Political Ideology and the Implementation of Executive-Branch Reforms:
The Contingent Impact of PART on Performance Management in Federal Agencies
Stéphane Lavertu
Assistant Professor
John Glenn School of Public Affairs,
The Ohio State University Donald Moynihan
Professor of Public Affairs
La Follette School of Public Affairs
University of Wisconsin – Madison
[email protected]
May 23, 2011
1 Abstract
A central purpose of performance management reforms such as the Bush administration’s
Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART) is to promote the use of performance information in
federal agencies. But as reforms become identified with a partisan agenda, the scope of their
influence may decline. Using data from a survey of agency managers, we analyze the extent to
which agencies’ ideological predispositions mediated the impact of PART reviews on managers’
use of performance information. The results indicate that the overall positive impact of
managers’ involvement with PART reviews on information use may have been completely
contingent on an agency being associated with a moderate or conservative ideology. Breaking
down the analysis by management activity reveals that this ideological effect obtains for
management activities that were more difficult for the Bush administration to observe, which is
consistent with principal-agent theory. These and other results suggest that PART reviews were
an ineffective mechanism for promoting performance management in liberal agencies when
information asymmetries provided managers with discretion over information use.
2 Introduction
Political executives—such as presidents, governors, and mayors—often come to office
with the intent to reform the administrative agencies they oversee. Their reforms typically
require some cooperation and effort from agency personnel. If executives have difficulty
observing agency personnel’s actions and capacities, reform outcomes, or the link between
personnel’s actions and reform outcomes, executives may face a principal-agent problem. When
such information asymmetries exist, employees whose policy preferences differ from those of
the executive may fail to devote necessary effort or may even sabotage the executive’s policy
initiatives. In this paper, we focus on the pursuit of a management reform in federal agencies in
the face of such information asymmetries, and we examine whether divergence in the ideological
preferences of a presidential administration and federal agencies has an impact on that reform’s
success.
The 2001 President’s Management Agenda represented the Bush administration’s policy
agenda for reforming management in federal agencies. It involved five management priorities,
one of which was the integration of performance assessment and budgeting. The Office of
Management and Budget (OMB) created and employed the Program Assessment Rating Tool
(PART), a battery of diagnostic questions, to assist in pursuing that policy goal. The OMB used
the tool to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of nearly all federal programs for the purpose
of informing its budget formulation process and to improve and promote performance
management in federal agencies. Indeed, OMB recommendations to agencies through PART
reviews typically focused on promoting or altering performance measurement in federal agencies
(GAO 2005). The administration’s success in promoting performance management within
3 agencies depended on the extent to which agency managers used performance information in
their decision-making.
We propose that the extent to which managers’ involvement with PART reviews
promoted performance information use depended on the match in ideological orientation
between the Bush administration and federal agencies, as well as the information asymmetry
between the administration and agency managers. Managers in agencies pursuing conservative
policies should have had relatively little concern that PART reviews and recommendations
undermined their programmatic priorities, perhaps by altering program goals or justifying cuts in
their budgets. Managers working in agencies pursuing liberal missions, however, were relatively
more likely to possess such concerns. Moreover, while the collection of performance
information is observable by political principals to some extent, the use of performance
information is an action that is more difficult to observe, and the ability to observe it varies
across management activities. For example, oversight of performance information use for the
purpose of modifying performance measures is relatively observable by political appointees and
OMB PART reviewers, as opposed to the use of performance information for the purpose of
solving problems. Thus, we propose that managers in relatively liberal agencies were less likely
than those in conservative agencies to use performance information if they were involved in
PART reviews, particularly for management activities that were more difficult for the
administration to monitor.
We explore these propositions empirically using respondent-level data from a 2007
Governmental Accountability Office (GAO) survey of mid- and upper-level agency managers.
The GAO oversampled managers in some agencies, which enables us to examine the impact of
managers’ involvement with PART reviews on their use of performance information across 29
4 agencies and a number of management activities. The survey included a variety of questions that
asked managers if they used performance data for a range of purposes. Thus, we are able to
examine whether managers’ performance management practices are related to the ideological
leanings of the agencies in which they work. The results indicate that the overall positive impact
of managers’ involvement with PART reviews on information use may have been completely
contingent on an agency being associated with a moderate or conservative ideology. Breaking
down the analysis by different managerial uses of performance data reveals that this ideological
effect obtains for management activities that were more difficult for the administration to
observe, which is consistent with principal-agent theory. Additionally, the analysis indicates that
managers in liberal agencies who were involved with PART reviews agreed to a greater extent
than those not involved that performance measurement problems impeded the collection and use
of performance information, whereas there generally were no such differences in moderate and
conservative agencies. These and other results suggest that PART reviews were an ineffective
mechanism for promoting performance management in liberal agencies when information
asymmetries provided managers with discretion over information use.
There is growing agreement among both academics (Moynihan and Pandey 2010; Van de
Walle and Van Dooren 2008) and practitioners (GAO 2008; OMB 2010 & 2011) that managerial
performance information use is the key goal of performance management systems, but we know
little about how political ideology influences use. This is an important issue because performance
management initiatives often come from political executives and therefore may be, or may be
viewed as, politically motivated. The OMB devoted a great deal of effort to creating what it
presented as a nonpartisan, objective, and rigorous management tool (Dull 2006). Yet, there is
some evidence that ideological or policy preferences affected PART scores and that these scores
5 were more likely to be used to set the budgets of relatively liberal agencies and programs
(Gilmour and Lewis 2006a, 2006b, & 2006c). This paper is the first to provide systematic
evidence that ideological factors also were associated with the Bush administration’s success in
promoting performance information use via PART reviews.
The paper proceeds as follows. First, we provide background on the politics of
presidential control and the politics of PART. Second, we describe the conditions under which
agency managers’ involvement with PART reviews should lead to performance information use.
Third, we describe the data and empirical methods. Fourth, we describe and discuss the results.
Finally, we offer some concluding thoughts about the implications of this study’s findings.
The Politics of Presidential Control
The politics of public management enjoys perennial scrutiny now that scholars have
reevaluated the politics-administration dichotomy (e.g., Appleby 1949; Lynn, Heinrich and Hill
2000) and emphasize the role of politics in the implementation of policy (e.g., Pressman and
Wildavsky 1973) and the design of the federal executive branch (e.g., Gormley 1989;
McNollGast 1987; Moe 1989). Much of the empirical research focuses on how legislatures,
particularly Congress (e.g., Epstein & O’Halloran 1999; Lewis 2003), and political executives,
particularly presidents (e.g., Lewis 2008; Rudalevige 2002), attempt to control executive-branch
policymaking. A prominent narrative in the academic literature is that, as their political
incentives have changed and the scope of the federal bureaucracy has expanded, presidents
increasingly have sought to control bureaucratic behavior (Moe 1985). Modern accounts often
begin with Nixon’s “politicization” of federal agencies through appointments and his
impoundment of agency budgets, or Reagan’s imposition of various decision-making procedures
6 intended to limit agencies’ policymaking discretion and the promulgation of federal regulations
altogether. David Lewis’s (2008) research, for example, shows that presidents of both parties
have employed their power of appointment to influence the policymaking of agencies whose
programs are tied to ideological constituencies that differ from their own, and that this
politicization had a negative impact on the performance of public programs.
The need for and effectiveness of presidential efforts to control bureaucratic behavior is
often assumed. That presidential control attempts take place suggests that there is indeed some
value in them. Importantly, however, research increasingly focuses on what motivates
bureaucrats, sometimes examining whether principal-agent models imported from economics
appropriately characterize the determinants of bureaucratic behavior (e.g., Brehm and Gates
1997; Golden 2000). Some of this research indicates that bureaucrats infrequently “shirk” with
low levels of effort and seldom seek to “sabotage” programs with which they disagree, but both
popular and academic accounts frequently suggest otherwise. Rosemary O’Leary (2006), for
example, describes what she refers to as “guerrilla government,” in which career officials
actively undermine the efforts of political appointees when they believe a president’s policies are
too extreme. Although not necessarily so explicit, bureaucratic resistance to presidential
initiatives aimed at altering public management practices should be expected. Civil servants are
acutely aware of the implications of such presidential actions for their programs. Reagan’s
management policies, for example, were perceived as an attempt to centralize authority and
undermine liberal programs (Durant 1987; Tomkin 1998). Even reforms that are less overtly
political are susceptible to bureaucratic indifference or even hostility if agencies are antagonistic
to the president sponsoring them. A case in point is the negative reception for President Clinton’s
Reinventing Government reforms in the Department of Defense (Durant 2008).
7 The Politics of the Program Assessment Rating Tool
Efforts to make public management more goal- and results-oriented, known as
“performance management” reforms, have long enjoyed bipartisan support. Depending on how
one defines performance management, one might identify a number of starting points: the
recommendations of the Hoover Commission, which President Truman established; the
Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System implemented in the Department of Defense
under President Kennedy; the expansion of Management by Objectives under President Nixon;
or the promotion of pay-for-performance by President Carter and the first President Bush. But
the point of origin for the modern era of federal performance management is probably the
Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) of 1993 (Radin 2000). The act requires
agencies to set long-term strategic goals and short-term annual goals, measure performance
toward achieving those goals, and report on their progress via performance plans and reports to
Congress and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).
GPRA enjoyed broad bipartisan support when it passed in 1993 and when it was
amended in 2010. At various times since its enactment members of both parties have sought to
use for their political purposes the performance information that GPRA generated. For example,
Majority Leader Dick Armey employed GPRA results to publicize the poor performance of
federal agencies (Dull 2006). But the Clinton administration also valued GPRA. For example,
Vice President Gore launched an initiative that utilized GPRA goals in an attempt to illustrate the
performance improvement that took place during the Clinton era (Moynihan 2003). GPRA is
generally credited as having helped foster results-oriented management in federal agencies—or,
at least, as having helped set a foundation for the use of performance information in management
activities (GAO 2004).
8 The Bush administration’s President’s Management Agenda built upon the bipartisan
statutory framework for performance management that GPRA established (OMB 2001). By the
time President Bush arrived in office, GPRA was not extensively used by either party and was
seen by the Bush administration as a helpful but under-exploited tool for performance
management (Dull 2006). Among other things, the President’s Management Agenda called for
the integration of performance assessment and budgeting. As a result, the OMB created and
employed PART to systematically evaluate nearly all federal programs for the purpose of
informing its budget formulation process and for promoting program performance. Specifically,
it used the PART to grade federal programs on an ineffective-to-effective scale according to four
different criteria (program purpose and design, strategic planning, program management, and
program results/accountability) and weighted those scores to assign programs an overall score.
Evaluating programs using the PART was a labor-intensive process conducted by OMB budget
examiners in cooperation with program managers. PART reviews were conducted in waves
from 2003 through 2008 until nearly all programs were evaluated.
Some of the Bush administration’s management practices were criticized as partisan and
damaging to neutral competence (Pfiffner 2007); but the PART remained largely above such
criticism, sometimes characterized as an inoffensive formal management agenda at odds with
much of actual management practice (Moynihan and Roberts 2010). The PART was helped in
this regard by the general perception that performance management is not an overtly political
tool (Radin 2006). Perhaps more than any other scholar, Beryl Radin has sought to unmask the
implicit normative assumptions of performance management, including the PART. While she
argues that the PART clearly is not a value-free technical tool, and operates as part of a political
process, she does not argue that it is a partisan tool (Radin 2000 & 2006).
9 The Bush administration took great care to establish the PART’s credibility as a
management tool (Dull 2006). It was pilot-tested and revised based on extensive feedback from
a wide range of experts and stakeholders. A special team within OMB was created to make early
versions of the PART more systematic. An outside advisory council of public management
experts and a workshop from the National Academy of Public Administration were consulted.
PART questions were dropped if they were perceived as lending themselves to an ideological
interpretation. The OMB-trained budget examiners created a 92-page training manual and
established a team to cross-check responses for consistency, all in the name of reducing
subjectivity. The OMB also made all of PART assessments public and available on the internet
in order to check against examiner biases—a practice that demonstrates the confidence that the
OMB had in the tool and the judgments it elicited. Mitch Daniels, the OMB director who
created the PART, pushed staff to develop a non-partisan instrument (Moynihan 2008), and
public presentations of the PART by OMB officials to stakeholders and agency personnel
promoted it as a non-partisan tool.
Why did the Bush administration devote such effort to developing a non-partisan tool and
promoting it as such? It is because it wanted PART reviews to inform OMB, congressional, and
agency decision-making (Dull 2006). PART reviews could serve the administration’s policy
priorities and enable it to enhance its control of the budget formulation process, an important
aspect of federal policymaking. Poor PART reviews, for example, could be used as justification
for cutting programs. But the tool’s credibility had to be established if PART reviews were to
affect the decision-making of legislators and agency managers. Dull (2006), for example, notes
that management reform efforts seen as curbing neutral competence become tarnished and fail to
gain the necessary credibility. He also states that “while recent presidents have often bypassed
10 OMB, believing the organization to be unresponsive to the president’s political needs, the Bush
administration’s PART seeks to discipline and employ OMB’s policy competence to advance the
administration’s political agenda” (Dull 2006, 207). Therefore, if seen as a credible tool for
promoting performance management and enhancing the performance of federal programs, PART
would also further the administration’s goals in budgeting, policymaking, and implementation.
Whatever the intent of the Bush administration, many actors outside of the White House
were skeptical or questioned the usefulness of PART reviews. There is evidence that PART
scores influenced executive branch budget formulation (Gilmour and Lewis 2006a) but that they
did not significantly influence congressional budgetary decisions (Heinrich forthcoming; Frisco
and Stalebrink 2008). Few congressional staff used PART information (GAO 2008, 19) and
congressional Democrats considered PART a partisan tool. Efforts to institutionalize PART
review via statute failed, reflecting partisan disagreement about its purpose and merit (Moynihan
2008). Indeed, the Obama administration characterized PART as an ideological tool and decided
against continuing its implementation.
PART and Performance Management: The Perspective of Agency Managers
Agency managers had a number of reasons to view PART review as an important process
and, therefore, to take steps to improve performance management of the programs with which
they are involved. PART reviews were a presidential priority, and PART scores had an impact
on OMB’s budgetary decisions (Gilmour and Lewis 2006a & 2006b). The OMB also
implemented mechanisms so that PART reviews would inform program management. For
example, each PART assessment generated a series of recommendations for agency managers
11 that OMB officials could later review. The GAO concluded that “agencies have clear incentives
to take the PART seriously” (GAO 2005b, 16).
That many agency managers were directly involved in the PART review process also
might have attenuated the type of suspicions that many members of Congress and congressional
staff, who were likely less familiar with the PART review process, are thought to have held. 1
PART reviews were a product of a consultation between career counterparts at the OMB and the
agency. When agency and OMB officials disagreed, it might have been chalked up to
professional or interpersonal, rather than political, disagreement (Moynihan 2008).
There were also reasons for agency officials to be wary of PART. Any government-wide
reform will encounter claims that it lacks nuance and fails to appreciate the particular
characteristics of a specific program (Radin 2006). PART, which was essentially a standardized
questionnaire, was no exception. There is also the related issue of whether agency officials who
enjoy an information advantage over OMB officials would accept PART evaluations as valid.
The GAO (2008) asserted that agency managers’ lack of confidence in the credibility and
usefulness of OMB’s assessments, primarily due to a lack of programmatic expertise by PART
reviewers, was a key impediment to OMB’s leadership on performance management issues.
There are at least three reasons why ideology might have had an impact on the extent to
which involvement with PART reviews influenced managers’ use of performance information.
First, ideological disagreement between the administration and agency managers could capture
policy disagreement about appropriate management processes. For example, ideologically
conservative agency managers may be more likely to agree with the notion of performance
management and oversight via PART-like tools. (Although, the general bipartisan support for
1
Indeed, in an analysis of a GAO survey item that asks respondents to what extent PART needs to be
changed, those involved with PART reviews expressed the need for less significant changes, regardless of
the agency in which they worked.
12 performance management suggests that this may not be too significant a factor.) Second,
managers who share a president’s ideology may be more receptive to presidential initiatives.
Third, ideology roughly captures substantive policy preferences. Agency managers with
relatively liberal policy preferences, or those who manage programs traditionally supported by
liberal political constituencies, may resist attempts by the administration to alter programs in
substantively significant ways—for example, through alterations in program goals and the use of
performance measures that promote these altered goals.
In addition to managers’ prior beliefs regarding the Bush administration’s policy
preferences, PART reviews themselves may have been interpreted as signaling the
administration’s policy priorities. Negative PART reviews, for example, might have signaled to
managers that the administration was hostile to their programs. As we mention above, John B.
Gilmour and David E. Lewis provide empirical evidence that political ideology played a role in
the PART review process. Programs established under Democratic presidents received
systematically lower PART scores than those created under Republican presidents (Gilmour and
Lewis 2006c). Additionally, programs in traditionally Democratic agencies were the only ones
that corresponded to OMB budgetary decisions, suggesting that programs more consistent with
Republican ideology were insulated from PART scores during OMB’s budget formulation
(Gilmour and Lewis 2006b). Managers in liberal agencies had good reason to believe that PART
reviews were not benefiting their programs, and perceived or real policy differences surely
influenced managerial receptivity to changes in performance management promoted via the
PART review process.
There is substantial agreement that a primary goal of PART reviews was to make federal
managers more results-oriented (GAO 2005; Dull 2006; Moynihan 2008). And managers had
13 significant incentives to take PART reviews seriously (Gilmour 2006). On the other hand, there
is evidence that political considerations may have had an impact on PART scores and OMB’s
use of these scores in formulating the budget. Program managers in traditionally liberal agencies
had reasons to perceive the review process as biased and invalid. The experience with PART
gives rise to the following general proposition, which we elaborate in greater detail below.
General Proposition: PART reviews are less likely to promote the use of performance
information among managers whose policy preferences differ from those of the President.
PART’s Impact on Performance Information Use: A Principal-Agent Theory
In the parlance of principal-agent theory, when agency managers possess an
informational advantage over a presidential administration regarding the extent to which they
engage in performance management practices, there exists a moral hazard if agency managers’
goals differ from those of the administration. (See Dixit [2002] for a survey of this theoretical
literature, and Heinrich and Marschke [2010] for a review of applications to performance
management.) In other words, from the perspective of administration officials, all managers
conceivably could devote less-than-optimal effort to performance management, and managers
whose policy preferences conflict with those of an administration have incentives to pursue
policies they prefer. PART reviews were, to a significant extent, the Bush administration’s
costly attempt to reduce this information asymmetry and promote performance management by
scrutinizing management practices. Thus, with regard to performance management activities on
which PART reviews could shed light, such as modifying performance goals and measures,
involvement with PART reviews might have promoted the use of performance information.
14 PART reviews may have created incentives for agency managers to focus on
performance management if they did not already, but policy differences between the Bush
administration and agency managers stood to influence the extent to which PART reviews
promoted or hindered performance information use among agency managers. What the simple
principal-agent perspective we offer above neglects is that the PART review process had an
influence on the substance of program planning and performance measurement. PART reviews
may have made, or may have been perceived as making, performance measures more or less
useful to agency managers. As we mention in the previous section, managers who disagreed
with the administration regarding programmatic goals or who discounted administration
priorities (perhaps due to ideological differences) may have been less likely to perceive PARTinfluenced performance measures to be valid. Specifically, we offer the following hypothesis:
H1: Managers who reported involvement with PART reviews perceived that performance
measurement issues were impediments to performance information use to a greater extent
than managers who did not report involvement with PART reviews if and only if their
policy preferences differed from those of the administration.
In turn, agency managers who disagreed with the performance goals and measures shaped by or
provided through the PART review process should have been less likely to report using
performance information, provided that information asymmetries permitted this “shirking.”
Indeed, if this is the case, PART review could potentially have led to declines in the use of
performance information. Specifically, we offer the following hypothesis:
15 H2: Managers who reported involvement with PART reviews used performance
information to a lesser extent than managers who did not report involvement with PART
reviews if and only if their policy preferences differed from those of the administration
and management activities were sufficiently difficult for the administration to monitor.
Empirical Approach
Determining the extent to which policy preferences or political ideology affected PART
reviews’ impact on performance information use requires measures of information use, PART
implementation, and policy preferences. We employ data from a survey of agency managers to
create measures of information use and PART implementation. Specifically, to create these
measures we use survey items that ask agency managers to identify levels of information use,
hindrances to information use, and involvement with PART reviews. To approximate
differences in policy preferences or ideology, we employ a measure that categorizes agencies
according to their ideological proclivities—liberal, moderate, or conservative. Thus, the results
we present below are from models that estimate the relationship between managers’ reported
involvement with PART reviews, the ideological tradition or orientation of the agency in which
managers work, and managers’ reported information use and perceptions regarding the impact of
performance measurement problems on information use. Additionally, to test the robustness of
our findings, we employ control variables based on a number of items that ask managers about
other factors thought to influence information use.
16 Data
The Government Accountability Office administered surveys in 1996, 2000, 2003, and
2007 to collect data on the implementation of performance management reforms in federal
agencies. They administered the surveys to a random, nationwide sample of mid- and upperlevel federal employees in the agencies covered by the Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990,
and, in 2007, they over-sampled managers from certain agencies to facilitate comparisons across
29 different agencies. The timing of and items in the 2007 survey also permit an assessment of
PART’s impact on performance management. Thus, our analysis employs the 2007 survey data.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize the variables we employ (including descriptive statistics), so
we do not describe most of them here. However, the manner in which we categorize measures of
performance information use in each table of results, and the key measures indicating
involvement with PART reviews, warrant further discussion. Aggregating all measures into a
single index of use (as the GAO tends to do) is justifiable based on strong values of Cronbach’s
alpha. But common factor analysis indicates that it is appropriate to categorize measures of use
in terms of subcategories of the broader index: program planning, problem solving, performance
measurement, and employee management. The two measures we use to create indexes for each
type of activity (see the bottom of Table 1) were those that most clearly loaded on the four
underlying factors. That these categories capture theoretically distinct activities lends them some
additional validity.
[Insert Table 1 and Table 2 about here.]
The indicator PART is based on an item inquiring about the extent to which respondents
report being “involved” in PART reviews. PART is coded 1 if respondents report being involved
17 “to a small extent” or more, and zero otherwise. 2 The item used to create this measure asks
about “any involvement in preparing for, participating in, or responding to the results of any
PART assessment.” The structure of the variable is intended to reflect that the process of
implementing PART affected some employees and had no impact on others. The
implementation of PART was intended to create communities of agency actors who were
involved with PART assessments (Gilmour 2006). Agency employees responsible for
performance measurement, planning and evaluation, and budgeting processes are likely to have
been directly involved in negotiating with OMB officials over PART scores. Program managers
and staff whose programs were evaluated became involved in collecting agency information and
responding to management recommendations offered through the PART review process. The
review process led employees to invest time and effort toward performance management,
enhanced awareness of appropriate performance management practices, and communicated the
importance that OMB and the White House placed on performance management. As the mean
of the variable in Table 2 indicates, 31 percent of managers surveyed were involved with PART
reviews, indicating that relatively large numbers of federal employees were engaged in the
process.
The measures of agency ideology, Liberal and Conservative, are indicator variables
created based on measures created by Joshua Clinton and David Lewis (2008). They employed
measurement models that estimate agency ideology based on a survey of experts. The survey
item read as follows:
2
We also estimated models using the continuous measure of use. The results are similar and tend to be
more statistically significant. However, the dichotomous measure facilitates interpretation, so we report
the results of models that employ that measure.
18 Please see below a list of United States government agencies that were in existence
between 1988–2005. I am interested to know which of these agencies have policy views
due to law, practice, culture, or tradition that can be characterized as liberal or
conservative. Please place a check mark (√) in one of the boxes next to each agency—
‘‘slant Liberal, Neither Consistently, slant Conservative, Don’t Know.”(p5)
The measure takes on a value of -1 (liberal), 0 (moderate), and 1 (conservative), which we used
to create our dichotomous indicators for liberal and conservative agencies. (See Table 3 for the
list of agencies by ideology.) While it would be ideal to have individual- or program-level
measures of political ideology, the GAO did not collect this information. The agency-level
scores should capture political or policy preferences embodied in these organizations as a result
of their programs, employees, and other organizational factors. Research has shown the utility of
these agency-level ideology scores in understanding PART scores and budget decisions
(Gilmour and Lewis 2006a, Gilmour and Lewis 2006a), but not in terms of agency managers’
response to PART. The use of agency-level ideology scores also provides some reassurance that
any findings that emerge are not the function of response bias or common-source methods bias.
[Insert Table 3 about here.]
Finally, it is important to note some things about the control variables we include in the
models that test the robustness of our findings. First, all control variables were centered before
model estimation to facilitate interpretation; however, the descriptions presented in Table 2 are
for the variables before centering, to facilitate interpretation of the descriptive statistics. Second,
we include all variables that account for manager characteristics that the GAO provided (there
are two) and include variables that are thought to influence information use—measures of
19 leadership commitment and decision-making authority, as well as measures of perceived
oversight by political principals. There are a variety of additional items that inquire about
potential hindrances to information collection and use in the survey, but we do not include them
in the main statistical models because of the leading nature of the survey question (“… to what
extent, if at all, have the following factors hindered measuring performance or using the
performance information?”), and because of high collinearity among many of these items. It is
important to note, however, that the results are analogous if these variables are included as
controls and that we analyze many of these factors explicitly in the analysis below (see Table 5).
Statistical Methods
We estimated a number of statistical models. Initially, for all of the analyses, we
estimated hierarchical ordered probit models for each measure of use, as well as ordered probit
models with errors clustered by agency. The data are ordered and non-normal and, thus, the
ordered probit model is the most appropriate. However, the coefficients in ordered probit models
are difficult to interpret and may be misleading for the models of performance information use,
which include interactions between Liberal and PART and Conservative and PART.
Additionally, the results of ordered probit models are nearly identical to those of hierarchical
linear models, as well as OLS models with errors clustered by agency. Thus, to facilitate
interpretation, for models of estimating information use we present the results of hierarchical
linear models, which provide more information about the variability in PART’s impact across
agencies than OLS models with clustered errors. For the purpose of illustration, a basic
hierarchical model that includes no level-1 controls and, for simplicity, includes only the
20 indicator for liberal agencies, is specified as follows, where i and j indicate the respondent and
agency, respectively, and
indicates a measure of use:
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 2:
Plugging in level 2 equations and rearranging terms, one gets the following:
The above model features four fixed effects coefficients (
,
,
, and )
corresponding to the constant (i.e., the overall average level of information use), the impact of
Liberal when respondents do not report involvement with PART reviews, the impact of PART
involvement for a moderate or conservative agency (i.e., the impact for the omitted agency
category), and the adjustment in the impact of PART involvement for a liberal agency, as
opposed to a moderate or conservative agency. The above model also estimates random effects
(
and ) corresponding to the unexplained variance of PART’s impact across agencies and
the unexplained variance in the dependent variable (i.e., information use) across agencies. All
models were estimated using the xtmixed command in Stata 11.1 and using maximum
likelihood estimation. The models also estimated the covariance between the impact of PART
involvement across agencies and information use by agency.
Finally, the results of ordered probit models with errors clustered by agency are reported
for models that include no interaction variables.
21 Results
The results presented in Table 4 are from hierarchical linear models estimating
information use. The model in the first column employs an index that sums all of the measures
of performance information use listed in the top portion of Table 1. The inclusion of interaction
terms requires that the coefficients be interpreted carefully. The results indicate that, accounting
only for agency random effects, involvement with PART reviews is positively associated with
information use in ideologically moderate agencies (the coefficient for PART reveals its impact
for managers in moderate agencies); agency ideology is unrelated to information use when a
manager does not report PART involvement (the coefficients for Liberal and Conservative reveal
ideology’s lack of impact when a respondent does not report involvement); there is no difference
between moderate and conservative agencies in terms of the impact of PART involvement (the
coefficient for PART*Conservative does not reach statistical significance); and the impact of
PART involvement is significantly lower in liberal agencies than it is in moderate agencies (the
coefficient for PART*Liberal is negative and statistically significant).
[Insert Table 4 about here.]
There are two noteworthy aspects to these findings. First, the key difference is between
the impact of PART in liberal and non-liberal agencies, and this is the relevant comparison for
subsequent analyses. Second, when considering performance information use across all
management activities, the impact of PART involvement is completely negated in liberal
agencies. For example, in moderate agencies, the average level of use across all activities when
no PART involvement is reported is captured by the constant, about 2.49 (between “to a
moderate extent” and “to a great extent”), and increases by the coefficient for PART (0.30) when
PART involvement is reported, bringing the total to about 2.79. In liberal agencies, the average
22 level of use by managers with no PART involvement is about 2.59 (though this is not statistically
different from 2.49) and increases to 2.62 when PART involvement is reported (2.49+0.10+0.300.27). Put differently, PART involvement does not significantly affect information use in liberal
agencies, but it has a positive impact on information use in moderate and conservative agencies.
The difference in the impact of PART across management activities also is noteworthy.
Both interaction terms fail to reach statistical significance in the “performance measurement”
model, indicating that the impact of PART is consistent across agencies of different ideologies
when it comes to using performance information for “refining program performance measures”
and “setting new or revising existing performance goals.” In other words, for those performance
management activities that PART reviews monitor explicitly, agency ideology does not account
for differences in the impact of PART reviews on performance management. On the other hand,
the biggest disparity between liberal and non-liberal agencies in terms of the impact of PART
involvement is in the “problem solving” model. Interestingly, this is the only activity for which
there is a difference in the use of performance information by managers not involved with
PART, in that managers in liberal agencies used performance information more (by 0.26) than
moderate agencies. The impact of PART involvement on using performance information to
identify and correct problems mitigates this disparity to some extent. Finally, another
noteworthy finding is that, unlike other management activities, PART involvement has no impact
on information use for employee recognition and rewarding in moderate and conservative
agencies, and it may have had a negative overall impact on information use for this activity in
liberal agencies (p=0.104 for a two-tailed test).
The results presented in Table 5 indicate that these findings are robust to the inclusion of
statistical controls. It is worth noting that, because the control variables were centered, the
23 constant refers to the average level of use for non-liberal agencies (and, in all but one model,
liberal agencies as well) when no PART involvement is reported. The control variables are not
the focus of our study, so we refrain from discussing their estimated coefficients here, except to
say that leadership commitment, decision-making authority, and oversight by managers’
supervisors are strongly linked to performance information use across all activities. The findings
regarding commitment and decision-making authority are consistent with previous studies (Dull
2009; Moynihan and Pandey 2010).
[Insert Table 5 about here.]
The results presented in Table 4 and Table 5 are consistent with our second hypothesis,
which states that managers involved with PART and whose policy preferences differed from
those of the administration used performance information to a lesser extent than those not
involved if information asymmetries permitted it. The results indicate that the overall positive
impact of managers’ involvement with PART reviews on information use is contingent on an
agency being associated with a moderate or conservative ideology, but this disparity is driven by
information use for management activities that are not easily monitored via the PART review
process. When information use could be monitored effectively through the PART review
process—such as in management activities involving performance measurement—differences in
information use no longer correspond to agency ideology.
The results clearly illustrate that the important distinction is between liberal and nonliberal agencies. The next analysis examines what it is about PART implementation in liberal
agencies that accounts for the differences in use we have uncovered. The results presented in
Table 6 are from ordered probit models (with errors clustered by agency) that estimate the extent
to which agency managers perceive various factors as having hindered their collection or use of
24 performance information. Exact item wordings are provided in the table. The results reveal the
estimated impact of managerial involvement with PART reviews on each factor. These PART
effects were estimated separately for liberal and non-liberal agencies to facilitate comparisons.
[Insert Table 6 about here.]
A clear pattern emerges in the results presented in Table 6. Managers in liberal agencies
involved with PART reviews agreed to a greater extent than those not involved with PART
reviews that performance measurement problems hindered their collection and use of
performance information. Strikingly, such effects are either non-existent or minimal for
moderate and conservative agencies. It appears that “difficulty determining meaningful
measures,” “difficulty obtaining valid or reliable data,” “difficulty obtaining data in time to be
useful,” “difficulty distinguishing between the results produced by the program and results
caused by other factors,” and “existing information technology and/or systems not capable of
providing needed data,” were substantial impediments to performance management in liberal
agencies only if managers reported involvement with PART reviews. On the other hand, there
were few or no differences between managers in liberal agencies not involved with PART
reviews and managers in moderate or conservative agencies (whether or not they were involved
with PART reviews) in terms of the obstacles to performance management they perceived.
These results suggest that the impact of ideology on information use occurred completely
through the PART review mechanism—that they are not attributable to inherent differences in
agencies’ ability or willingness to use performance management practices. One potential
competing interpretation is that managers involved with PART reviews were simply more
knowledgeable about the performance information limitations their agencies faced. But it is not
clear why such an effect would be limited only to managers in liberal agencies, and the selection
25 effect is perhaps more plausible in the the other direction (managers who spend their career
creating performance measures are more likely to reject the claim that it is hard to measure
program performance). The findings in the models of use also tend to undercut concerns about
the PART variable: when information asymmetries are sufficiently great, reported levels of use in
liberal agencies do not differ between managers who are involved and those not involved, and
use practices do not differ by agency ideology when no PART involvement is reported. Further,
managers in liberal agencies who were not involved with PART reviews did not report
perceptions that differed in statistically significant ways from those of managers in moderate and
conservative agencies. Indeed, the results reveal that all managers (whatever their agency’s
ideology and whether or not they were involved with PART reviews) had similar perceptions
regarding the extent to which “difficulty determining how to use performance information to
improve the program” affected information use. In other words, the differences in information
use that we have uncovered are not attributable to differences in the ability to use performance
information. Finally, fears of OMB micromanagement affected those involved with PART
reviews similarly, whatever their agency’s ideology. It is almost exclusively in liberal agencies
that managers involved with PART reviews agree to a greater extent than managers not involved
that difficulties collecting valid, reliable, and timely data inhibited the collection and use of
performance information. These results are consistent with our first hypothesis that managers in
liberal agencies who were involved with PART reviews are more likely to perceive that
performance measures are an impediment to information use.
Discussion
26 The results offer a coherent narrative about how political ideology and information
asymmetry affect the ability of a political executive to further performance information use. The
results indicate that the overall positive impact of managers’ involvement with PART reviews on
information use may have been completely contingent on an agency being associated with a
moderate or conservative ideology. Breaking down the analysis by management activity reveals
that this ideological effect obtains for management activities that were more difficult for the
administration to observe. Additionally, the analysis indicates that managers in liberal agencies
who were involved with PART reviews agreed to a greater extent than those not involved that
performance measurement problems impeded the collection and use of performance information,
whereas there generally were no such differences in moderate and conservative agencies. These
and other results are consistent with our hypotheses based on principal-agent theory. They
provide evidence that managers in liberal agencies did not respond to the administration’s
approach to promoting performance management practices when PART reviews influenced
performance measurement in ways they found problematic, and when information asymmetries
between them and the administration permitted it. Our empirical analysis suggests that these
results are driven by the PART-review monitoring mechanism, as opposed to differences in
organizational or programmatic factors.
Heinrich and Marschke (2010), employing a principal-agent perspective, argue that the
impact of performance management reforms depends a good deal on implementation dynamics.
In the course of examining these dynamics in the case of the PART, we contribute in important
ways to a number of academic literatures. First, we contribute to the growing literature on the
determinants of performance information use (e.g. Dull 2009; Moynihan and Pandey 2010) by
examining the role of political ideology and how its impact varies across management activities.
27 A second contribution deals with the role of ideology in executive-branch policy implementation
more generally. There is a growing literature that focuses on how political executives,
particularly presidents, attempt to control executive-branch policy decisions using various
mechanisms (e.g., see Moe 1985 and Lewis 2008) and the impact of control mechanisms on the
behavior of agency personnel (e.g., see Brehm and Gates 1997; Golden 2000). And there is
some research on the role of ideology in implementing performance management reforms (e.g.,
Durant 2008) and the use of the PART in particular (Gilmour and Lewis 2006a, 2006b, &
2006c). This paper is the first to provide systematic government-wide evidence that ideological
factors influenced the Bush administration’s success in promoting performance information use
via PART reviews. Performance reforms often are promoted by political executives.
Understanding how the ideological gap between executives and managers matters has real
importance. While the Bush OMB promoted PART as a nonpartisan tool, ideology nonetheless
impeded the administration’s ability to promote performance management via PART reviews.
Agency-OMB interactions related to PART reviews often focused on the issue of what
constituted acceptable goals and measures (Frederickson and Frederickson 2006; Gilmour 2008).
While PART assessments provided a mechanism through which OMB could make various
programmatic and management recommendations, the majority of PART recommendations had
to do with “performance assessments, such as developing outcome measures and/or goals, and
improving data collection” (GAO 2005, 22). This was to be expected, since OMB examiners
typically did not possess in-depth management programmatic knowledge and thus were likely to
recommend their principals’ policy priorities and monitor compliance with these
recommendations. They were less able, however, to monitor other uses of performance
information by agency managers, such as the use of performance information for problem
28 solving. It is unsurprising, therefore, that managers in liberal agencies did not respond with
increased performance information use when OMB could not effectively monitor such use.
Managers in liberal agencies likely had policy preferences that differed from their political
principals on average, and, thus, were more likely to perceive performance measures influenced
by the PART review process to be invalid. For example, commenting on the sometimes
insulated and unilateral way in which OMB attempted to influence program planning, the GAO
stated that “while the PART clearly must serve the President’s interests, the many actors whose
input is critical to decisions will not likely use performance information unless they feel it is
credible and reflects a consensus” (2005, 14). Our study demonstrates how this combination of
preference disagreement and information asymmetry forms perhaps the most potent threat to
executive-led efforts to pursue performance management.
Conclusion
This study deals with a fundamental issue: how politics interacts with public
administration. The claim that politics affects administration in innumerable ways is
uncontroversial, and scholars have expended significant effort to understand better how political
principals attempt to influence administrative behavior. There has been significantly less
systematic research, however, that examines how public managers receive and affect these
attempts at administrative control. Our study provides a contribution in that it examines how
managers received and responded to PART reviews, and how they affected the implementation
of the Bush administration’s model of performance management. Like many tools of
management, performance management is often perceived to be politically neutral (Radin 2006),
and the Bush administration and the OMB expended significant effort to create and promote a
29 nonpartisan tool (Dull 2006). Yet, the results of this study lead us to question whether any
administrative reform that is identified with a political actor can be truly neutral in its design,
implementation, and impact.
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33 Table 1. Measures of Performance Information Use
Variables capture the extent to which respondents report using performance information for a particular set
of activities. Responses range from “to no extent” (0) to “to a very great extent” (4).
Variable
Activity Description
N
Mean (S.D.)
ORDINAL MEASURES
Strategy
Developing program strategy
2,572
2.54 (1.07)
Priorities
Setting program priorities
2,591
2.66 (1.05)
Resources
Allocating resources
2,543
2.62 (10.6)
Problems
Identifying program problems to be addressed
2,627
2.71 (1.04)
Correction
Taking corrective action to solve program problems
2,631
2.70 (1.06)
Processes
Adopting new program approaches or changing work
processes
2,625
2.58 (1.06)
Coordinating program efforts with other internal or
external organizations
2,579
2.46 (1.10)
2,537
2.31 (1.09)
1,868
2.17 (1.23)
Refining program performance measures
2,519
2.46 (1.11)
Setting new or revising existing performance goals
2,534
2.59 (1.10)
Expectations
Setting individual job expectations for the government
employees the respondent manages or supervises
2,568
2.70 (1.03)
Rewards
Rewarding government employees that the respondent
manages or supervises
2,556
2.66 (1.06)
Average response to all activities above
1,668
2.58 (0.87)
Average response to Priorities and Resources
2,504
2.65 (0.99)
Average response to Problems and Correction
2,613
2.71 (1.01)
Average response to Measures and Goals
2,494
2.53 (1.07)
Average response to Expectations and Rewards
2,544
2.68 (0.98)
Coordination
Sharing
Contracts
Measures
Goals
Identifying and sharing effective program approaches
with others
Developing and managing contracts
INDEXES
Overall
Program
Planning
Problem
Solving
Performance
Measurement
Employee
Management
34 Table 2. Predictor Variables
Variable
Description
IMPLEMENTATION
Whether (1) or not (0) a respondent reports any involvement in
PART
PART-related activities
N
[range]
Mean
(S.D.)
2,937
[0,1]
0.31 (0.46)
Whether (1) or not (0) the respondent works in a liberal agency
according to Clinton & Lewis (2008).
2,937
[0,1]
0.29 (0.45)
Whether (1) or not (0) the respondent works in a conservative agency
according to Clinton & Lewis (2008).
2,937
[0,1]
0.37 (0.48)
2,937
[0,1]
0.20 (0.40)
2,891
[1-4]
2.49 (1.13)
2,711
[1-5]
3.54 (1.09)
2,886
[1-5]
3.20 (1.09)
2,823
1.83(1.83)
2,904
3.57(1.21)
2,913
2.16(1.92)
2,907
1.80(1.73)
2,914
2.21(1.87)
AGENDY IDEOLOGY
Liberal
Conservative
RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS
Whether (1) or not (0) respondent is a member of the Senior
SES
Executive Service “or equivalent”
Supervisor
Yrs
# of years (from 4 ranges) respondent reports serving as a supervisor
CONTROLS
Use
Commitment
Authority
Secretary
Supervisor
OMB
Congress
Audit
Extent to which respondents agree that their “agency's top leadership
demonstrates a strong commitment to using performance information
to guide decision making.”(10H)
Extent to which respondents agree with this statement: “Agency
managers/supervisors at my level have the decision making authority
they need to help the agency accomplish its strategic goals.” (10A)
Extent to which respondents believe that the Department Secretary,
the individual they report to, the office of management and Budget,
congressional committees, or the audit community (e.g., GAO,
Inspectors General) “pay attention to their agency’s use of
performance information in management decision making”
(12A,12C,12F,12G,12H) [Ordinal range of each variable is from 0 to
5, as “not applicable” and “don’t know” were coded 0]
35 Table 3. Agencies Categorized by Perceived Ideology
The categorizations are from Clinton and Lewis (2008). Some agencies within departments (specifically,
CMS, FAA, IRS, and Forest Service) are coded in the same way as the departments in which they are
housed.
Liberal
Moderate
Conservative
AID
Forest Service
Commerce
Labor
Agriculture (Not Forest Service)
Defense
Education
General Services Administration
Justice
EPA
FEMA
Energy
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
NASA
Homeland Security (Not FEMA)
HHS (Not CMS)
Office of Personnel Management
Interior
HUD
State
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NSF
FAA
Small Business Administration
Social Security Administration
Transportation (Not FAA)
IRS
Veterans Affairs
Treasury (Not IRS)
36 Table 4. The Interactive Relationship between Ideology and PART on Information Use
The results below are from hierarchical linear models estimating the impact of PART involvement on
information use contingent on agency ideology. All dependent variables are indexes that sum activities listed
in Table 2. All models account for the random effects for 29 agencies. Significance levels are based on twotailed z-tests or chi-square tests: **p<0.05 and *p<0.10 (so that *p<0.05 for a one-tailed test).
All
Program
Problem
Performance
Employee
Activities
Planning
Solving
Measurement
Management
Fixed Effects
-0.27**
(0.13)
-0.27**
(0.12)
-0.39**
(0.11)
-0.16
(0.14)
-0.20
(0.13)
PART*Conservative
-0.01
(0.13)
-0.05
(0.12)
-0.08
(0.11)
-0.01
(0.13)
0.03
(0.12)
PART
0.30**
(0.09)
0.29**
(0.08)
0.31**
(0.08)
0.47**
(0.09)
0.11
(0.09)
Liberal
0.10
(0.10)
0.16
(0.10)
0.26**
(0.11)
0.09
(0.10)
0.07
(0.08)
Conservative
-0.02
(0.09)
0.07
(0.09)
0.05
(0.10)
0.02
(0.09)
-0.04
(0.07)
Constant
2.49**
(0.06)
2.51**
(0.07)
2.57**
(0.07)
2.36**
(0.06)
2.67**
(0.05)
0.02(0.02)
0.02(0.01)
0.00(0.01)
0.72(0.03)
1,668
21.57**
25.86**
0.01(0.02)
0.03(0.01)
-0.01(0.01)
0.95(0.03)
2,504
20.96**
30.17**
0.00(0.00)
0.04(0.01)
0.01(0.01)
0.97(0.03)
2,613
30.61**
70.52**
0.03(0.02)
0.02(0.01)
0.00(0.01)
1.07(0.03)
2,494
60.42**
30.30**
0.02(0.02)
0.01(0.01)
0.01(0.01)
0.95(0.03)
2,544
5.91
19.52**
PART*Liberal
Random Effects
var(PART)
var(constant)
cov(PART,constant)
var(residual)
N
Wald Chi2 (5)
LR vs. Linear Chi2 (3)
37 Table 5. The Interactive Relationship between Ideology and PART on Information Use
The results below are from hierarchical linear models estimating the impact of PART involvement on
information use contingent on agency ideology. All dependent variables are indexes that sum activities listed
in Table 2. All models account for the random effects for 29 agencies. Significance levels are based on twotailed z-tests or chi-square tests: **p<0.05 and *p<0.10 (so that *p<0.05 for a one-tailed test).
All
Program
Problem
Performance
Employee
Activities
Planning
Solving
Measurement
Management
Fixed Effects
-0.19**
-0.17*
-0.29**
-0.09
-0.21**
PART*Liberal
(0.09)
(0.10)
(0.09)
(0.11)
(0.10)
0.15**
0.13**
0.13**
0.26**
0.05
PART
(0.05)
(0.06)
(0.05)
(0.06)
(0.06)
0.09
0.12
0.24**
0.09
0.10
Liberal
(0.08)
(0.09)
(0.09)
(0.09)
(0.07)
2.50**
2.56**
2.61**
2.40**
2.64**
Constant
(0.04)
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.04)
Controls (centered)
SES
Supervisor Yrs
Use Commitment
Authority
Secretary
Supervisor
OMB
Congress
Audit
Random Effects
var(PART)
var(constant)
cov(PART,constant)
var(residual)
N
Wald Chi2
LR vs. Linear Chi2
0.07
(0.05)
0.01
(0.02)
0.26**
(0.02)
0.06**
(0.02)
-0.02*
(0.01)
0.20**
(0.02)
-0.02
(0.01)
0.00
(0.02)
0.03**
(0.02)
0.03
(0.05)
0.03
(0.02)
0.25**
(0.02)
0.08**
(0.02)
0.00
(0.01)
0.20**
(0.02)
-0.02
(0.01)
0.01
(0.02)
0.03**
(0.01)
0.06
(0.05)
-0.01
(0.02)
0.23**
(0.02)
0.09**
(0.02)
-0.01
(0.01)
0.20**
(0.02)
-0.04**
(0.01)
0.00
(0.02)
0.04**
(0.01)
0.21**
(0.05)
0.03
(0.02)
0.21**
(0.02)
0.13**
(0.02)
-0.01
(0.01)
0.18**
(0.02)
0.02
(0.02)
-0.01
(0.02)
0.02*
(0.02)
0.02
(0.05)
-0.01
(0.02)
0.21**
(0.02)
0.07**
(0.02)
-0.01
(0.01)
0.22**
(0.02)
-0.03*
(0.01)
0.02
(0.02)
0.01
(0.01)
0.01(0.01)
0.02(0.01)
0.00(0.01)
0.49(0.02)
1,512
684.94**
34.49**
0.01(0.01)
0.03(0.01)
-0.02(0.01)
0.71(0.02)
2,224
732.66**
44.82**
0.00(0.00)
0.04(0.01)
0.00(0.00)
0.75(0.02)
2,306
651.68**
74.32**
0.02(0.02)
0.03(0.01)
-0.01(0.01)
0.82(0.02)
2,220
650.30**
33.48**
0.02(0.02)
0.01(0.01)
0.00(0.01)
0.73(0.02)
2,259
624.71**
23.13**
38 Table 6. Involvement with PART Reviews and Perceived Impediments to Information Use
Results below are from ordered probit models estimating perceived impediments to performance management
based on managers’ involvement with PART reviews. The items are associated with the following question:
“Based on your experience with the program(s)/operation(s)/project(s) that you are involved with, to what
extent, if at all, have the following factors hindered measuring performance or using the performance
information?” Responses are coded as follows: 1=To no extent; 2=To a small extent; 3=To a moderate extent;
4=To a great extent; 5=To a very great extent. Standard errors were clustered for 29 agencies. Significance
levels are based on two-tailed z-tests: **p<0.05 and *p<0.10 (so that *p<0.05 for a one-tailed test).
Impact of PART
NOTE: When no PART involvement is
reported, there is no statistically significant
Without Controls
With Controls
difference in responses to these items
between managers in agencies associated
Moderate/
Moderate/
Liberal
Liberal
with different ideologies.
Conservative
Conservative
Difficulty determining meaningful measures
0.31(0.14)**
0.09(0.06)
0.30(0.16)*
0.07(0.08)
0.06(0.09)
-0.02(0.04)
0.12(0.14)
-0.03(0.05)
Difficulty obtaining valid or reliable data
0.29(0.14)**
0.03(0.04)
0.30(0.18)*
0.04(0.05)
Difficulty obtaining data in time to be useful
0.31(0.14)**
0.08(0.04)*
0.30(0.14)**
0.06(0.05)
Lack of incentives (e.g., rewards, positive
recognition)
0.01(0.07)
-0.11(0.06)*
0.11(0.10)
-0.02(0.06)
Difficulty resolving conflicting interests of
stakeholders, either internal or external
0.16(0.15)
-0.02(0.04)
0.23(0.14)*
0.01(0.05)
Difficulty distinguishing between the results
produced by the program and results caused
by other factors
0.36(0.14)**
0.09(0.06)
0.38(0.15)**
0.12(0.07)*
Existing information technology and/or
systems not capable of providing needed data
0.20(0.10)**
0.09(0.03)**
0.30(0.10)**
0.07(0.04)
Lack of staff who are knowledgeable about
gathering and/or analyzing performance
information
-0.04(0.10)
-0.05(0.04)
-0.02(0.12)
-0.02(0.04)
Lack of ongoing top executive commitment
or support for using performance information
to make program/funding decisions
-0.08(0.10)
-0.11(0.08)
0.08(0.15)
0.05(0.07)
Lack of ongoing Congressional commitment
or support for using performance information
to make program/funding decisions
-0.12(0.10)
0.02(0.05)
-0.10(0.10)
0.14(0.04)**
Difficulty determining how to use
performance information to improve the
program
-0.01(0.11)
-0.05(0.07)
-0.01(0.12)
-0.01(0.01)
0.42(0.09)**
0.34(0.07)**
0.43(0.11)**
0.42(0.08)**
Different parties are using different
definitions to measure performance
Concern that OMB will micromanage
programs in my agency
39