100 doctors and religious scholars called for the
establishment of women-only hospitals in all Saudi cities in a report to the
Saudi Shura Council and Ministry of Health. The report grew out of an October
2010 Facebook petition, “Pure Hospitals,” calling for women-only hospitals,
which enjoyed posthumous support from former rand Muftis Muhammad ibn
Ibrahim Al al-Sheikh and ibn Baz, who previously asserted that female students
“suffer from mingling. ” 15
Discussion forums buzzed about a petition signed by 6 influential Saudis
requesting current rand Mufti Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh’s endorsement of gender
segregation in hospitals. According to the post, “O ne of the most important
req uests by our clerics and scholars in our good country was to establish
hospitals reserv ed for men and others reserv ed for women, to hav e medical
care and nursing of men by men; and medical care and nursing for women by
women. To protect peoples’ modesty and prevent the forbidden mixing ”16
Responses were largely positive. One user exclaimed, “Well Done Enough with
male doctors standing between the legs of a girl during labor ” Another asked,
“Are you okay with male doctors looking at your wife’s private parts ”17
But the question of segregation did not end with healthcare. In late May and
early J une, web forum users debated a new fatwa by the C ouncil Senior of
Ulema banning gender mixing at work.18 C oncerns stemmed from the fact that
a woman cashier “meets with tens of men in a single day, talks to them, and
hands things to them ” The CSU responded that a “Muslim woman should not
work in a place where there is mixing with men. It is her duty to stay away from
grouping with men and look for a job that is allowed by Islam , which does
not ex pose her to lust… if men lust after her it is haram forbidden , and her
employment by these companies is helping her commit a haram act. ” 19
O ne website, N oor al- Y aq een, ev en promoted gender separation in the v irtual
world. The site forbids females from interacting with clerics in the online forum
14 Sam Jones, “Saudi Woman Driver Saved from Lashing by King Abdullah,” The Guardian, September 29,
2011, www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/sep/29/saudi-woman-lashing-king-abdullah.
15 FatimaSidiya&MDAl-Sulami,“DebateonGenderMixing inHospitalsMovesfromFacebooktoShoura,”
Arab News,January12,2011,http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article233084.ece.
16 www.alsahanet.com/showthread.php?s 2b8dc9 dd40f36518cd2d89a2d889ac&p 73966 post73966.
17 Ibid.
18 www.almeshkat.net/vb/showthread.php?t=100736.
19 www.coalles.com/vb/f-3/t-52787/.
39
F
A
cE
B
o o K
“unless it is a case of dire emergency. ”
F
A
t W
A
20
Notwithstanding all of the talk about segregating the sexes, Saudi laws banned
female clerks from working in lingerie stores until the king issued a royal decree
in early January 2012. In a society where men are given preference, and female
workers are frowned upon, shopping for undergarments was decidedly awkward.
As Ellen Knickmeyer wrote in Foreig n Policy in June 2011, female consumers
were forced to consult with “male clerks about cup sizes and overflowing muffin
tops. ” 21 To put it mildly, the debate underscores the inherent challenges of a
Saudi social system under strain.
O ther R u lings on W om en
In April, cleric Muhammad al-Arefe appeared on a talk show, and responded
to an advice-seeking caller who knew a father who was molesting his daughter.
Rather than calling for authorities to arrest the father, al-Arefe adv ised
that, “The girl should not be left alone with her father nor should she wear
prov ocativ e clothing around him. ” 22 O ne discussion thread surrounded a fatwa
that justified “forcing” a wife in mourning to have sex with her husband in order
to fulfill her “matrimonial duty.”23 Another ruling declared a woman’s prayers
inv alid if she is wearing jewelry while praying. 24
Some social media users debated C ouncil of Senior U lema member Saleh
al-Fawzan’s 2003 ruling that slavery is permitted in Islam. The blog M aid
O nline (now inactive) advocated on behalf of Indonesian domestic workers,
and cited al-F awz an’s ruling in support of slav ery with a graphic picture of an
abused Indian maid in Saudi Arabia and stories of modern day slavery in
the country. 25
Broadly speaking, women are second-class citizens in Saudi Arabia, and many
clerics frown upon attempts to change the system. rand Mufti Abdulaziz Al
al-Sheikh underscored that notion when he declared, “Proponents of women’s
emancipation” are “adv ocates of ev il and misguidance. ” 26
W
om en B loggers and I nternet A ctiv ists
While proponents of reform hav e ample reason to castigate Saudi Arabia’s
20 www.noor-alyaqeen.com/vb/t20696/.
21 Ellen nickmeyer, “In Saudi Arabia, An Undercover Revolution,” Foreign Policy, June 27, 2011,
www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/06/27/in_saudi_arabia_an_undercover_revolution.
22 http://alanba.com.kw/AbsoluteNMNEW/templates/Aworld.aspx?articleid 189022&zoneid 194.
23 www.almeshkat.net/vb/showthread.php?t=96354.
24 www.almeshkat.net/vb/forumdisplay.php?f=2.
25 http://maid-online.blogspot.com/2011/06/slavery-and-destruction-of-islamic.html. (Blog has been
removed)
26 http://almoslim.net/node/139995.
40
tH
E
S
A
u dI
S
t r u G
G
L
E
W
I tH
M
o d E
r n I t Y
treatment of women, there are many female bloggers who defend the Saudi
system and clerical rulings that support it. ConStrat flagged the following
E nglish language sites:
a aht alafi ah ist rs
k l b ( www. dtssbnyc. blogspot. com) , run by
women from New York City. The site caters to “females striving to learn their
d een religion from the scholars past and present.” The site posts fatawa,
A had ith (sayings of the Prophet), as well as audio recordings and books by Islamic
scholars. The operators of the site also claim to be involved in offline activism, and
have even established Salafi libraries at two correctional institutions.
ttishsalafi ah(www.scottishsalafiyyah.blogspot.com) is a blog run by a
woman who teaches at a mosque in Dublin, Ireland.27 The blog’s editor, U mm
Hamam as-Salafiyyah, explained that she is a Salafi Muslim who does not perform
tak r(excommunication) against any Muslim, except toward polytheists.
ha
bl s t(w ww. nuha38 317 . blogspot. com) is mostly a collection of
fatawa and tafseer, as well as writings from the Q uran and A had ith. This site is
very conservative, but explicitly denounces jihadism. It often cites Saudi clerics,
including Saleh al-Fawzan, but avoids topics like j ihad and tak r. 28
ikaah lann r(www.nikaahplanner.worldpress.com) is a blog about Islamic
marriage. The site offers advice for married women and those planning to wed.
A fatwa section giv es clerical guidance on marriage. 29
C onStrat also found that some of the most activ e participants in the forums
discussing Saudi clerics’ rulings are women.
For example, the top author during the monitoring period was adi Ila Lah, a 21-yearold univ ersity student from E gypt who is v ery activ e on r s atakat
.
She identifies herself as a Salafist woman and her objective as “spreading the word
of Allah. ” She writes about women’s issues and endorses strict interpretation of
religious text, referencing official Saudi clerics Muhammad ibn al-Othaimeen,
Saleh al-Fawzan, and rand Mufti Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh. She believes that
women should wear the niqab (f ull body v eil), ev en if companies refuse to hire
them because of it. She also stresses the need for gender separation in public
arenas,30 considers Christians and Jews to be “infidels,” and argues that any
Muslim who questions that opinion is an infidel.31
27
28
29
30
31
The author can also be found on Facebook at www.facebook.com/ummhamam.
www.nuha38317.blogspot.com.
www.nikaahplanner.worldpress.com.
http://forums.fatakat.com/thread1696717-2 post40895077.
http://forums.fatakat.com/thread1657924 post39798285.
41
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
The second highest contributor during the study was Azhar Abdul Rahman, who
posted on r s atakat
. She also adheres to Salafi ideology and strictly
endorses separation of sex es in public and wearing the v eil at all times, ev en
during encounters between brothers and sisters-in-law. 32
This is not to say that all Saudi online activists support the state’s interpretation
of Islam. E man al-N afjan, a graduate student from Riyadh, runs the
a i
an s bl . H er blog contains sev eral articles supporting cleric
Ahmed al- hamdi, who spoke out against gender segregation, the niqab, and the
ban on women driv ing in Saudi Arabia. 33
F atawa Concerning Children
In April, web forum discussant “Iraqiyya Ana” posted Abdul Rahman al-Samih’s
fatwa that lamented the “ex cesses and indulgences” in children’s telev ision
shows, especially the “songs that include rhythm applause and whistling ”
Iraqiyya Ana warned that such shows would make “Muslim children similar to
C hristian and J ewish children, get rid of these poisonous channels and raise
your children to love the Book of Allah and his Sunnah. ” 34
There was also a question surrounding the video game Pok mon, based on longstanding and paranoid concerns that the game promotes knowledge of Jews and
Christians and symbols of deviant religions. The ruling stated that the game was
one of the ways the kafir (infidel) teaches Muslim children the “path of atheism”
and Darwinism.35
Other discussions pointed to the late Muhammad ibn al-Othaimeen’s fatawa
forbidding students to learn the E nglish language36 and banning children’s toys
that hav e faces. 37
In July, Saleh al-Fawzan made headlines in T he W all Street J ournal for his ruling
that fathers may arrange marriages for their daughters “ev en if they are in the
cradle. ” Al-F awz an issued the fatwa after the Ministry of Justice said that it would
do more to regulate marriages between pre-pubescent girls and Saudi men. 38
32 http://forums.fatakat.com/thread1705503 post41151885.
33 http://saudiwoman.wordpress.com/2010/04/25/the-man-of-the-hour/ http://saudiwoman.wordpress.
com/2011/01/26/the-commision-for-the-promotion-of-virtue-and-prevention-of-vices/ http://saudiwoman.wordpress.com/2011/04/03/going-back-in-time/ comment-9062.
34 http://forum.rjeem.com/t100458.html.
35 www.al-oglaa.com/?section subject&SubjectID 187.
36 www.humanf.org/vb/showthread.php?t=79246. (Accessed via VX on June 15, 2011)
37 www.neqashalhb.com/showthread.php?t=12182.
38 AngusMcDowall&SummerSaid,“ClericFightsSaudiBidtoBanChildMarriages,”The Wall Street Journal,
July 29, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111903635604576472011907391364.html.
42
tH
E
S
A
u dI
S
t r u G
G
L
E
W
I tH
M
o d E
r n I t Y
D e- legitim iz ation of Non- Mu slim s
Some of the clerical rulings on C hristians and other religious groups not only
underscore the Saudi struggle with adapting to modernity, but also draw
attention to the hostility and suspicion that Saudi religious authorities and their
followers hold toward non-Muslims.
For example, clerics deemed Mother’s Day un-Islamic because it is a secular
holiday. 39 O ther clerics opposed helping C hristians celebrate C hristmas, and
forbade Muslims from selling greeting cards, gifts, and Christmas trees.40
Likewise, according to one clerical ruling, Muslim women should not wear
white wedding dresses because they might imitate C hristians or other k ar
(infidels).41
39 www.friendswhisper.com/?p=540.
40 www.mahaja.com/showthread.php?12388.
41 www.ibnothaimeen.com/all/noor/article_4768.shtml.
43
The Social Media Generation
Since the first days of radio and television broadcasts in Saudi Arabia, the
Ulema have bristled at the very idea of contemporary mass communication
in the kingdom. In 1963, the Ulema voiced their displeasure upon hearing
a woman’s voice on the radio. Two years later, the first public television
broadcast precipitated an attack by Islamists on the station’s office in
Riyadh. The government appeased the Ulema by allotting the majority of
programming to religious issues and imposing media restrictions that adhered
to societal customs. For example, Saudi media refrained from printing
women’s photographs in newspapers, showing the consumption of alcohol, or
discussing religion outside of the official Wahhabi agenda.1
The government maintained this uneasy and restrictive environment for
three decades, but encountered new challenges when the internet arrived in
1994. At first, the regime minimized the challenge by only granting access
to academic, medical, and research institutes. When containing it proved
too difficult, the Saudis made the internet available to the wider public in
1999. Nevertheless, authorities maintained control by creating a centralized
infrastructure through which all service providers connect.2 This has created
a system of pervasive and effective censorship, not to mention surveillance,
by the Saudi Communications and Information Technology Commission
(CITC).3 In addition, as is the case with television and radio, the government
is careful to assuage the fears of conservative elements within the kingdom by
mandating that online material adhere to Saudi cultural and religious norms.
The government further censors material that is either deemed immoral or
critical of Wahhabi teachings.4
1
2
Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia, p. 111.
“Internet in Saudi Arabia,” Communications and Information echnology Commission (CI C), 2011,
www.internet.gov.sa/learn-the-web/guides/internet-in-saudi-arabia/view?set_language=en.
3 Joshua Teitelbaum, “Saudi Arabia Contends with the Social Media Challenge,” Jerusalem Center for Public
A airs,February8,2011,www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID 1&LNGID 1&TMID 111&F
ID 442&PID 0&IID 6006.
4 AbdulrahmanA.Mirza,“SaudiArabiaandtheInternetTechnology,” ingSaudUniversityCollegeofComputerandInformationSciences,1998,http://repository.ksu.edu.sa/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2402/1/
Saudi 20Arabia 20and 20the 20Internet 20Technology.pdf.
45
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
But censoring in today’s evolving internet environment is a not as simple as it
was in the late 1990s. Whereas certain content (like pornography) is easy to
censor because the subject matter is narrow and specific, sites like Facebook
and Twitter offer users platforms to circulate diverse material that can be harder
to classify.5 The Saudi state adapted by monitoring this space for violators of
the social contract, sometimes relying on its citizens to report offenders, then
tracking down and deactivating their accounts. In one widely reported example
from August 2009, Saudi activists Walid Abdul Khair and Khalid al-Nasser
criticized Saudi governance and human rights abuses over Twitter, and the
government promptly responded by blocking both of their accounts.6
In the future, Twitter might begin censoring the regime’s most outspoken critics
before the government has to. On January 26, 2012, Twitter announced that it
would initiate country-specific “tweet” censorship. The company explained, “As
we continue to grow internationally, we will enter countries that have different
ideas about the contours of freedom of expression. Some differ so much from
our ideas that we will not be able to exist there.”7 Saudi Arabia is likely one of
those countries.
Clerics Tak e Their O u treach O nline
Despite their opposition to the “morally hazardous” mass media, both
sanctioned and unsanctioned clerics now take to the internet with zeal.
Particularly, the unofficial clerics have leveraged Twitter, Facebook, YouTube,
and iPhone apps to propel their global influence and reach.
The sanctioned ulema also maintain personal websites, conduct interviews on
Saudi television, and disseminate videos via social media channels, making
themselves relevant, if not popular, online. Indeed, ConStrat noted that three
of the top five clerics by volume of mentions were state-sanctioned. Despite this
trend, rand Mufti Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh is not a fan. In late January 2012, Al
al-Sheikh described Twitter as a site where people, “issue fatawa without any
knowledge and to lie in a manner that brings fame to some.”8
Notwithstanding the rand Mufti’s protests, the number of Twitter users in the
Arab world exploded during the reporting period, thanks to the protests that
began in Tunisia and spread to Egypt and beyond. But even before the regional
unrest, Twitter was on the march in Saudi Arabia. During 2010 alone, Twitter
5 Teitelbaum, “Saudi Arabia Contends with the Social Media Challenge.”
6 “TwoHumanRightsActivists’TwitterPagesBlocked,”ReportersWithoutBorders, August24,2009,
http://en.rsf.org/saudi-arabia-two-human-rights-activists-twitter-24-08-2009,34262.html.
7 “TweetsStillMustFlow,” i er log, January26,2012,http://blog.twitter.com/2012/01/tweets-stillmust- ow.html.
8 “SaudiGrandMu i:TwitterIsFullofLies,” he Jerusalem Post, January28,2012,www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id 255501.
46
tH
E
S
o cI A
L
M
E
dI A
G
E
n E
r A
t I o n
reported to the Saudi-owned, London-based daily, A l- Sharq A l- A wsat, that the
number of Saudi tweeters increased 240 percent. While the global average rate
of increase for daily tweets was 9 percent, the corresponding Saudi rate was
440 percent.9 ConStrat’s data confirmed this spike, particularly among clerics
and their followers.
A l- O dah at the Top
Salman al-Odah, whom Forbes M id d le E ast ranked number four on its top 100
list of Arab “Twitterati” in 2011, is chief among the clerics active on Twitter.10
Al-Odah is a veritable social media superstar. Operating Twitter accounts in
both Arabic and English, he reaches a global audience of more than 840,000
followers.11 His Facebook pages are linked to his Twitter and YouTube accounts,
as well as his website I slam T od ay , allowing him the potential to share his
thoughts with millions of followers on any given day.12 As of March 2012, alOdah’s Arabic Facebook page boasted more than 63 ,000 “likes.”
The West may see a downside to al-Odah’s popularity In the early 1990s, he was
said to have inspired Osama bin Laden. Often described as “fiery,” al-Odah attacked
the West and openly challenged the Islamic credentials of the Saudi monarchy.
But some analysts say the popular cleric is different. For example, Ed Hussain
of the Council on Foreign Relations claims, “I follow Shaikh Salman on Arabic
Twitter, and gone is the man who cites chapter and verse to incite young minds
towards agitation. Now in his fifties, he is mild and mature. He tweets contemplative
questions about love, compassion, spirituality, forgiveness, and humanity.”13
Nonetheless, we should not forget where al-Odah once stood, and that he
only moderated after serving a five-year prison term. As Hussain concedes, “A
country that stones adulterers, beheads murderers, and amputates the limbs of
thieves was not sufficiently Shari’ ah -compliant for him.”14
Al-Odah still challenges the Wahhabi system today, albeit from a more
liberal perspective. In February 2011, for example, he signed a petition titled
“Toward a State of Rights and Institutions,” which advocated for a transition to
9 Badral-Qahtani,“SaudiArabia:TwitterUseSkyrocketsin2010,”Al Shar Al A sat, January3,2011,
www.asharq-e.com/news.asp?section 5&id 23646.
10 For orbes Middle East’sList,seewww.forbesmiddleeast.com/arabic/‫رثكا‬-100-‫ةيصخش‬-‫ةيبرع‬-‫اروضح‬‫ىلع‬-‫رتيوت‬/.
11 ForAl-Odah’sEnglishPage,seehttp://twitter.com/Salman_Al_Odah ForArabic,seehttp://twitter.com/
salman_alodah.
12 ForAl-Odah’sEnglishPage,seewww.facebook.com/DrSalmanAlOadah ForArabic,seewww.facebook.
com/SalmanAlodah.
13 EdHussain,“RadicalTurnaroundinSaudiArabia,”Council on oreign Relations,October13,2011,
http://blogs.cfr.org/husain/2011/10/13/radical-turnaround-in-saudi-arabia/.
14 EdHussain,“SaudiAdvicetoEgypt’sMuslimRadicals,”Council on oreign Relations,October14,2011,
http://blogs.cfr.org/husain/2011/10/14/saudi-advice-to-egypt E2 80 99s-muslim-radicals/.
47
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
constitutional monarchy in Saudi Arabia, among other reforms.1 Soon thereafter,
the government cancelled his program on Saudi-owned MBC T , prompting
outraged followers to post hundreds of messages disparaging the network.16
Despite losing his program, al-Odah continues to support change in the Arab
world. Al-Odah derided Arab governments over Twitter in June 2011, saying,
“We don’t expect anything from the Arabs regarding the massacres in Syria.
How much blood will be shed until the world seriously intervenes ”17 Then, in
October, after Tunisia held its first elections since the overthrow of President
Ben Ali, al-Odah wrote, “Tunisia reaps the first fruit of its glorious revolution.
Congratulations great Tunisians. Soon we will see a great incident like this in
Egypt and Libya and all their sister countries od willing.”18
S econd P lace: A l- A ref e
According to the PR and marketing tool TweetLevel, which measures influence,
popularity, engagement, and trust of Twitter users, the highest average scores
among Saudi clerics, after al-Odah, belong to Muhammad al-Arefe and Aidh alQarnee.19 Another similar platform, Klout, which measures online influence,20
also attributed the highest scores to the same three clerics. In fact, a blog post on
W amd a aggregated the top 100 Arabs on Twitter according to their Klout scores,
and found that al-Odah, al-Arefe, and al-Qarnee all ranked in the top five.21
As of March 2012, al-Arefe’s Twitter following was more than 1,044,000,
significantly outnumbering al-Odah, while his Facebook retinue numbered
far more than any other Saudi cleric, with more than 8 ,000 “likes.”22 This
audience is strictly Arabic speaking; al-Arefe has not reached out to Englishspeakers. Nonetheless, his following is enormous. Throughout Ramadan 2011,
the UAE telecom company, du, offered a daily program called “Ask the Sheikh,”
during which the cleric answered phone calls and responded to questions sent
over Facebook from people seeking religious guidance.23
15 AnelectronicversionofthepetitionisavailableonFacebook,www.facebook.com/notes/‫وحن‬-‫ةلود‬‫قوقحلا‬-‫و‬-‫تاسسؤملا‬/‫وحن‬-‫ةلود‬-‫قوقحلا‬-‫و‬-‫تاسسؤملا‬/191724777528779 Thepetitionisalsoreferencedin
thisarticle:AbeerAllam,“SaudiClericsTapintoSocialNetworks,” inancial imes, July6,2011,www.
.com/cms/s/0/8b9834c8-a7 -11e0-afc2-00144feabdc0.html axzz1bouqzAUj.
16 www.muslm.net/vb/showthread.php?t 421067 post2790798.
17 Salmanal-Odah’sEnglishTwitterpageisavailableathttp://twitter.com/Salman_Al_Odah.
18 www.facebook.com/DrSalmanAlOadah.
19 ReadTweetLevel’smethodologyhere:http://tweetlevel.edelman.com/About.aspx.
20 Read lout’smethodologyhere:http://klout.com/corp/kscore.
21 haledElAhmed,“The100MostIn uentialArabsonTwitter,”Wamda, January24,2012,www.wamda.
com/2012/01/the-100-most-in uential-arabs-on-twitter.
22 ForMuhammadal-Arefe’sTwitterpage,seehttp://twitter.com/MohamadAlarefe ForhisFacebookpage,
seewww.facebook.com/3refe.
23 DerekBaldwin,“CorporatesO erSpecialRamadanServices,” ulf e s, August8,2011,
http://gulfnews.com/business/features/corporates-o er-special-ramadan-services-1.848473.
48
tH
E
S
o cI A
L
M
E
dI A
G
E
n E
r A
t I o n
The Financial T imes claimed that al-Arefe, “with his piercing dark eyes and jet
black hair and beard, has become a heart throb among his women followers.”24
The author of the Saud iwoman’ s W eblog , Eman al-Nafjan, described him as the
“Brad Pitt of Sheikhdom it almost seems like he has hypnotic super-powers.
Even women will accept being told that they are less than men when it comes
from his mouth.”25
Western observers may view his influence negatively. Readily available videos of
al-Arefe on YouTube show a troubling trend in his messaging. One video from
September 2007, translated by MEMRI T , shows the cleric and three men
discussing spousal abuse by men and women. The cleric explained three ways a
man should discipline his wife, saying that he should first admonish her, and if that
doesn’t work he should give her the silent treatment to show his anger. In the event
that those two options fail, al-Arefe says the third option is to strike her. Specifying
the nature of the “beatings,” he points out that they should not be outwardly visible.
“If he beats her, the beatings must be light and must not make her face ugly. He
should beat her in some places where it will not cause any damage.”26
Al-Arefe displayed his contempt for Shi’a Muslims during a Friday sermon in
December 2009 at the al-Bawardi Mosque in Riyadh. In the video, he says, “the
evil Shi’a continue to set traps, for monotheism and the Sunna h . They try
to spread their false doctrine to the ignorant among the Sunnis We shall not
forget their treachery throughout history—in Muslim countries in general, and
in Mecca and al-Madina in particular—or their attempts to ensnare the Country
of the Two Holy Mosques (Saudi Arabia).”27
Finally, in yet another video from July 2010, al-Arefe endorsed violence against
non-Muslims. “Devotion to j ihad for the sake of Allah, and the desire to shed
blood, to smash skulls, and to sever limbs for the sake of Allah and in defense of
His religion, is, undoubtedly, an honor for the believer Allah said that if a man
fights the infidels, the infidels will be unable to prepare to fight (the Muslims).”28
Third P lace: A l- Q arnee
Aidh al-Qarnee was the third most influential cleric on Twitter, boasting more
than 7 0,000 followers as of March 2012.29 Al-Qarnee is a mainstream Saudi
24 Allam,“SaudiClericsTapintoSocialNetworks.”
25 Emanal-Na an,“ProminentSaudis:SheikhMohammedAlArefe,”Saudi oman s eblog, September 13,
2008,http://saudiwoman.me/2008/09/13/prominent-saudis-sheikh-mohammed-al-arefe/.
26 www.youtube.com/watch?v PJGjC1rsQ s&feature player_embedded !.
27 “SaudiClericMuhammadAl-ArifiExposesShiitesandTheirHistory-A airs,”YouTube,November7,2010,
www.youtube.com/watch?v 3651za7DBN0&feature related.
28 “Islam SheikhArifi illChristians,”YouTube,March11,2011,
www.youtube.com/watch?feature endscreen&NR 1&v cQvkEzH4SQo.
29 Aidhal-Qarnee’sTwitterpagecanbeaccessedathttps://twitter.com/Dr_alqarnee.
49
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
cleric who writes weekly opinion editorials for A l- Sharq A l- A wsat, one of the
most widely read Arabic dailies. However, al-Qarnee lacks the overall social
media sophistication of his peers al-Odah and al-Arefe. While they each have
well over half a million Facebook fans, al-Qarnee’s Facebook page received just
over 123,000 “likes” at the time of this writing.30 One year after his YouTube
channel debuted on January 24, 2011, followers viewed his uploaded videos
more than 80,000 times.31 By comparison, during nearly the same period, alArefe’s followers viewed his uploaded videos a staggering 4.6 million times.32
Al-Qarnee’s influence should also concern the West. In April 2010, he faced
accusations of laundering money for the Muslim Brotherhood.33 Furthermore, he is
a known supporter of Hamas.34
Top s on Twitter
According to ConStrat, the top five clerics on Twitter by volume of mentions
in Arabic were Salman al-Odah (profiled above), former rand Mufti ibn Baz,
Saleh al-Fawzan, Saleh al-Luhaidan, and Safar al-Hawali. Notably, three of the
top five clerics are members of the sanctioned establishment; al-Odah and alHawali are the exceptions. This is impressive because none of the establishment
clerics maintain Twitter or Facebook profiles. Thus, their opinions and
rulings disseminate organically. Remarkably, ibn Baz’s influence continues to
reverberate beyond the grave, as hardliners and followers still cite his fatawa as
justification for subjugating women, among other things.3
Most of Saleh al-Fawzan’s Twitter hits reflected Arabic-speaking users’ interest
in his fatwa on the Arab protest movements, as well as a previous fatwa in
which he determined that a co-worker who does not pray is an apostate and
should be killed.36 As noted earlier, al-Fawzan supported child marriage37 and
contended that slavery is a legal aspect of Islam.38
Saleh al-Luhaidan, a Council of Senior Ulema member, attracted commentary
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Aidhal-Qarnee’sFacebookpagecanbeaccessedatwww.facebook.com/dralqarnee?sk wall.
Aidhal-Qarnee’sYouTubechannelcanbeaccessedatwww.youtube.com/user/drqarnee.
Muhammadal-Arefe’sYouTubechannelcanbeaccessedatwww.youtube.com/AlarefeT .
www.alarabiya.net/articles/2010/04/22/106602.html.
“ShaykhAedAlQarni Jihad,thePathto ictory ”YouTube,September5,2009,www.youtube.com/
watch?v wrEEu- zqk&feature related.
“SaudiDisillusionmentwiththeReligiousEstablishment,”Saudi oman s eblog, July20,2010,
http://saudiwoman.me/2010/07/20/saudi-disillusionment-with-the-religious-establishment/.
www.alhilalclub.com/vb/showthread.php?t 268543.
McDowall&Said,“ClericFightsSaudiBidtoBanChildMarriages.”
“SaudiSheik: SlaveryIsAPartofIslam’,” orld et Daily, November10,2003,
www.wnd.com/?pageId 21700.
50
tH
E
S
o cI A
L
M
E
dI A
G
E
n E
r A
t I o n
for denying that he issued a fatwa in support of Moammar al-Qadhafi, and for
calling on Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak to step down in February 2011.39
As noted earlier, al-Luhaidan exhorted co-religionists to kill owners of television
networks that broadcast “immoral” material,40 and openly encouraged Saudis to
fight Americans in Iraq in 200 .41
As for Safar al-Hawali, he and al-Odah were the two figureheads synonymous with
the Sahwa (awakening) movement that challenged the Saudi government during
the early 1990s. Owing to the significant body of literature on the Sahwa, alHawali remains extremely well known. While he has tempered his rhetoric against
the Saudi state, he continues to preach hatred and violence against Israel.42
A p p le A p p lications
Another development that sharply contradicts the notion that the clerics despise
modern technology is that a number of them now leverage Apple products. That
would seemingly conflict with their ascetic version of Islam, yet Salman al-Odah
proclaimed on his Facebook page that the merger of Islam and Apple products
is a “remarkable friendship and brotherly relationship The Qur’an was in her
hand above the iPad...pure originality preserving the identity and keeping pace
with the developing world.” (“Her” identity is unknown.)
As of this writing, users can easily access iPhone, iPod touch, and iPad apps
from their favorite clerics. For example, iTunes offers fans of al-Odah a free
application, complete with articles, sound clips, and photos, as well as links
to his Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube pages. The same app includes articles
written about him and a direct link to his email address.43
Unsanctioned cleric Muhammad al-Munajjid, who ranked fourth overall among
clerics on Twitter according to TweetLevel and Klout, maintains an equally
impressive product.44 The ad roup offers a free app for al-Munajjid’s website,
I slam Q uestion and A nswer ( I slam Q & A ).4 Available in 11 languages, including
English, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, French, and Spanish, the application
39 Foral-Luhaidan’sdenialofsupportforMuammaral-Qadhafi,seewww.ebnmasr.net/forum/t126704-4.
html post1484772 HiscallforMubaraktostepdowncanbefoundatwww.sharesgate.com/vb/t67874.
html post705153.
40 RobertF.Worth,“ArabT TestsSocieties’LimitsWithDepictionsofSexandEquality,” he e ork
Times, September26,2008,www.nytimes.com/2008/09/27/world/middleeast/27beirut.html.
41 Myers,“MoreEvidenceofSaudiDoubletalk?”
42 ForSafaral-Hawali’spersonalwebsite,seewww.alhawali.com/en/index.cfm?method home.
con&ContentId 6467.
43 Al-Odah’sappisavailableathttp://itunes.apple.com/us/app/id453331103?mt 8.
44 Al-Munajjid’sappisavailableathttp://itunes.apple.com/us/app/id428922481?mt 8.
45 Findthe adGroupwebsiteatwww.zadgroup.net/.
51
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
provides fatawa covering basic tenets of faith, etiquette and morals, Islamic
history, and Islamic politics.
A number of al-Munajjid’s messages are radical. In 200 , he stated that the
deadly tsunami that hit Southeast Asia was punishment for Christians and
sinners.46 Under the section “Islamic Politics,” the cleric rules that, “Democracy
is a man-made system Thus it is contrary to Islam, because rule is for Allah
and it is not permissible to give legislative rights to any human being, no matter
who he is Undoubtedly the democratic system is one of the modern forms of
shirk polytheism .”47
Regarding the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, al-Munajjid explains that, “The
Palestinian issue is an Islamic issue a solution cannot be reached in this matter
unless it is regarded as an Islamic issue and the Muslims cooperate to find a
solution, and wage an Islamic j ihad against the Jews ”48
Some of the official clerics also embrace apps, but theirs are not free. For one
dollar apiece, app developer Rich Ltd. offers enthusiasts a selection of audio
fatawa, lectures, and commentary from ibn Baz, Muhammad ibn al-Othaimeen,
and Saleh al-Fawzan.49
R esp ecting the R ed L ines
Social media is now clearly an acceptable form of d a’ wa, or Islamic outreach.
Indeed, Saudi rand Mufti Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh proclaimed that the internet
should be viewed as a useful tool to spread Islam. 0 And as clerics offer their
opinions amid regional protests, it appears regional politics are not off limits—at
least for now.
But challenges against the state are still not tolerated. In July 2011, cleric Yusuf
al-Ahmed, a professor at Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University, directly
petitioned King Abdullah three times to release prisoners detained indefinitely.
On July 7, al-Ahmed posted his final appeal on YouTube; the next day, the
administrator of his Facebook and Twitter profiles (rumored to be his son)
announced that Saudi authorities arrested al-Ahmed at his father’s home in
46 www.youtube.com/watch?v H DbvkBS7Iw&feature player_embedded !.
47 Forthe Islam
Aapp,seehttp://itunes.apple.com/us/app/id426345035?mt 8 Forthecompletefatwa,
seewww.islam-qa.com/en/ref/107166/ruling 20on 20democracy.
48 Forthecompletefat a,seewww.islam-qa.com/en/ref/21977/solution 20to 20the 20palestinian 20
issue.
49 ToviewallappsdevelopedbyRichLtd.,click“ iewMoreByThisDeveloper”inthetoprightcornerof
thispagehttp://itunes.apple.com/us/app/id447655845?mt 8.
50 www.almoslim.net/node/148822.
52
tH
E
S
o cI A
L
M
E
dI A
G
E
n E
r A
t I o n
the Eastern Province town of Dammam. 1 As of this writing, according to his
Facebook and Twitter pages, the cleric still awaits trial.
When it comes to online messaging, clerics and everyday Saudis typically have
a good understanding of the existing laws and the state’s unspoken social
contract. Some test the red lines. Others remain well within bounds. But with
the proliferation of new mass communication tools, there are bound to be more
challenges ahead.
51 Yusufal-Ahmed’sFacebookpagecanbeaccessedatwww.facebook.com/pages/168817473166914
‫د‬-‫فسوي‬-‫دمحألا‬-‫ةحفصلا‬-‫ةيمسرلا‬-/; HisTwitterpagecanbeaccessedathttps://twitter.com/yusufalahmed Toreadanaccountofal-Ahmed’sarrestasreportedbyHumanRightsWatch,see“Saudi
Arabia:FreeIslamicScholarWhoCriticizedMinistry,”HumanRightsWatch,July14,2011,
www.hrw.org/news/2011/07/14/saudi-arabia-free-islamic-scholar-who-criticized-ministry.
53
Bin L aden and J ihadism
ConStrat was five months into collection when President Obama announced on
May 1 that the United States assassinated Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan.1
Not surprisingly, the Saudi online community was crackling with emotion. While many
mourned his loss, many others viewed bin Laden’s demise as a triumphant moment.
Underlying all of the responses was a sense that, nearly a decade after the September
11 attacks, the ideology that inspired bin Laden and his network is deeply rooted.
Soon after the news broke, as celebrations in the U.S. flooded the wires, Salman
al-Odah weighed in on his Facebook page. “The current joy of the greatest
country after killing one person whom they have been pursuing for ten years, is a
sign of weakness and incompetence, not a sign of strength and competence. The
US dreamt of finding him alive, but od willed otherwise.”2
He continued “We disagree with bin Laden’s actions, and call for mercy and
forgiveness on his soul. However, ideas do not end by the demise of their owners;
these ideas are resisted by ideas, by spreading justice, and correcting mistakes.”3
In this way, the unsanctioned cleric warned that the war is far from over.
Al-Odah previously inspired bin Laden in the 1990s, but he now vociferously
opposes al-Qaeda’s tactics. In 2007, al-Odah challenged the al-Qaeda leader,
“How much blood has been spilt Will you be happy to meet od Almighty
carrying the burden on your back 4 After bin Laden’s demise, numerous
media outlets pointed to the cleric’s condemnation of bin Laden as affirmation
that the Saudi government and clergy reject al-Qaeda’s violence.5
1 PeterBaker,Helene Cooper&MarkMaze ,“BinLadenIsDead,ObamaSays,”The New York Times,
May1,2011,www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?_r 1&hp.
2 http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-149953.html.
3 Ibid.
4 SurendraMunshi,“TimeToHealtheWounds,”The Telegraph (India),June30,2011,www.telegraphindia.
com/1110630/jsp/opinion/story_14146877.jsp.
5 S.I ikharMurshed,“Al-Qaedaa erBinLaden,” he e s International, June26,2011,www.thenews.
com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID 54577&Cat 9 Munshi,“TimeToHealtheWounds ”AnissaHaddadi,
“Al-Qaeda’s Takfir’ illingsTurnMuslimsAwayBeforeandA erDeathofOsamaBinLaden,”International Business Times, June9,2011,www.ibtimes.com/articles/160261/20110609/al-qaeda-s-takfir-killingsturn-muslims-away-before-and-a er-death-of-osama-bin-laden-ayman-al-zawa.htm.
55
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
B attling O nline E x trem ism and the Call to J ihad
The Saudi battle against online extremism is a recent one. After September 11,
many governments and media outlets condemned the kingdom for spreading
extremist messages, as clerics continued to launch verbal attacks against Israel
and call for j ihad against American and allied forces in Iraq and Afghanistan.6
However, since al-Qaeda staged attacks in 2003 and 2004, and threatened the
stability of the state, the Saudi religious establishment has painstakingly refuted
the ideology and actions of bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Primarily, it seeks to reempower the ruling family as the only authority permitted to sanction j ihad .
The efforts of the Saudi government and its clerics to condemn those who commit
“unauthorized” j ihad were evident. In January 2011, Minister of Islamic Affairs Salih
Al al-Sheikh said that the kingdom hoped to increase the integrity and effectiveness
of Islamic d a’ wa (outreach) websites in an effort to spread “moderate” Islam
and reject “deviant” and “extremist” ideas.7 Later that same month, the Ministry
organized a symposium with researchers and specialists to study and evaluate the
effectiveness of internet advocacy in fighting terrorism and extremism.8
Weeks later, the Council of Senior Ulema and rand Mufti Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh
vehemently denied issuing a fatwa in support of bin Laden, saying that the fatwa
released under its name was fabricated. Al al-Sheikh said that, “What has been
mentioned in the fatwa is a total lie as it goes against the previous statements
Al-Qaeda’s words and actions have caused destruction for Islam and Muslims.
Every sane person can easily understand that they are following a deviant path
and that no Muslim should join al-Qaeda or approve its activities ”9
During a debate on the al- J az eera T alk discussion forum, one user cited a fatwa
from deceased cleric Muhammad ibn al-Othaimeen challenging the legality of
suicide bombings. Al-Othaimeen ruled, “Whoever puts explosives on his body in
order to put himself amongst a community of enemies, has killed himself, and
6 Forexamples,see:NicolasPelham,“SaudiClericsIssueEdictsagainstHelpingInfidels,”Christian Science
Monitor,October12,2001,www.csmonitor.com/2001/1012/p7s1-wome.html “TheHouseofSaud:
TheFatwaofthe26Clerics:OpenSermontotheMilitantIraqiPeople,”P S rontline,February8,2005,
www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saud/etc/fatwa.html ThomasHegghammer,“Saudisin
Iraq:PatternsofRadicalizationandRecruitment,”Revues.org, June12,2008,http://con its.revues.org/
index10042.html.Inan“OpenSermontotheMilitantIraqiPeople,”issuedon November5,2004,onthe
eveoftheAmericansiegeofFallujah,twenty-sixclericssignedontoastatementthatlegitimizedparticipationintheIraqiinsurgencyaspartofa“defensejihad”againstthe“aggressor”coalition.Thenumber
ofSaudiswhowenttoIraqtofight againstWesternforcesisbelievedtohavepeakeda erthesermon
wasreleased.
7 http://ksa.daralhayat.com/ksaarticle/225479.
8 www.alriyadh.com/2011/01/26/article598258.html.
9 Muhammadal-Sulaimi,“DarAl-I aDeniesBackingAl-Qaeda,”Arab News, February17,2011,
http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article266898.ece.
56
B
I n
L
A
dE
n
A
n d
J I H
A
d I S
M
would be tortured with the instruments he used for suicide in eternal fire ”10
Saleh al-Fawzan also generated significant attention in January 2011, when
he called the suicide bombers who attacked the Coptic Church in Alexandria,
Egypt followers of Satan, and asserted that Muslims are prohibited from
killing themselves.11
But many clerics appeared more concerned with distinguishing who may
“legally” declare j ihad , and reminding Muslims that they may only heed their
ruler’s call to religious violence.
On his personal website, the rand Mufti explicitly rules out j ihad for
individuals, even when “apostates” enter Islamic lands. “Individual citizens
should not get involved with security matters It is up the rulers of the land to
assess the intentions of non-Muslims and decide what course of action to take
towards them.”12
The Permanent Committee for Research and Ifta advised one individual that,
“J ihad … becomes obligatory when the Muslim ruler declares a general struggle
and commands you to go to war or when the person is actually involved in the
battle. In such cases no one is allowed to give priority to people over Allah’s
command.”13
This was a trend that ConStrat even identified among bloggers. For example,
the blog N uha3 8 3 1 7 . blog sp ot cited fatawa— mostly from Saudi clerics—critical
of violent, unauthorized j ihad . The blog prominently featured videos that
condemned al-Qaeda ideologue Anwar al-Awlaki (killed by the United States
in late September 2011), and highlighted tafseer from cleric Abdul Muhsin alUbeikan describing jihadists as selfish.14
W eb sites That S p read “ E x trem ism ”
In October, Dr. Abdul Rahman al-Hadlaq, director-general of the Department of
Intellectual Security for the Saudi Ministry of Interior, reported that 6,000 websites
around the world still spread “extremism.” Interestingly, the Saudis are careful not
to grant the title of “jihadist” to online activists who engage in extremism. According
to al-Hadlaq, “we do not need to classify those owners of deviant thought jihadists’
because they rejoice in this title...the correct name for them is the deviant group’.”15
10 http://aljazeeratalk.net/forum/showthread.php?t 327166&page 4.(Threadnolongeravailable Accessedvia onApril2,2011)
11 “SaudiClericSeesDevilbehindSuicideAttacks,” he Daily Star,January8,2011,www.dailystar.com.lb/
News/Middle-East/Jan/08/Saudi-cleric-sees-devil-behind-suicide-attacks.ashx axzz1WihSlAp .
12 ForthewebsiteofGrandMu iAbdulazizAlal-Sheikh,seewww.mu i.af.org.sa.
13 Forthecompletefatwa,seehttp://en.islamtoday.net/node/1218.
14 http://nuha38317.blogspot.com/search/label/Jihad 20and 20the 20Martyr.
15 http://ksa.daralhayat.com/ksaarticle/315818.
57
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
While ConStrat did not identify 6,000 radical sites during the collection period,
it identified a number of them published in English and Arabic that forwarded
intolerant or radical discourse in connection with Saudi clerics.
In English
Ummah (http //ummah.com) hosted discussions on various Muslim issues,
such as the establishment of the Palestinian state and fundraising for Afghan
refugees. Most of the radical content was related to discussions about the
concept of j ihad and legitimate Islamic governance.16
Siratemustaq eem ( http //siratemustaqeem.com) discussed religious beliefs in
Islam and fatawa related to shirk (apostasy) in the Islamic faith. Conversations
about “true” forms of monotheism usually led to discussions on takfeer
(excommunication), which generated radical commentary.17
In Arabic
M uslm. net (www.muslm.net) is a popular site that hosted highly intense
religious and political debates on historic and contemporary issues. The webusers who frequented this site tended to be sympathetic to Wahhabi ideology
and supportive of jihadist movements.18
Pald f (www.paldf.net), the Palestine Dialogue Forum, focused on news regarding
Palestinian issues, but included an “Islamic resistance” narrative and a Shari’ ah
forum. Discussants often referenced Saudi clerics; some people disparaged ibn
Baz’s rejection of suicide attacks, claiming that Saudi fatawa are not universal
and do not apply to the Palestinian case.19
N oor el- I slam (www.noor-elislam.net) was a self-described Salafi forum
that attempted to explain the Q uran and A had ith (sayings of the Prophet
Muhammad) based on the “true teaching of the Prophet Muhammad and
his followers.” Users supported a fatwa from ibn Baz that promotes social
and religious intolerance. In one thread, they cited ibn Baz’s warning against
“traveling to the land of infidels,” because of “its negative effects on creed and
morality.”20 Others circulated several radical fatawa by Rabia al-Madkhali,
who opposes women driving and argues that anyone who believes in freedom of
religion is an apostate.21
16 “Jihad or halifah, Which Comes First,” www.ummah.com/forum/showthread.php?282608-Jihad-orhilafah-which-comes-1st.
17 Accessed via .
18 www.muslm.net.
19 www.paldf.net/forum/showthread.php?t 824791&page 6.
20 http://noor-elislam.net/vb/showthread.php?t 13796.
21 http://noor-elislam.net/vb/showthread.php?t 13855.
58
B
I n
L
A
dE
n
A
n d
J I H
A
d I S
M
A lmoslim (www.almoslim.net), which is administered by Sahwa cleric Nasir
al-Omar, openly denigrated Shi’a Muslims and expressed enmity toward the
West. Fatawa on this site were often hostile to reforms, such as rand Mufti
Abdulaziz Al al-Sheikh’s ruling that “proponents of women’s emancipation are
advocates of evil and misguidance.”22
Clerics f or J ihad
While Saudi clerics now explicitly oppose—or at least provide caveats against—
al-Qaeda’s religious justifications and tactics, current and former clerics’ fatawa
still provide ammunition to jihadists.
Hamud ibn Uqla al-Shuaibi, who died in 2001, was a proponent of suicide attacks
and celebrated by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). Based on the sample
that ConStrat culled, his fatawa live on in the hearts of Saudi extremists.
Molded from the core of the Wahhabi system, al-Shuaibi studied under former
rand Muftis Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al al-Sheikh and ibn Baz, and then taught
several high-profile members of the Saudi establishment, including the current
rand Mufti and Salman al-Odah. Al-Shuaibi’s personal website offers his fatwa
on suicide bombings, which concludes “Martyrdom operations are legitimate in
religion, a j ihad for Allah, if the intention of the perpetrator is pure. They are one
of the most successful means of j ihad and effective means against the enemies of
this religion its legitimacy is proven by evidence from the Q uran and Sunnah
and scholarly consensus ”23
But support for j ihad did not come only from deceased clerics. Muhammad alMunajjid’s I slam Q & A website (available as an iTunes app) also provides religious
justifications for violence. In one entry, Al-Munajjid says, “ The Caliph must
strive in j ihad against those who stubbornly reject Islam after being called to it,
until they become Muslim or agree to live under Muslim protection and pay j iz y ah
(tax on non-Muslims), so Allah’s religion will prevail over all others.”24
Even Salman al-Odah, who is frequently labeled a moderate, supported j ihad .
“J ihad means fighting the infidels and the like—this is the duty of the people of
the country that has been dominated or occupied by the infidels. The rest of the
Muslims must assist and support them.”25 He published this opinion in 2010,
but it is still available on his I slam T od ay website.
22 http://almoslim.net/node/139995.
23 For al-Shuaibi’s ruling on “martyrdom operations,” see his website, www.al-oglaa.com/?section subject&
SubjectID 169.
24 www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/21509.
25 www.islamtoday.net/salman/artshow-28-138541.htm.
59
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
E ndu ring S au di R adicalism toward I srael
In October 2011, one week after Israel and Hamas completed a prisoner
swap—Israeli soldier ilad Shalit in exchange for more than 1,000 Palestinian
prisoners—Saudi cleric Awad al-Qarnee offered a 100,000 reward to any
Palestinian who could kidnap an Israeli soldier for bargaining leverage in future
prisoner deals. The cleric wrote on his Facebook page, “The press reported that
the ionist settlers will pay huge amounts of money to whoever kills the freed
Palestinian prisoners In response to these criminals I declare to the world that
any Palestinian who will jail an Israeli soldier and exchange him for prisoners
will be rewarded with a 100,000 prize.”26
Then, billionaire Prince Alwaleed bin Talal’s brother Khaled increased the
reward offered by al-Qarnee to 1 million. He said, “I tell Dr. Awad, I will be in
solidarity with you and pay the remaining 900,000 to take an Israeli soldier
prisoner so that other prisoners can be freed.”27
Finally, Awad’s cousin and fellow cleric Aidh al-Qarnee also joined the chorus.
Aidh told the London-based daily al- H ay at, “I ask Allah for martyrdom in
his path, for the conquest of Jerusalem, and if j ihad in the path of Allah is
undertaken, I ask Allah to be one of his faithful soldiers.” He further expressed
his thanks “to all who struggle with their tongue, their money, their blood, or
their knowledge, against the ionist entity.”28
Thus, while the Saudi clerics almost universally condemn al-Qaeda and what
they define as “terrorism,” they still support “legitimate” j ihad . This only serves
to reinforce long-held perceptions about the dangers of Wahhabism, and
skepticism that the Saudi government is serious about eradicating the religious
justifications that give rise to violence. To convince the global community that
they are serious about fighting extremism, the Saudis will ultimately need to
tackle this problem.
26 RoeeNahmias,“SaudiCleric: idnapSoldier Get 100,000,”Ynet News, October25,2011,
www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4138982,00.html.
27 “SaudiPrinceBacksCleric’sBountyO erforIsraeliSoldier,”Reuters, October29,2011,
www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/29/us-saudi-israel-bounty-idUSTRE79S32220111029.
28 http://ksa.daralhayat.com/ksaarticle/324903.
60
C onclusion
With protests still raging around the Arab world, new challenges may await the
Saudi state. The protests may, in turn, also create new challenges for the West.
When F D D commissioned this study in late 20 10 , such political turmoil appeared
highly unlik ely, if not impossible. O ur hope was to understand, nearly a decade
after the 9 / 11 attack s, how Saudi clerics use the online space, including social
media, to disseminate their messages, and the ex tent to which Saudi Arabia is
inv olv ed in tempering or ex acerbating the problem of online radicaliz ation.
Our findings, largely gleaned from ConStrat’s data, include the following
T h e a m o u n t o f o v e r t ly v io le n t m e s s a g e s is m a r g in a l a n d d e c lin in g :
Militant entries that ex plicitly endorsed or condoned v iolence accounted for
a small fraction of the postings scored. We believ e this is because the Saudi
gov ernment closely monitors and censors the internet as part of its battle
against “dev iants. ” Interestingly, the E nglish language sites were more
lik ely to address militant issues than Arabic ones, though some radical
messaging remained.
H ig h ly c o n s e r v a tiv e , in to le r a n t, a n d x e n o p h o b ic c o n te n t r e m a in s
s u b s t a n t i a l : Such content accounted for between half and three-q uarters of the
postings that ConStrat scored.1 In other words, while sanctioned and unsanctioned
clerics hav e cut back on ov ertly v iolent rhetoric, they still v iew Western culture
with disdain, exhibit a lack of respect for women’s rights, and speak with open
hostility about minorities, other religions, and non-Wahhabi Muslims.
A r a b p r o te s t m o v e m e n ts h a v e o p e n e d u p p o litic a l d e b a te fo r S a u d i
c l e r i c s : After an initial period of reticence, the clerics began to weigh in on the
injustices of other regional gov ernments and ev en Saudi allies, but largely spared
the Saudi state. Their vocal response is a significant development, especially in light
of the crack down on the Sahwa clerics ( and their ev entual co-opting) in the early
1990s. Clerics may yet play a role in opening up political discourse in Saudi society.
1
See appendices for VX Ecosystem graphics.
61
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
N e w m e d ia a n d te c h n o lo g y a r e b e c o m in g th e c le r ic s ’ p r e fe r r e d
o u t l e t s : In addition to social media outlets lik e Twitter, F acebook , and
Y ouTube, apps for iP hone, iP od, and iP ad are gaining popularity among Saudi
clerics. This phenomenon contradicts the religious establishment’s historical
opposition to “corrupting” modern technology.
Only a handful of clerics account for most of the traffic: Two sanctioned
clerics— Saleh al-F awz an and former Grand Mufti Abdulaz iz ibn Baz — and one
unsanctioned cleric—Salman al-Odah—accounted for the bulk of Arabic traffic. In
E nglish, al-F awz an and al-O dah also rank ed in the top three. Safar al-H awali, who is
unsanctioned, was the only other cleric who ranked in the top five for both languages.
Official clerics still “rubber stamp” regime policies: The state-sponsored
clergy do not challenge the regime in any significant way, and often issue rulings
that serv e to buttress the regime against opposition, perceiv ed or actual. While
many users look ed to the sanctioned clerics for rulings on daily Muslim life,
some mock ed them for serv ing as agents of the monarchy.
C l e r i c s s e l f - p o l i c e : U nsanctioned clerics continue to ex pand their presence
online, but rarely challenge the regime directly. More often than not, they
prov ide additional support to the sanctioned clerics. This may date back to
the co-opting of the Sahwa clerics. It may also be a result of the Saudi state’s
restrictiv e internet policies, which hav e lik ely forced the clerics to self-police.
While this study was primarily designed to help inform our understanding of the
Saudi online environment, we can issue two broad policy recommendations
E n c o u r a g e t h e S a u d i g o v e r n m e n t t o a c c e l e r a t e r e f o r m s : Among FDD’s
findings, the most important is that the Saudi government’s efforts to restrict
militant online content from its religious establishment hav e been effectiv e.
ConStrat identified only marginal numbers of overtly violent messages related to
the Saudi clerics. This is a sign that the Saudis can, when sufficiently motivated,
temper the radicalism that has long percolated in the k ingdom. It is also a sign
that U . S. pressure, when applied properly, can hav e a noticeable impact.
However, the kingdom’s recent attempts to convince the West that it is promoting
“religious tolerance” 2 and embracing change3 do not resonate with the online
content mined for this study. J ihad - related content aside, ConStrat found that
Saudi Arabia’s religious establishment still openly denigrates other religions and
cultures, and fails to adapt to modern social and scientific concepts.
2
3
“Saudi-Backed Religious Tolerance Center Opens in Vienna,” Al-Arabiya, October 13, 2011,
www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/10/13/171684.html.
“A Promise of Reform in Saudi Arabia,” The New York Times, February 5, 2009,
www.nytimes.com/2009/02/26/opinion/26thu2.html.
62
co n cL
u S
I o n
Recent examinations of official high school textbooks further confirm the
online data. Though the gov ernment repeatedly pledges to remov e “intolerant”
content from the country’s textbooks, passages remain that speak about fighting
the J ews to bring about the hour of judgment, describe women as weak and
irresponsible, and call for homosex uals to be put to death because they pose a
danger to society. 4 This is troubling, considering that Saudi Arabia is described
as one of America’s most important Middle East allies. This stark lack of shared
v alues has encumbered the relationship in the past, and raises q uestions about
the future.
M
o n i t o r o n l i n e a c t i v i t y o f t h e c l e r i c s a n d t h e i r f o l l o w e r s : The Saudi
social media env ironment req uires further assessment, and is deserv ing of
ongoing observ ation by the intelligence community (f or threats) and State
D epartment (f or diplomacy and de-radicaliz ation opportunities). We hav e long
held that, coupled with other reporting streams, online research can greatly
enhance our understanding of complex policy problems. In the case of Saudi
Arabia, where the gov ernment limits access to the country, thorough online
research can be particularly v aluable.
If gathered properly, online sentiment can prov ide intelligence and insights
in other important areas. The Saudis’ ongoing challenges in fighting terrorism
finance, education reform, and political change are obvious areas that could
benefit from deeper online research.
A
F inal W ord of W arning
The Saudi clerics are gaining influence through the use of online
communication tools. N ew media are allowing them to communicate with the
Saudi public and wider Muslim world on an unprecedented scale. Since they
have generally not stepped over the Saudi government’s “red lines,” they have
typically been unhindered.
To be sure, the relatively free flow of information in Saudi Arabia should
be welcomed. But there may be a downside. As the unsanctioned clerics
increasingly turn to v arious online platforms lik e Twitter, F acebook , and
Y ouTube— and less to traditional state-controlled media outlets— the Saudi
regime may find it more difficult to control their messages. The spike in clerical
activ ity online translates directly to increased lev erage and power.
E v entually, emboldened clerics may pose a direct challenge to the regime.
D uring the 20 th century alone, Saudi Arabia had three major confrontations
with elements of the religious establishment during the 1920s, when the
4 LeonWatson,“TheArabicSchoolTextbooksWhichShowChildrenHowToChopO HandsandFeet
UnderShariaLaw,”The Daily Mail, December23,2011,www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2077658/TheArabic-textbooks-children-chop-hands-feet-Sharia-law.html.
63
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
z ealous I khwan rebelled against ibn Saud; in 19 7 9 , when the Salafi separatist
group al- J ama’ a al- Salafiy y a al- M uhtasiba held the Grand Mosq ue in
Mecca hostage; and in the early 19 9 0 s, as the Sahwa clerics denounced the
Western military presence in the Gulf and demanded a more Islamic Saudi
gov ernment and society.
In all of those situations, the gov ernment successfully q uelled dissent with a
mix of draconian measures and co-opting strategies. But Saudi Arabia, lik e the
rest of the Arab world, is now dealing with a new and rapidly changing political
env ironment that look s nothing lik e the past.
64
Appendix 1: C leric Index
Y u s u f a l - A h m e d : U nsanctioned; professor at Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic
U niv ersity in Riyadh; arrested in J uly 20 11 after posting Y ouTube v ideos that
criticized the indefinite detention of prisoners in Saudi Arabia; criticized the
gov ernment-supported policy of allowing women to work as supermark et
cashiers; described King Abdullah University for Science and Technology, the
Kingdom’s only co-educational facility, as part of a “Westernizing” project.1
M
u h a m m a d a l - A r e f e : U nsanctioned; preacher at al-Bawardi Mosq ue in
Riyadh and faculty member at King Saud U niv ersity; 2 more than 1,044,000
Twitter followers and 8 ,000 “likes” of his Facebook page as of March 2012;3
heavily criticized for his remarks about women, especially a YouTube video
in which he ex plains methods for a man to discipline his wife; 4 often issues
inflammatory sermons that slander Shi’a Muslims.5
A b d u l R a h m a n a l - B a r r a k : U nsanctioned; denounced protests in Y emen
as haram (forbidden), and a fitna(d iscord) which must be av oided; 6 rev ersed
course regarding protests in Egypt, describing them as a “testament to od’s
power;”7 condemned the driving campaign launched by Saudi women, calling
them “women who open the gates of evil, seeking to westernize the country.”8
A b d u l a z i z i b n B a z ( d . 1 9 9 9 ) : Sanctioned; former rand Mufti and former
chairman of Muslim World League’s Constituent Council; influential in online
social media; emphasiz ed the responsibility of Islamic states and organiz ations
1 “SaudiArabia:FreeIslamicScholarWhoCriticizedMinistry,”HumanRightsWatch,July14,2011,
www.hrw.org/news/2011/07/14/saudi-arabia-free-islamic-scholar-who-criticized-ministry.
2 SeeMuhammadal-Arefe’scurriculumvitaeonhispersonalwebsite,http://arefe.com/PC .aspx.
3 ForMuhammadal-Arefe’sTwitterpage,seehttp://twitter.com/MohamadAlarefe ForhisFacebookpage,
see www.facebook.com/3refe.
4 www.youtube.com/watch?v PJGjC1rsQ s&feature player_embedded .
5 “SaudiClericMuhammadAl-ArifiExposesShiitesandTheirHistory-A airs,”YouTube,November7,2010,
www.youtube.com/watch?v 3651za7DBN0&feature related.
6 http://almoslim.net/node/143433.
7 www.ajurry.com/vb/showthread.php?s e0a50e83a3fa8b4edbbf31f95d04 c8&p 56227 post56227.
8 http://alanba.com.kw/AbsoluteNMNEW/templates/last2010.aspx?articleid 198634&zoneid 29.
65
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
to support
ahi
n (Islamic fighters) throughout the world;9 issued a at a
in 1991 banning women from driving.10
S a a d a l - B u r a i k : Unsanctioned; called for “smashing the skulls of those who
organize demonstrations or take part in them;” has been described as “an
extremist but also a government loyalist in state-funded institutions.”11
N a s i r a l - F a h d : U nsanctioned; one of sev eral radical Saudi clerics who
supported al-Q aeda’s attack s in the k ingdom; arrested in fall 20 0 3 and
subseq uently renounced his support for militancy on Saudi telev ision; 12 well
k nown for a 20 0 3 at aarguing that WMDs are permissible for use in j ihad if
there is no other way to defeat one’s enemies.13
S a l e h a l - F a w z a n : Sanctioned; Council of Senior Ulema member; popular in
online social media; condemned the January 2011 bombing of the Coptic church
in Alexandria, Egypt, calling it the work of Satan;14 gained notoriety for asserting
that a Muslim should kill a co-worker who does not pray,15 and that fathers may
arrange marriages for their daughters “even if they are in the cradle.”16
A h m e d a l - G h a m d i : Sanctioned; formerly headed the Mecca branch of the
Committee for the Promotion of irtue and Prevention of ice (religious police);
social activists have praised him for his opposition to gender segregation, fullbody v eils ( niqab), and the ban on women driving.17
S a f a r a l - H a w a l i : U nsanctioned; popular in online social media; became
synonymous with the ah a( awak ening) mov ement that challenged the Saudi
gov ernment’s Islamic credentials during the early 19 9 0 s; has moderated his stance
toward the Saudi regime, but continues to inspire hatred and violence against
Israel.18
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Gold,Hatred’s Kingdom,p.119.
Bronson,Thicker Than Oil,pp.210-211.
Al-Rasheed,“PreachersofHateasLoyalSubjects.”
Jones,“TheClerics,theSahwaandtheSaudiState,”p.4.
WillMcCants,“NasirAl-Fahd’sRulingonWMD,”Jihadica,June5,2008,
www.jihadica.com/nasir-al-fahds-ruling-on-wmd/.
“SaudiClericSeesDevilbehindSuicideAttacks,”The Daily Star, January8,2011,www.dailystar.com.lb/
News/Middle-East/Jan/08/Saudi-cleric-sees-devil-behind-suicide-attacks.ashx axzz1WihSlAp .
www.alhilalclub.com/vb/showthread.php?t 268543.
McDowall&Said,“ClericFightsSaudiBidtoBanChildMarriages.”
Foracollectionofarticlesonal-GhamdibyEmanal-Na an,see:http://saudiwoman.wordpress.
com/2010/04/25/the-man-of-the-hour/; http://saudiwoman.wordpress.com/2011/01/26/thecommision-for-the-promotion-of-virtue-and-prevention-of-vices/; http://saudiwoman.wordpress.
com/2011/04/03/going-back-in-time/ comment-9062.
ForSafaral-Hawali’spersonalwebsite,seewww.alhawali.com/en/index.cfm?method home.
con&ContentId 6467.
66
cL
E
r I c
I nd E
X
A b d u l l a h i b n a l - J i b r e e n ( d . 2 0 0 9 ) : Sanctioned; former member of the
Permanent Committee for Research and Ifta (i ssuing ata a); one of his ata a
suggested that the Earth is flat and the sun revolves around it;19 endorsed alQaeda’s violent 2003 attacks in Saudi Arabia.20
A h m e d a l - K h a l i d i : U nsanctioned; endorsed al-Q aeda’s v iolent 20 0 3 attack s
in Saudi Arabia; arrested in fall 2003 and subsequently renounced his support
for militancy on Saudi television.21
A l i a l - K h u d e i r : U nsanctioned; endorsed al-Q aeda’s v iolent 20 0 3 attack s in
Saudi Arabia, was arrested in fall 2003 and subsequently renounced his support
for militancy on Saudi television.22
S a l e h a l - L u h a i d a n : Sanctioned; Council of Senior Ulema member; remov ed
from his position as chief judge of Saudi Supreme Judicial Council after saying
it was permissible to k ill owners of satellite telev ision channels that promote
moral deprav ity; 23 issued a at acalling for j ihad against the “atheist” Syrian
government.24
R a b i a a l - M a d k h a l i : U nsanctioned; professor at Muhammad ibn Saudi
Islamic U niv ersity in Medina; issued ata ain opposition to women driv ing
and argued that anyone who believ es in freedom of religion is an apostate; 25
rejected protests as a means to achieve reform and branded revolutions a
“Leninist-Stalinist evil.”26
M
u h a m m a d a l - M u n a j j i d : U nsanctioned; popular on Twitter; administrator
of website Islam
sti nan ns r(
); described the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict as an Islamic issue which will not be solved until “Muslims cooperate to
find a solution, and wage an Islamic j ihad against the Jews ”27
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
For his fatwa,seewww.djelfa.info/vb/showthread.php?p 6360171.
Jones,“TheClerics,theSahwaandtheSaudiState.”
Ibid.
Ibid.
“MajorReshuffleinSaudiArabia,”BBCNews, February14,2009,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_
east/7890211.stm.
Forexcerptsofhiscallforjihad,seewww.sarayanews.com/object-article/view/id/65679&reason 0.
http://noor-elislam.net/vb/showthread.php?t 13855.
http://forums.naseej.com/showthread.php?175845- E5 E1- C7 E1 CE D1 E6 CCDD ED- C7 E1 E3 D9 C7 E5 D1 C7 CA- E6- C7 E1 DE ED C7 E3C8 C7 E1 CB E6 D1 C7 CA- E3 E4- E3 E4 E5 CC- C3 E5 E1- C7 E1 D3 E4 C9- E6C7 E1 CC E3 C7 DA C9 BF- ED CC ED C8- C7 E1 DA E1 C7 E3 C9- C7 E1.
(Threadnolongeravailable Accessedvia onOctober15,2011)
Forthecompletefatwa,seewww.islam-qa.com/en/ref/21977/solution 20to 20the 20palestinian 20
issue.
67
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
S a l m a n a l - O d a h : U nsanctioned; administrator of sla a website;
popular on Twitter and other social media; gained prominence as one of the
ah aclerics who criticiz ed the Saudi gov ernment’s Islamic credentials
during the 1990-1991 Persian ulf crisis; supported 2011 Arab protests and
urged Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan to “not be a supporter to the criminals”
in Syria.28
N a s i r a l - O m a r : Unsanctioned; Secretary- eneral for Association of Muslim
Scholars and administrator of al sli n t; issued early at a against selfimmolation; months later, called for the downfall of regimes in Yemen29
and Syria30 ; openly denigrates Shi’a Muslims and ex presses enmity toward
the West.31
M
u h a m m a d i b n a l - O t h a i m e e n ( d . 2 0 0 1 ) : Sanctioned; former Council
of Senior U lema Member; one at aruled that a suicide bomber “would be
tortured with the instruments he used for suicide in eternal fire ”32
A b d u l l a h i b n a l - Q a o u d : Sanctioned; former member of Permanent Committee
for Research and Ifta and Council of Senior Ulema; ruled that, “It is allowed for a
woman to go see a male gynecologist if there are no female doctors available, but
he the doctor shall not be with her the patient alone in the same room.”33
A i d h a l - Q a r n e e : Unsanctioned; weekly columnist for pan-Arab daily l harq
l
sat; popular on Twitter; claimed that it was fitna( discord) for Y emeni
President Ali Abdullah Saleh to remain in power;34 al-Qadhafi family reportedly
requested his religious approval for the Libyan regime during the 2011 uprising;35
supported women’s right to drive in Saudi Arabia;36 in one 200 sermon, which
supported Hamas’ terrorism against Israel, he described Jews as the “brothers of
apes and pigs and murderers of the prophets.”37
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-148590.htm.
www.almoslim.net/node/147641?sms_ss twitter 26at_xt 4ded07c85870cb5f,0&reason 0.
http://almoslim.net/node/149506&reason 0.
Seeal-Omar’swebsite,www.almoslim.net.
http://aljazeeratalk.net/forum/showthread.php?t 327166&page 4.(Threadnolongeravailable Accessedvia onApril2,2011)
http://alqaoud.net/word.php?t 2.
www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/05/22/150092.html.
“Gaddafi’sSonsTriedtoGetSaudiClericHelp,”Reuters,February28,2011,http://af.reuters.com/article/
libyaNews/idAFLDE71R1AT20110228.
http://islamtoday.net/albasheer/artshow-12-151273.htm Seealso:www.alanba.com.kw/
AbsoluteNMNEW/templates/last2010.aspx?articleid 200735&zoneid 29.
“ShaykhAedAlQarni Jihad,thePathto ictory ”YouTube,September5,2009,
www.youtube.com/watch?v wrEEu- zqk.
68
cL
E
r I c
I nd E
X
A w a d a l - Q a r n e e : Unsanctioned; cousin of Aidh al-Qarnee; offered 100,000
to any Palestinian who could kidnap an Israeli soldier to be used in future
prisoner swaps.38
A b d u l a z i z A l a l - S h e i k h : Sanctioned; current rand Mufti; ruled that selfimmolation is forbidden in Islam and a “heinous crime and a great calamity;”39
declared that, “Proponents of women’s emancipation” are “advocates of evil
and misguidance;”40 described Twitter as a site where people “issue ata a]
without any knowledge and to lie in a manner that brings fame to some.”41
M
u h a m m a d i b n I b r a h i m A l a l - S h e i k h ( d . 1 9 6 9 ) : Sanctioned; former
rand Mufti; formerly chaired the Muslim World League’s Constituent
Council;42 web-users cited him to bolster arguments for sex -segregated
hospitals.43
A b d u l l a h i b n M u h a m m a d A l a l - S h e i k h : Sanctioned; son of former rand Mufti
Muhammad Al al-Sheikh and president of Saudi Shura (Consultation) Council.44
H a m u d i b n U q l a a l - S h u a i b i ( d . 2 0 0 1 ) : U nsanctioned; molded from the
Wahhabi establishment’s core; among the clerics who supported al-Qaeda’s
violence in Saudi Arabia in 2003 and 2004.4
A b d u l R a h m a n a l - S u d a i s : Sanctioned; imam of the rand Mosque in Mecca;
called for Muslims to peacefully co-exist and uphold moderate teachings,46 but
practiced tak ragainst Sufis, and referred to Jews as “monkeys and pigs.”47
A b d u l M u h s i n a l - U b e i k a n : Sanctioned; member of the Saudi Shura Council
and advisor in the Royal Court; ruled that joining al-Qaeda is forbidden in
Islam; 48 called jihadists selfish.49
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Nahmias,“SaudiCleric: idnapSoldier Get 100,000.”
http://ksa.daralhayat.com/ksaarticle/225894.
http://almoslim.net/node/139995.
“SaudiGrandMu i:TwitterIsFullofLies,”The Jerusalem Post, January28,2012,
www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id 255501.
Gold,Hatred’s Kingdom,p.119.
Sidiya&Al-Sulami,“DebateonGenderMixinginHospitalsMovesfromFacebooktoShoura.”
www.aawsat.com/details.asp?section 68&article 661635&issueno 12119.
Jones,“TheClerics,theSahwaandtheSaudiState.”
“Al-SudaisSpeaksaboutChallengesFacingIslam,”Arab News, April21,2011,
http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article369488.ece.
Upadhyay,“MeccaImam’s isittoIndia:SomeObservations Analysis.”
Abdullahal-Oraifij,“JoiningQaedais Haram’:Al-Obeikan,” he Saudi aze e, January12,2010,
www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method home.regcon&contentID 2010011259904.
http://nuha38317.blogspot.com/search/label/Jihad 20and 20the 20Martyr.
69
Appendix 2: C onStrat’s Methodology
To ex plore the ideas the Saudi religious establishment promotes and how those
ideas disseminate v ia the Internet, C onStrat conducted a six -month, two-phase
study at the behest of F D D . F rom J anuary 1, 20 11 through J une 30 , 20 11,
C onStrat collected and coded data from thousands of Arabic and E nglish language
websites, forum threads, and social media posts, look ing for tafseer or fatawa by
Saudi clerics or social media commentary about them.
To maintain the linguistic and cultural nuances of the collected information, two
C onStrat researchers with nativ e Arabic language sk ills analyz ed Arabic data,
while two nativ e E nglish researchers with specializ ed academic and practical
training in the Arabic language and Muslim culture analyz ed E nglish data. F or
comparativ e analysis between languages, researchers coded Arabic and E nglish
data separately.
In the first phase of the study, ConStrat analyzed hundreds of tafseer and fatawa
on the personal websites of Saudi clerics and other websites where the clerics
publish their commentary and opinions. The findings helped identify the topics
clerics discussed most often, as well as their sentiments on those topics.
F or the second phase of the study, C onStrat used two software platforms to mine
the social media env ironment for mentions of Saudi clerics to ex plore how their
messages are disseminated. C onStrat used its proprietary V X ® technology to
collect and analyz e data from online message boards ( forums) . F rom this analysis,
C onStrat assessed the v olume of forum discussions concerning Saudi clerics, the
v olume of forum discussions by topic, and discussion sentiments by topic. V X ®
also identified forums in which Saudi clerics and fatawa were most discussed.
C onStrat also used the mark et research software A L TE R I A N S M2 ® to analyz e
mentions of Saudi clerics on additional social media platforms such as Twitter,
F acebook , Y ouTube, and Blogger. The S M2 ® analytical tool helped C onStrat
researchers assess the v olume of social media content related to Saudi clerics, the
geographical reach of Saudi clerics’ messages, and the top domains propagating
commentary about the clerics.
71
F
A
cE
B
o o K
F
A
t W
A
C onStrat also measured how social media users engage with Saudi clerics online.
Researchers measured engagement by look ing at where Saudi clerics and social
media users grav itated, which clerics and ideas were important to social media
users, and where social media users consumed information about Saudi clerics.
C onStrat categoriz ed clerics’ tafseer and fatawa, as well as online users’
commentary, into sev en thematic topics, and then assigned a sentiment ( See
Methodology C hapter) . Measuring sentiment was designed to characteriz e the
tone of v iews that Saudi clerics ex pressed, as well as the tone of their followers’
v iews. C onStrat researchers coded sentiment on a spectrum from moderate to
militant; but it was merely an informal process designed to identify where certain
topics, Internet domains, Saudi clerics, and social media users rank ed on a relativ e
spectrum. C onStrat fully ack nowledges that sentiment analysis— particularly one
that describes religious figures and ideas as radical or moderate—is a sensitive and
widely debated subject.
It was also helpful to understand which social media users and v enues were
most influential. ConStrat researchers used S M2 ® ’s proprietary popularity
measurement tool to identify the influence of social media users and venues
propagating commentary on Saudi clerics. F or each type of media, which included
micro blogs, v ideo and photo sharing sites, forums, blogs, and social network ing
sites, the software used separate metrics and algorithms to determine popularity.
F inally, C onStrat measured “reach” by indentifying the distribution of messages
and commentary ov er different social network s, the number of “re-tweets”
or comments on forums and blogs, as well as the linguistic and geographical
distribution of the messages of Saudi clerics.
In conducting this study, C onStrat was fully cogniz ant of the fact that internet
research does not paint the full picture of how the Saudi religious establishment
propagates its ideology. These ideas are also widely distributed beyond the
Internet, including v ia radio, telev ision, print media and Saudi charities abroad.
Moreov er, ev en with ex perienced foreign media analysts from C onStrat using
adv anced analytical tools, the Internet is much too large for a single study to
capture ev ery mention of Saudi clerics. This was an earnest attempt to capture a
snapshot of the Saudi clerical env ironment online, to be used as a springboard for
discussion, as env isioned by F D D .
72
t o P
cL
E
r I cS
o nL
73
I nE
/
A
r A
B
I c
t o P
cL
E
r I cS
o n L
74
I nE
/
E
n G
L
I S
H
toP
cL
E
r I cS
o n
t W
75
I t t E
r /
A
r A
B
I c
F
A
cE
B
o o K
76
F
A
t W
A
S
A
u dI
cL
E
r I c
E
co S
77
Y
S
t E
M
/
A
r A
B
I c
F
A
cE
B
o o K
78
F
A
t W
A
S
A
u d I
cL
E
r I c
E
co S
79
Y
S
tE
M
/
E
n G
L
I S
H
About the Authors
J O N A T H A N S C H A N Z E R is V ice P resident for Research at the F oundation
for D efense of D emocracies. H e is the author of P@lestinian Pulse: W hat
Policy makers C an L earn From Palestinian Social M ed ia ( F D D P ress, 20 10 ) ,
H amas v s. Fatah: T he Strug g le for Palestine ( P algrav e Macmillan, 20 0 8 ) and
l a a s r i s i l ast filiat r
san th t n rati n
of T error ( WIN E P , 20 0 4) . P rev iously, he work ed at the Washington Institute
for N ear E ast P olicy and the Middle E ast F orum. F rom 20 0 4 to 20 0 7 , Mr.
Schanz er serv ed as a counterterrorism analyst for the U . S. D epartment of the
Treasury. H e earned his P hD from King’s C ollege L ondon.
S T E V E N M I L L E R is a research associate at F D D , where he monitors and
analyz es Arabic language press to help F D D scholars stay ahead of the curv e
on issues that are under-reported in the Western media. H e also conducts
research related to ideology and online media in Saudi Arabia, and his
translations of Arabic language articles hav e been referenced in the media.
P rior to joining F D D , Mr. Miller was a policy analyst at the Institute for Gulf
Affairs, where he conducted research on Saudi Arabia’s education curriculum
and the security of Saudi Arabia’s energy infrastructure. H e studied Arabic at
Indiana U niv ersity.
FOUNDATION FOR DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACIES
Amb. R. James Woolsey
Chairman
Clifford D. May
President
Mark Dubowitz
Executive Director
LEADERSHI P COUNCIL
Amb. Richard Carlson
Fmr. Director, Voice of America
Amb. Max Kampelman
Fmr. Ambassador
Dr. Paula Dobriansky
Fmr. Under Secretary of State for
Democracy and Global Affairs
Bill Kristol
Editor,
The Weekly Standard
Steve Forbes
CEO, Forbes Magazine
Sen. Joseph Lieberman
U.S. Senator (I-CT)
Judge Louis Freeh
Fmr. Director of the FBI
Robert McFarlane
Fmr. National Security Advisor
BOARD OF ADVI S O R S
Hon. Charles Allen
Gary Bauer
Rep. Eric Cantor (R-VA)
Gene Gately
Gen. P.X. Kelley
Charles Krauthammer
Kathleen Troia ‘KT’ McFarland
Richard Perle
Steven Pomerantz
Oliver ‘Buck’ Revell
Bret Stephens
Hon. Francis ‘Bing’ West
I N MEMORI AM
Hon. Jack Kemp
Founding FDD Chairman
Dr. Jeane J. Kirkpatrick
Founding FDD Board Member
CURRENT AFFAIRS / $9.99
Following al-Qaeda’s violent campaign against Saudi Arabia in 2003 and 2004, Saudi
authorities launched a crackdown on radicalism in the Kingdom. This included tighter
controls on terror finance, dismantling al-Qaeda’s local cells, monitoring the country’s
mosques, and a state-sponsored de-radicalization program designed to combat what
Saudi authorities call “deviant” ideologies.
But what of the problems associated with internet radicalization? Is Saudi-sponsored
radicalization still a problem online? Or has it waned as a result of the Saudi
authorities’ efforts?
A decade after the September 11 attacks that prompted a deep and protracted crisis in
U.S.-Saudi relations, the Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD) commissioned
a study to gauge the sentiment, influence, and reach of Saudi clerics on the internet.
Facebook Fatwa provides a glimpse of the religious establishment’s online activities
during a critical moment in the Middle East.
JONATHAN SCHANZER is Vice President for Research at the Foundation for Defense
of Democracies. He is the author of P@lestinian Pulse: What Policymakers Can Learn
From Palestinian Social Media (FDD Press, 2010), Hamas vs. Fatah: The Struggle for
Palestine (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) and Al-Qaeda’s Armies: Middle East Affiliate
Groups and the Next Generation of Terror (WINEP, 2004). He formerly served as a
counterterrorism analyst for the U.S. Department of the Treasury and earned his PhD
from King’s College London.
STEVEN MILLER is a research associate at FDD, where he monitors and analyzes Arabic
language media. Prior to joining FDD, Mr. Miller was a policy analyst at the Institute
for Gulf Affairs, where he conducted research on Saudi Arabia’s education curriculum,
and analyzed the security of Saudi Arabia’s energy infrastructure. He studied Arabic at
Indiana University.
THE FOUNDATION FOR DEFENSE OF DEMOCRACIES is a nonpartisan, non-profit, 501(c) (3) policy institute dedicated exclusively to
promoting pluralism, defending democratic values, and fighting the
ideologies that drive terrorism. Founded shortly after the attacks of
9/11, FDD combines policy research, democracy and counterterrorism
education, strategic communications, and investigative journalism
in support of its mission. For more information, please visit
www.defenddemocracy.org