2B: The American West c1840-1895
Revision Guide, May 2012
Tactics for Approaching the Edexcel 2B The American West c1840-1895 Exam
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Know the topics inside out.
Remember that this paper is about using your knowledge to answer the
questions. There is NO way around this – you must revise these topics so
you know the major developments in this period.
- The topics we have covered include:
o Inhabitants and early settlers
o Development of the Plains
o Conflict on the Plains
- We have covered ALL aspects of the American West curriculum –
although this means there is a lot to revise the good news is that you
will have choices in the exam, so hopefully you will be able to choose
another option if a nasty question comes up in the exam.
Read the question carefully!
When you get into the exam you may want to write down everything you
know about a topic. DO NOT! Read the question carefully, make sure
that you understand it and do not begin writing until you have thought
about what information the question needs.
Make choices wisely about what questions to answer.
This exam gives you choices about what questions to answer. Study the
questions carefully, make sure you understand them and think through
how you would answer both. Only then choose which one to do.
Plan your answers
Once you have chosen your question and read it carefully, make a brief
plan about how you are going to answer it. This might only need to be 7
or 8 words, but it will make sure that you do not miss anything out and
approach it in a clear way.
Allocate time in the exam according to marks each question is worth.
Look carefully at the allocation of marks for each question. Separate
the time you will spend on each question according to the marks it is
worth. (This paper is worth 50 marks and lasts 1hr 15mins, so spend 1min
30sec on each mark). You know how much each question is worth before
going into the exam so you should already have your time planned out.
Try to use suggested formulas to answer questions.
Try to get as many of the formulas listed in ‘Dr Baker’s Ultimate Guide
to Answering the Edexcel 2B The America West Exam’ section of this
booklet into your answers (e.g. I can infer… this is because…). These are
the kinds of things that the examiner is looking for.
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Make sure your writing is legible.
If the examiner cannot read your answer, you will not get a grade.
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NEVER leave early or look around the room at the end of an exam.
If you finish early, carefully read over the exam questions and your
answers. A number of you have been 1 mark off the next grade. In many
cases adding one extra sentence will get you that grade!
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Finally, remember … you ARE ready for this exam.
If you do not get the grade we want, you can re-sit the exam later
without too much trouble. This is an opportunity for you to show-off and
to do very well – it is game time, get angry and do the best you can!
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Dr Baker’s Ultimate Guide to Answering the Edexcel 2B The American West Exam
The exam will contain six questions. The style of the questions will follow a common pattern and require
you to demonstrate the same set of skills as in the mock papers you have practiced on. As the exam
lasts for 1hr 15mins and is worth 50 marks, you should aim to spend approximately 1min 30sec per mark
on the questions you answer.
Question 1:
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Question 1 will always ask you what you can learn from one source about something.
To get full marks in this question make one inference from source and support with detail.
A good formula to use in your answer is ‘I can see… I can infer…’ or ‘I can infer… this is because…’.
The question is worth 4 marks, so aim to spend no more than 6 minutes working on it.
Question 2:
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Question 2 will give you two examples of people/events/ideas etc then ask you to choose one of the
examples and explain why it changed something, improved it, or caused it to stay the same.
The best answers will not just write everything they know about the person or the improvement, but
also make an argument about WHY it improved/changed something/stayed the same etc.
The best answers will directly answer the question, so make sure you read the question very
carefully!
A good formula is to remodel the question in your answer. So if the question is ‘How did the social
structure of tribes help the Indians survive on the Plains?’, after explaining how the social structure
of the Indians worked you could say ‘It helped the Indians survive on the Plains because…’.
The question is worth 9 marks, so aim to spend no more than 13 minutes 30 seconds working on it.
Question 3 and Question 4:
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In this exam you must answer EITHER question 3 OR question 4. Choose carefully!
They ask you to analyse something (e.g. Why was… so important?).
The questions will also give you some information to help with the answer. Do not feel you need to use
this in any way. If it does not seem relevant DO NOT use it! Students across the country often get
low grades because they have just repeated this information in their answer.
To get a high grade you need to understand the focus of the question so read it carefully.
To get a high grade you need to use accurate information to support your point of view.
To get a high grade you need to have an argument that DIRECTLY answers the question.
Again, one formula you could use is to turn the question around. So if the question was ‘Why was
there so much conflict on the Plains between the cattle ranchers and homesteaders?’ say ‘There was
so much conflict on the Plains between the cattle ranchers and homesteaders because…’.
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To access the highest grades you need to consider different perspectives / explain different
factors. In the above example you might mention cattle drives; the use of barbed wire; specific
conflicts such as the Johnson County War.
The question is worth 12 marks, so aim to spend no more than 18 minutes working on it.
Question 5 and 6:
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In this exam you must answer both parts of EITHER question 5 OR question 6. This means that both
a and b must be from the same number. Choose carefully!
Question 5/6a:
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Question 5/6a will ask you to describe or explain something.
This question is asking you to show off your knowledge – it is your job to think about what you have
learnt and include information that is RELEVANT to the focus of the question.
The question is worth 9 marks, so aim to spend no more than 13 minutes 30 seconds working on it.
Question 5/6b:
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Question 5/6b is asking for an argument! So get angry and make sure you have your own opinion.
It may give you a statement and ask if you agree; it may give you a direct question and ask for an
answer and an explanation.
You should always make a brief plan for your answer, particularly important in this one as it is worth
so many points!
The questions will also give you some information to help with the answer. Do not feel you need to use
this in any way. If it does not seem relevant DO NOT use it! Students across the country often get
low grades because they have just repeated this information in their answer.
Use factual information to support and contradict the basic idea in the question. Consider both sides
of the argument. Then come to your overall judgement about the answer.
Even if you have a very strong point of view, do not completely dismiss the other side.
The question is worth 16 marks, so aim to spend no more than 24 minutes working on it.
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Edexcel 2B The American West c1840-1895 Revision Notes
For this exam you must know this topic inside out! Read these notes in full, highlighting points you have
forgotten or that are particularly important. Then do something with information (e.g. give someone a
presentation on what the most important development was and why, summarise these notes into 2 sides
of A4, make a quiz with questions and answers then get someone to test you etc).
1. Inhabitants and Settlers
1.1
The Plains Indians: Their beliefs and way of life
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Who were the Plains Indians? Different tribes, some so large known as ‘nations’. Some allies, some
enemies, but all had adapted to life on Plains.
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Religion: The Plains Indians were very religious. Their belief in the Great Spirit directed everything
they did. Central aspects of their beliefs included:
o They were animists – they believed everything has a spirit – plants, fish etc.
o Circles were important - they believed the power of the earth moved in circles.
o They believed in the power of the land - as they believed people came from the land and went
back to the land, they did not believe land could be owned.
o It was through visions that people contacted the spirit world.
o Whole tribes could contact the spirit world through dances.
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Medicine men: important as they interpreted visions and could contact the spirits of all living things.
Looked after the health of Indians, helping to deal with evil spirits that they thought caused illness.
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Buffalo and the Indians: Plains Indians’ lives revolved around buffalo. They originally hunted them on
foot, but the introduction of horses made this easier. Once hunters brought back buffalo, the
women and children butchered it. In addition to eating buffalo, they used every part, for example:
Fur – blankets and mittens; Dung – fuel; Tongue – hairbrush.
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Horses and the Indians: In 1640 the Indians captured horses from the Spanish. They used them to
hunt buffalo, to transport their belongings and in war. Horses enabled Indian tribes to live on the
Great Plains as they were able to move around avoiding extreme weather conditions.
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How did the Indians solve the problems of living on the Great Plains?
o Homes: The tipi was a framework of wooden poles with buffalo skins stretched over them.
Flaps at the top were moved to direct wind so smoke blew away. Warm in winter, cool in
summer. Conical design meant it could withstand strong winds. It could also be moved easily.
o Indians on the move: They followed herds of buffalo. They attached two tipi poles on a horse
to form a travois that carried their belongings.
o Indian children: Taught to respect all living things. Boys learnt fighting and hunting, girls how
to make food and clothes. Both learnt how to survive on the Plains.
o Widows and old people: Approach ensured survival on the Plains. When men were killed their
wives were shared out and married to the surviving men. Old people usually volunteered to be
‘left behind’ so they did not pull the tribe back.
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How was Indian society organised? Different bands in a tribe met together in the summer.
o Chiefs and councils: Chiefs led their band and were advised by their band’s council. They
themselves formed part of the tribe’s council that advised the tribal chiefs. Chiefs rarely
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held the position for life, but came and went as their skills moved. No decision could be made
until every man at the council had agreed to it.
Warrior societies: Role to protect women and children from attack and supervise hunting,
making sure not too many buffalo were killed. The band council would always consult its
warrior society before making a decision.
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Why did Plains Indians fight? Plains Indians used warfare as a way of increasing their standing in
their tribe or band. They did NOT go to war to conquer others or to gain territory or land. Indian
warfare involved short raids, made by small groups, in order to capture horses and weapons, or for
revenge or honour. As they had to provide for their family, dying in battle was not an option.
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What was the Indian’s idea of bravery? An Indian warrior did not want to die. For Indians, bravery
was about facing up to responsibility without taking unnecessary risks that could jeopardise life.
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Counting coup: touching the enemy with a hand or a specially decorated stick was the greatest
honour a warrior could win, particularly if his enemy was alive.
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Scalping: This was one of the worst things that could happen. If your enemy had your scalp, he had
your spirit. The Plains Indians believed that if a warrior lost his scalp he could not live beyond death.
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Tribe vs. Tribe: War between tribes usually happened during the summer. Indians fought to steal
horses or to protect their hunting ground from other tribes.
1.2
Migrants and settlers in the west
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People move for a variety of reasons:
o Push factors – because life has become intolerable where they live.
o Pull factors – because of the potential the new life offers.
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Mountain men and fur trappers: The first white men to cross the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains.
They found routes thought the Rockies and Sierra Nevada that had previously been known only to
Indians. Some fought against the Indians, others – such as Jim Bridger – had a number of Indian
wives. While some mountain men may have bought comfort and support to some Indians, in general
the Indians gained little from them. Along with mountain men came firearms, alcohol, smallpox and
sexually transmitted diseases – and the beginning of the destruction of the Indian way of life.
o Mountain men and government: Government explorers were in the Rockies and the Sierra
Nevada to map and chart, not to hunt. Their interests did not clash with mountain men who
were there to hunt and trap. In fact, they often helped each other – e.g. in 1842 the mountain
man Joseph Walker guided an expedition to help the government map the Rocky Mountains.
o Jim Bridger: A mountain man – bought the Rocky Mountain Fur Company and later built a
trading post, Fort Bridger, to supply migrants on the Oregon Trail. He led wagon trains
through the Rockies, discovered new passes and worked as a guide for the army.
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Early migrants: There were a number of reasons why people moved west. For instance, an economic
depression in 1837 led to people losing jobs, while the fact men such as Jim Bridger would act as
guides through the Rockies and Sierra Nevada meant that the west became much more attractive.
o Routes: In 1843 the first wagons arrived in Oregon, in 1844 the first wagons arrived in
California. While routes quickly became established they were still very dangerous. According
to official estimates, 34,000 people died on the westward trails between 1840 and 1860.
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Making preparations: Migrants would meet in border towns and make sure they had sufficient
supplies and wagons to make the dangerous journey west. They would ensure they had people
with a variety of useful skills in the party. Most wagon trains contained at least 20 wagons.
The Donner Party: In 1846 60 wagons and 300 migrants led by Jacob and George Donner left
to go west. They were well equipped, but tried to use a shortcut to California that had not
been properly checked. The party argued about the shortcut and decided to split, with most
taking the traditional trail. The remaining party of 80 tried for the shortcut. They lost many
wagons and cattle in the desert and one man was killed in an argument. By the time they
reached the Sierra Nevada they were late, demoralised and had little food. Worse still the
snows came early in 1846. They decided to dig in for winter. Animals died, food disappeared,
and migrants quickly died of starvation. No one had the skill to hunt in the harsh environment.
A small group of 15 adults decided to go to California on foot to get help. They ended up
eating 6 of the adults. After 32 days of marching they reached help and rescue parties found
the remaining Donner party with only half the group left after the others died of starvation.
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Miners: In 1848 gold was discovered in California. By the end of 1849 there were more than 90,000
migrants there looking to get rich – the so-called ‘forty-niners’. Although gold on the surface was
quickly exhausted, small finds over the next 20 years led miners to continue to move out.
o Mining towns: Miners initially lived in shanty towns where disease spread quickly. But as
businessmen supported miners to sink and work deep mines, gold mining became a profitable
industry and permanent mining towns began to crop up, and men brought their families.
o Law and order in mining towns: The early mining towns were tough, lawless places. Claimjumping – stealing one man’s claim to a mine after gold had been discovered there – was the
most common crime and often led to murder. Far from federal law officers, miners often
setup their own courts, which administered ‘rough justice’. When professional miners moved in
law and order became more formalised. Towns chose a chairman and officers, claims to mines
had to be recorded and sheriffs were appointed. However, vigilante groups continued.
o Impact of discovery of gold: Encouraged investment in industry, wealth gave USA a leading
role in world trade and it encouraged movement west. However, also led to racial conflict, with
– for example – Chinese workers and it led to Indians in California being virtually wiped out.
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Mormons:
o Joseph Smith: In 1823 Smith claimed he had been guided by the angel Moroni to dig up golden
plates from the mountainside in Palmyra, New York State. He translated the plates and said
they told him to restore the Church of Jesus Christ in America and await Christ’s second
coming. By 1830 he had hundreds of followers called Mormons. Mormons believed in Polygamy
– that a man could have more than one wife. They were very unpopular in New York State and
were attacked on the streets. After praying for guidance they moved to Kirtland, Ohio.
o Mormons on the move:
§ Kirtland, Ohio 1831-37 – The Mormons became prosperous after buying land and
setting up farms. They soon came to outnumber non-Mormons. They also opened a bank
that collapsed in the national banking crisis of 1837. People were jealous of Mormons
and were angry that they lost their savings. The Mormons were driven out of Kirtland.
§ Missouri, 1837-38 – Bought land and became prosperous. Setup a secret police force,
the Danites. People became jealous of Mormon success and were afraid of the Danites.
Mormons were attacked. Smith was thrown in prison. The Mormons were driven out.
§ Illinous 1838-1846 – Bought land and became prosperous. Practiced polygamy.
Criticised Smith as a dictator and chose Brigham Young as leader. Mobs assaulted and
killed Mormons. Smith imprisoned and killed by a mob. Eventually made to leave.
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Brigham Young: Young’s first job as leader was to organise the move of 1,500 people 2,250 km
to Salt Lake City, Utah. To do this he divided them into manageable groups with a leader,
insisted on strict discipline, taught them to form wagons into a circle at night.
Salt Lake City: SLC not ideal for settlement - lake was salty and land too poor to grow crops.
§ Establishing SLC: The first months were hard, many died of starvation. Brigham Young
had complete control over people who obeyed him. He decided no one owned any land,
water or timber – this would be allocated fairly according to the Mormon Church. The
Mormons dug irrigation ditches from the streams supplying the salt lake and people
were given exact times when they could draw water from the main irrigation ditch.
§ Spreading beyond SLC: Brigham Young wanted Mormons to spread throughout the
surrounding area. He had the area surveyed and when appropriate areas were chosen,
ditches were dug and a group of settlers with wide ranging skills were sent out.
§ Encouraging emigration: Brigham Young set up a Perpetual Emigration Fund to provide
poor Mormons in America and Europe with the funds to make the journey to SLC. They
then had to repay this money when they got settled in Utah.
Brigham Young the Politician: For Mormons to be free from outside interference, they had to
be politically independent.
§ Step 1: In 1848 Utah became part of US territory; Brigham Young applied for the area
around the Great Salt Lake to be a state. The US government only allowed the land
territory status, under the name Utah, which meant it was run by federal officials.
§ Step 2: Brigham Young became Governor of Utah. But laws were made in Washington,
not by the Mormons.
§ Step 3: In 1857 US government sent a non-Mormon governor to Utah with soldiers to
enforce federal rule.
§ Step 4: The US government agreed to let Mormons live own lives without interference.
But Utah could not become a state until they banned polygamy, which they did in 1890.
1.3 Farming on the Plains
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Manifest Destiny: The dream that the whole of America would be settled by white Americans.
Believed this was not only right and natural, but they believed it was meant to happen.
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How was the US governed?: Territory in America was to be governed by a system that allowed states
their independence AND enabled them to work as one country. Known as a federal republic the
federal government made decisions for the whole country (e.g. to go to war), while individual states
made decisions that were deemed appropriate for the state (e.g. whether to have the death penalty).
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How did the US government help settlers?:
o Public Domain Land: Land opened up in the west was ‘public domain’, which meant no one owned
it. But US wanted all land to be owned so it was surveyed and offered for sale at $1 per acre.
Speculators moved in, bought it and sold it at a higher price – not what government wanted!
o The Homestead Act 1862: To end land speculation this Act enabled settlers to claim 160
acres of land. After five years of being entered onto an official land register, the settler
could pay $30 and get a certificate of ownership.
o The Timber and Culture Act 1873: This Act allowed a homesteader to claim a further 160
acres if he promised to plant trees on half of it.
o The Desert Land Act 1877: Gave settlers the right to buy 640 acres of land cheaply in areas
where lack of rainfall was a huge problem.
o Railroads: Government gave railroad companies land at side of the tracks they were laying.
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Homesteaders:
o Homes: Homesteaders built homes known as sod-houses from building blocks made of cut
blocks of earth. The walls were about a metre thick and the house roofed with grass. Once
built it was plastered with wet, clay-like mud.
o Women on the Plains: Main job to manage day-to-day living – keeping family warm, fed,
clothed, healthy. Homesteader’s wife collected dried cow and buffalo dung to burn as fuel.
They had home-remedies for illness and looked after each other during pregnancy. Some
women travelled to the Great Plains to teach the children of homesteaders. By insisting on
standards of behaviour and speech these teachers did a lot to make the West a more civilised
place. Finally women were also essential in building communities, making friends etc.
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Farming: The problems:
o Ploughing and sowing: The Great Plains had never been ploughed. The grasses had tangled
roots of 10cm. The ploughs homesteaders brought with them buckled and bent under strain.
o Water: An average of 38cm of rain fell on the Great Plains every year. Not enough to sustain
agriculture. A regular supply of water was needed. Old solutions were to irrigate or dig a well.
But no lakes for drainage ditches and digging wells was an expensive and uncertain business.
o Land holdings: The government’s initial allocation of 160 acres of land could not yield enough
to support a homesteader and his family.
o Crops: The homesteaders planted the crops they knew best – maize and spring wheat. But
these crops found it difficult to survive in harsh climates.
o Fencing: Homesteaders needed to make boundaries, but did not have wood for fences.
o Devastation - fire and grasshoppers: Fire could destroy an entire year of crops. Swarms of
locusts could eat entire crops.
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Farming: The solutions:
o Machinery: Mechanical reapers, binders and threshers became cheaper. Ploughs built with
steel ploughshares (known as sod-busters) that cut through ground more easily. Also came
with spare parts so they could be repaired. These new machines meant homesteaders could
cultivate more land without needing more men.
o Wind pumps: Allowed homesteaders to raise water from below – cheap and brought a steady
flow. A high powered drill got down to water. Then a wind pump was raised it to the surface.
o Barbed wire: 1874 Joseph Glidden invented barded wire - homesteaders could fence in land.
o Railroads: Meant homesteaders could get goods in and send produce to more distant markets.
o Legislation: In 1873 the Timber and Culture Act meant homesteaders could afford more land.
o New techniques and crops: Dry farming introduced, whereby homesteaders ploughed land
whenever it rained or snowed, which meant moisture would be trapped in the soil. In 1874
homesteaders began to use Turkey Red wheat, which grew well in the harsh climate.
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By 1890 the homesteaders controlled the Great Plains and had forced it to become rich and fertile.
2. Development of the Plains
2.1
The construction of the railroads
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Before the 1860s, all railroads stopped at the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Only 30 years later, a
network of railroads spanned North America.
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Why did the US government support railroad development? Enabled government to bring law and
order to the West. Allowed trade links to be made with Far East through ports in Oregon and
California. Helped fulfil Manifest Destiny, allowing migrants to reach uninhabited areas of America.
o In 1862 the Pacific Railways Act was passed, which set up two companies – the Union Pacific
Railroad Company and the Central Pacific Railroad Company. They came from the west and
east to make a line across America.
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Why did railroad companies risk building railroads across the Plains? The Risk was small. Railroad
companies accepted the US government’s offer of free land, so they did not have to pay for land to
build on. The land could be used as security for bank loans or sold to would be settlers.
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What problems were involved in railroad construction? In light of government support funding was
not a major problem, but other issues emerged:
o Land: Had to cross difficult terrain. Pushed workers to limit.
o Living and working conditions: Labourers worked in squalid conditions. Died in their hundreds.
o Labour shortages: Continual problem solved by bringng in thousands of worked from China and
labourers from Ireland.
o Indians: Concerned their hunting grounds were being taken they harassed the labourers.
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Despite problems they averaged 11km of track per day on the Great Plains.
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What
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benefits did the railroads bring?
Jobs: Building of railroads created huge variety of jobs.
Growth in industries supplying railroads: Iron, steel and timber saw tremendous growth.
Law and order: Government officials could travel country, meaning law could be enforced.
Supplies for homesteaders: Wind pumps, barbed wire, ploughs etc that were essential to
homesteaders’ survival could be brought in using railroads.
o Distribution of produce: Agricultural produce could be supplied to more distant markets,
meaning farming was more prosperous. Also allowed for a thriving cattle industry to develop.
o Contact: Contact between families in west and east made much easier.
o Aided new settlement: New settlers could reach areas much more easily.
2.2
Indians and the railroads: The railroads had a devastating impact on Plains Indians.
Freedom to roam Great Plains hunting buffalo was severely hampered.
Brought goods to homesteaders and ranchers which allowed them to flourish.
Homesteaders and ranchers fenced in lands which meant days of open prairie were gone.
Buffalo hunting became a sport. Special excursion trains took hunters onto the Plains to kill
buffalo that the Plains Indians relied on.
Cattlemen and cowboys
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The Cowboy’s equipment: The hat (Stetson) protected cowboy from extremes in weather; the
bandana was worn around the neck and used as a mask; the lasso was used to catch cattle; the chaps
were worn over trousers to protect cowboys from thorns and chafing.
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Beginnings of the Cattle Industry: An early cattle industry had started in Texas before American
Civil War. During conflict cattle ranchers went off to fight, when they returned the herds had bred
and were running wild. There were about 5 million longhorn cattle roaming the grasslands of Texas.
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Establishing trails: The returning cattlemen knew they could get $40 a head of cattle in cities in the
North, ten times what they could get in Texas. So began the establishment of trails to the North.
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The Goodnight-Loving Trail: On returning home to Texas after the Civil War Charles Goodnight had a
different idea. He teamed up with Oliver Loving, a cattle drover, to take 2,000 cattle to Fort
Sumner, where US troops were holding Indians captive who were on the brink of starvation. This
worked and so he began a profitable career supplying the US army and Indian reservations with beef.
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Problems with Cattle Trails: Armed mobs attacked cattlemen believing their longhorn carried a
deadly tick; rustlers tried to steal cattle; hostile Indians; difficulty in reaching remote destinations.
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Joseph McCoy and Abilene: Setup the first cow town in the west, which meant cattlemen only had to
get cows to Abilene, where they would sell them and buyer would transport them east using railroads.
Nearly 1.5 million head of cattle passed through the town every year between 1867 and 1881. As
railroads moved westwards, new cow towns emerged. Everyone prospered.
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Why did cattle drives end? Homesteaders’ farms began to block the trails; the Fort Laramie Treaty
of 1868 meant Indians could charge cowboys to take cattle over their lands; cattlemen began to
believe it would be easier to raise cattle on Plains instead of driving them over it.
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John Illiff: An entrepreneur who became first cattleman to graze cattle on the Plains. Experimented
with breeding and produced cows that had sweeter meat than the longhorns. Used newly invented
refrigerated railroad cars which meant cattle could be slaughtered before being transported.
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What was the ‘open range’? Unfenced land that was claimed, but now owned, by the ranchers. Every
rancher had rights to reserve a waterhole or a stream. As the land was unfenced, cattle were
branded to show who they belonged to.
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Bust: Three main factors were responsible for ending the boom period:
o Overstocking – As cattle prices rose, ranchers put more and more cows on the open range,
putting pressure on grass. Made worse when price of cattle fell.
o Demand – In eastern states, beef was so readily available that shops lowered prices to sell
the meat they had bought. Some ranchers sold up, which reduced prices further.
o Climate – Cold winter of 1885 and hot summer of 1886 destroyed grass and streams dried.
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A new way of ranching: It now seemed sensible to create smaller units of higher quality meat.
Ranchers fenced in land using barbed wire. Wind pumps meant ranchers could take pump to herd.
They were therefore much less dependent on weather. Smaller units were also more manageable.
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What was the life of a cowboy like? Cowboys were mostly young men. Many were former soldiers
desperate for work. They were usually single and were hard living men.
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Trails and drives – organisation: Cowboys rounded up cattle in spring. Each cowboy had a specific job
so animals did now wander off and the drive was kept up to speed. Cowboys moved herd fast at start
then slowed to 20km a day so they would be fat for market.
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Trails and drives – dangers and problems:
o Stampedes
o Wildlife – e.g. wolves and snakes.
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Water – rivers had to be crossed and quicksand was a drowning hazard.
Indians could be aggressive or try to steal cows.
Night – cows had to be guarded.
Ranching: Changed life of a cowboy. Still rounded up cattle, branded them and took them to market.
But also ‘walked the line’ patrolling edge of range. Lives were more comfortable and rules were made
– e.g. bans on drinking and gambling. Their jobs became more mundane and predictable.
2.3
Establishing law and order: Problems and solutions
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Why was
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the West such a violent place in the early days?
Travel to and in the West was slow and difficult. Sheriffs could not move around quickly.
New mining tows and cow towns sprang up quickly – not enough trained officers for them.
There were many potential causes of conflict between people following different
occupations on the same land – e.g. cattlemen and homesteaders.
o There were many potential sources of conflict between different ethnic groups.
o The West was dominated by a rugged individualism – everyone believed they should look
after themselves and sort out their own problems.
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What crimes were committed in the West?
o Bank robbery – such as those committed by the James Younger gang, led by Jesse James.
o Cattle rustling – herds of cattle roaming the Great Plains were easy targets.
o Claim jumping – late arrivals on gold fields stole land from those who had staked a claim.
o Fence cutting – homesteaders would cut wire fences of large ranches to get to waterholes.
o Racial attacks – most frequently targeted were the Chinese.
o Trail robbery – the US army tried to provide protection by creating forts along trails.
o Train robbery – easy as tracks ran for miles across open plains far from towns.
•
How violent were the cow towns?: Gangs of cowboys eager to let off steam after long drives created
chaos and cow towns often had appalling reputations. However, regulations quickly put in place against
the carrying of guns in cow towns and between 1870 and 1885 only 39 men died from gunshot wounds.
•
Famous lawbreakers:
o Belle Starr (1848-1889): Planned and carried out robberies. First woman in the West to be
charged with horse theft and served a 5 year sentence. Shot in back in 1889.
o Billy the Kid (1859-1881): Involved in crime from an early age, Billy the Kid joined the
famous gang, the Regulators. Later formed a gang that specialised in cattle stealing.
Eventually hunted down by Pat Garrett who killed him in a shoot-out.
o Jesse James (1847-1882): At the end of the Civil War joined a gang that specialised in
robbing banks, trains and stage-coaches. Killed about a dozen people in the process.
Managed to escape when a bank robbery went wrong. After a reward was offered, James
was murdered by one of his own gang!
•
Vigilante Committees: Many communities sprang up in advance of ‘official’ law enforcers getting
there. Once a vigilante committee had identified someone they suspected of committing a crime,
they inflicted punishment by lynching or running the suspects out of town.
•
How was law and order enforced? In the 1860s most lands in the American West were federal lands,
which meant that they were governed directly by the federal government in Washington DC. It was
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their responsibility to send law officers into the towns and counties of the federal territories. As
they became states, law officers had to enforce federal law and state law.
o US Marshals: Appointed by the president to be in charge of a state or a territory.
o Deputy Marshals: Assigned to specific towns and counties in the federal territories.
o Town Marshals: Appoints by townspeople on a yearly basis.
o Sheriffs: Appointed in the counties for a two-year period of office.
•
What happened when suspected criminals were caught? Thrown in jail until they could be tried.
Federal judges were appointed by the President – three to each territory – to try cases. But had to
travel around the territory, which meant accused people often had to wait for months for justice.
•
Famous law enforcers:
o William Tilghman (1854-1924): Became deputy sheriff and later marshal of Dodge City.
Known as being honest and crafty, pursuing criminals relentlessly, using disguises and
tricks. Moved to Oklahoma in 1889 and worked as a deputy US marshal - helped wipe out
organised crime in Oklahoma. Paid more reward money than any other lawman in the West.
o Wyatt Earp (1848-1929): After being involved in petty crime, held law enforcement
positions in Dodge City. Later became ‘special deputy policeman’ in Tombstone, Arizona.
Involved in a shoot out with two other families, which he won and after a lengthy courtcase declared he was justified in his actions. However, his control of Tombstone weakened
and he eventually fled the area and lived out his life as a petty criminal.
•
The Johnson County War: In 1892 a part of Wyoming known as Johnson County saw a bloody war
breakout between cattlemen and homesteaders.
o Why did cattlemen and homesteaders clash? Cattlemen setup Wyoming Stock Growers
Association to ensure financial policy and laws passed served their interests. Mid 1880s
was a disastrous year for cattlemen and homesteaders began taking over land from
bankrupt ranchers. But the conflict sparked due to cattle rustling.
o Who was rustling cattle? The Wyoming Stock Growers Association believed homesteaders
were rustling cattle. Ella Watson, a local prostitute, and Jim Averill, who wrote a letter
denouncing cattlemen, were hung by cattlemen in July 1889. But rustling continued, so the
Wyoming Stock Growers Association hired 50 gunmen called ‘the Regulators’ to shoot
troublemakers. In return the small ranch owners and homesteaders established the rival
Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association.
o From Murder to War: In 1892 the Wyoming Stock Growers Association created a list of
70 people suspected of cattle rustling and planned an invasion of Johnson County, this was
known by the Governor of Wyoming. 22 extra gunmen hired to supplement the Regulators.
o Invasion: In April 1892 invasion force moved in. But they were held up at the KC ranch for
a day. Word reached Red Angus the Sheriff of Johnson County, who quickly raised a force
of 300 men and besieged the invaders until the US 6th Cavalry arrived and saved them.
o Who won? Although defeated cattle ranchers were not convicted their actions were
condemned and organisations such as the Wyoming Stock Growers Association were never
allowed to hold so much power again.
3. Conflict on the Plains
3.1
Conflict between settlers and Plains Indians: the Indian Wars
•
The Fort Laramie Treaty 1851: The Indians were given lands – they believed forever – along the
foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The government promised to protect them and pay the tribes
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$50,000 a year for 10 years. In return the Indians agreed to stop attacking travellers along the
Oregon Trail and to allow the government to build roads and military posts. This policy became known
as ‘concentration’ because the Indians were concentrated in specific areas.
•
The Fort Wise Treaty 1861: In 1859, gold discovered in Rocky Mountains. White men filled Indian
lands forgetting about the agreements that had been made. The railroad companies demanded
removal of Indians and buffalo from planned routes for railroads. Both Arapaho and Cheyenne began
serious attacks on railroad surveyors and travellers. In 1861 the government forced tribal chiefs to
abandon Fort Laramie Treaty and gave them a small reservation in eastern Colorado instead. But the
Indian chiefs had no power to force their people to accept this. Many warriors went on the warpath.
•
Indian War 1 - Little Crow’s War 1862: Little Crow and his tribe of Santee Sioux lived on a
reservation where crops had failed and promised food had not arrived. 12,000 Santee faced
starvation. In August 1862 the Santee took all the food and provisions from the Agency (an
organisation setup by the government to run the reservation) and distributed it amongst starving
tribes people before burning buildings to the ground. They then attack 45 soldiers coming to deal
with incident. By October 2,000 Santee had captured or surrendered. The tribe was moved onto a
smaller reservation with barren land and water unfit for drinking.
•
Indian War 2 - The Sand Creek Massacre 1864: Starving Cheyenne Indians attacked wagon trains.
They took only food, leaving travellers unharmed. Their leader, Black Kettle, went to negotiate an
agreement, believing he was under army protection. On 29 November 1864 Colonel Chivington led a
dawn raid on Black Kettle’s camp, massacring 450 men, women, children and babies, even though they
were waving white flags. Chivington was condemned by white men and Indians and in October 1865 in
return for giving up violence and land claims, the Cheyenne were given money and land in Oklahoma.
•
Indian War 3 – Red Cloud’s War 1865-1868: Discovery of gold in Montana led to development of the
Bozeman Trail between the new gold fields and the Oregon Trail. But Bozeman Trail ran through the
hunting grounds of the Sioux, breaking the Fort Laramie Treaty. The Indians, led by Red Cloud,
began attacking travellers along the Bozeman Trail. After failed peace talks in December 1866,
Captain William Fetterman and a group of 80 soldiers rode into a trap laid by the Sioux and were
killed. The Indians then surrounded Fort Kearney with armed warriors, leading to a stalemate.
o Why was Red Cloud successful? United tribes and got them to fight through winter.
o How was the stalemate resolved? In March 1867 the US government set up a peace
commission to try to solve Indian problem. They decided the only way was to split the
tribes and to put them into reservations.
o The Fort Laramie Treaty 1868: US government abandoned 3 forts and Bozeman Trail. Red
Cloud agreed to take his people to a reservation in Dakota. He believed he had won.
o Were small reservations the answer? Many Indians, particularly young braves, could not
settle on small reservations where their nomadic life was over. No one could suspect the
white men would soon want the Black Hills of Dakota.
•
Indian War 4 - The Great Sioux War 1876-77: Began in Black Hills of Dakota, which Fort Laramie
Treaty had forbidden whites to prospect in.
o Why did the Sioux go on the warpath? In 1864 General Custer led an expedition to Black
Hills to look for gold and found it. Within six months Black Hills were swarming with
prospectors staking claim to land owned by the Sioux. The US government offered to buy
Black Hills, but Indians refused offer. In December 1875 government ordered Sioux to
return to their reservation in 60 days or they would be considered hostile. Deep snows
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o
made it impossible for all Indians to comply, they began to build temporary shelters and
prepare for war. Sitting Bull had vision that the Indians would have a great victory.
The Battle of Little Big Horn 1876:
• Sitting Bull was successful in wiping out an army camp by Rosebud River.
• Using Indian scouts the US army believed they knew where the Indian army was
and ordered Colonel John Gibbon to take infantry and attack from north and
General Custer with his cavalry to attack from the south in a combined effort.
• On 25 June Custer’s scouts spotted Indian camp. Despite being told that they did
not have enough bullets to kill all the Indians, Custer ordered the attack.
• Custer split his men to surround Indians. Things went badly from the start and
Custer’s other companies were delayed, so could not surround Indians. As a result,
despite fighting bravely, all of Custer’s 225 men were killed by the Indians. Most
had been disfigured and scalped, with the exception of Custer himself.
3.2 Change of Policy from 1876: Destruction of the Native American Way of Life
•
The Battle of Little Big Horn: Beginning of the end of the Indians way of life?: The defeat of Custer
was greeted with shock. Until this point public opinion had largely been behind trying to reach a
settlement with the Indians – all this changed! New forts were built, army reinforcements sent west,
the Cheyenne and Sioux were pursued relentlessly, forced back into their reservations, made to sell
Black Hills, had weapons and horses confiscated and were forced to live under military rule!
•
What was the role of the army in the destruction of the Indian’s way of life? It was by no means
obvious in the mid 1800s that the army would win.
o How did the army use the Indians? They recruited spies (called scouts) from tribes
hostile to the Sioux, who gave invaluable information about positions, battle tactics and
the land on which they were fighting. The fact that the Indians could not put aside their
differences fed into the hands of the army – a united force could have been a big threat!
o How important were forts? The army used forts as bases to patrol trails and attack
troublesome Indians. The Indians never managed to capture a fort. Forts took the army
deep into Indian territory and provided them with safety if they needed it.
o What about weaponry? Indians tended to fight with traditional weapons, while the army
had the latest guns as well as artillery and Gatling guns (an early type of machine gun).
o How did the army’s tactics help them to win?
§ Total war was waged on the Indians – meaning women and children were targeted
too. They were not killed directly, but tipis and belongings were destroyed meaning
they could not survive on Plains and either had to move into reservations or starve.
§ Winter campaigns were new and very successful.
•
What was the role of the railroads in the destruction of the Indians’ way of life? The actual building
of the railroads hit the Plains Indians hard, and then what the railroads brought on to the Plains
completed the destruction of their way of life. For example:
o They crossed the traditional hunting grounds of the Plains Indians.
o The railroads brought homesteaders and equipment they needed to survive onto the Plains.
o Tourists were brought onto the Plains by railroad for buffalo hunts.
o Railroads enabled soldiers to be moved quickly over the Plains.
•
How did the government help destroy the Plains Indians’ way of life? Government action during this
period was underpinned by a belief in ‘manifest destiny’, in which the Plains Indians had no part unless
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they were prepared to adapt to live like white Americans. The government tried to work with the
Indians through treaties, but these were broken because of pressure from miners, settlers, railroad
builders and the army. The government backed the army’s tactics and of course funded it. It was the
government who came up with the idea of reservations.
o The Dawes Act 1887: Motivated by a belief that if Indians were to behave like white men,
then they needed land to farm. It divided reservations into farms of 160 acres for each
adult and 80 acres for each child. Remaining land on reservations was sold to white
settlers. But many Indians sold their land to white men at a tiny cost. More Indians
became dependent on white people for food and shelter.
o The Oklahoma land race 1889: As Indians did not want land to farm their remaining
territory 2 million acres were opened up to white settlers.
3.3
Changes to Native American culture by 1890: life on reservations
•
By 1890 white men had won, the Indians had been cleared from hunting grounds and their lands
claimed and settled. The dream of ‘manifest destiny’ had been achieved. All that remained was for
the US government to control the remaining Indians.
•
How were reservations used to control the Indians? Reservations were intended to keep Indians
contained and away from the homesteaders and ranchers. Government appointed Indian agents saw
that the reservations were run properly.
o Took away the power of the tribal chiefs – After various moves to end power of tribal
chiefs, in 1885 US federal law courts would keep law and order among the Indians on their
reservations and punish any wrongdoers. The Indians had lost all ability to rule themselves.
o Taking away their children – Boys and girls taken off the reservations and sent to school.
If families refused their food rations were taken away until they agreed. Once in school,
the children lived and learned under military-style conditions. Punished if they spoke their
own language, they were taught to have no respect for their traditional way of life.
o Taking away their skills – They could not roam the Great Plains and they could not hunt.
The economic foundations of their society had been destroyed. They were expected to
turn themselves into farmers, but the skills they had were the skills of hunting and
fighting, not ploughing, sowing and reaping. For some Indian nations such as the Pawnee,
the change was not so dramatic because they were farmers as well as hunters.
o Taking away their religion – US government banned Indian feasts, dances and ceremonies
on reservations. This undermined the power of the medicine man in tribes. This gap was
filled by the arrival of Christian missionaries, with the aim of ‘civilising’ the Indians.
o The role of government agents – Government agents, who were supposed to be looking
after the interests of the reservation Indians, were frequently corrupt or, at the very
least, ran scams on the side.
•
Control by the destruction of the buffalo? It has been estimated that in 1840 there were around 13
million buffalo on the Great Plains, by 1885 there were about 200 left.
o Were the railroads to blame? Railroads brought tourists in special excursion trains onto
the Great Plains especially to shoot buffalo for sport. Buffalo hunters were employed by
the railroad companies to kill buffalo in order to keep their construction workers supplied
with fresh meat.
o Was industry to blame? In 1871 a tannery in the eastern states invented a process
whereby high-grade leather could be made from buffalo hides. The price of buffalo hides
shot up, and thousands and thousands of animals were killed.
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o
•
Who was behind the buffalo slaughter? When the US government setup reservations for
Indians, the Indians were allowed to leave them to hunt buffalo. However, by late 1860s
US government policy had changed. Indians on reservations had to learn to live like white
people and were forbidden to follow their traditions, including buffalo hunting. Getting rid
of the buffalo helped the government and buffalo hunters were praised by the army and
the government.
The Battle of Wounded Knee: the final tragedy: By 1890 attitude amongst Indians on reservations
was one of disillusionment and despair. Heightened by a government-imposed cut on Sioux rations and
a drought in the summer of 1890 that led to a failure of Sioux crops.
o What was the importance of the Ghost Dance? A Paiute Indian, Wovoka, claimed to have
had a vision telling him that all Indians everywhere had to keep dancing. The Ghost Dance
quickly spread through the reservations. Indian agents became worried about this dance,
particularly when dancers held rifles above their heads. The army was ordered into
reservations to take control. Chief Sitting Bull, one of the Chiefs supporting the Ghost
Dance, was shot dead in a botched attempt to arrest him.
o The Battle of Wounded Knee, 29 December 1890: Sitting Bull’s followers joined with the
band of Big Foot. Big Foot had already fled with his band of 120 men and 230 women and
children. In the harsh winter conditions the Indians were in a bad way when the 7th
Cavalry caught up with them. They were taken under armed guard to Wounded Knee Creek,
where they began to be disarmed. They began to dance and in the confusion the 7th
Cavalry opened fire. In 10 minutes 250 Indians and 25 soldiers lay dead.
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