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Projectile motion
∗
Sunil Kumar Singh
This work is produced by OpenStax-CNX and licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution License 2.0†
Abstract
A projectile motion involves two components of motion vertical and horizontal. Characteristically,
motion in one direction is independent of motion in another direction.
Projectile motion is a special case of two dimensional motion with constant acceleration.
Here, force
due to gravity moderates linear motion of an object thrown at certain angle to the vertical direction. The
resulting acceleration is a constant, which is always directed in vertically downward direction.
The projectile motion emphasizes one important aspect of constant acceleration that even constant
acceleration, which is essentially unidirectional, is capable to produce two dimensional motion. The basic
reason is that force and initial velocity of the object are not along the same direction. The linear motion
of the projected object is continuously worked upon by the gravity, which results in the change of both
magnitude and direction of the velocity. A change in direction of the velocity ensures that motion is not one
dimensional.
The change in magnitude and direction of the velocity is beautifully managed so that time rate of change
in velocity is always directed in vertically downward direction i.e. in the direction of gravity. This aspect
is shown qualitatively for the motion in the gure below as velocity change successively at the end of every
second from
v1
to
v2
to
v3
and so on. . ... by exactly a vector, whose magnitude is equal to acceleration due
to gravity g.
∗ Version
1.12: Nov 11, 2008 7:56 am -0600
† http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
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Projectile motion
Figure 1: Velocity of the projectile changes by acceleration vector in unit time.
1 Force(s) in projectile motion
Flight of base ball, golf ball etc. are examples of projectile motion. In these cases, the projectile is projected
with certain force at certain angle to vertical direction. The force that initiates motion is a contact force.
Once the motion of the ball is initiated, the role of contact force is over. It does not subsequently aect or
change the velocity of the ball as the contact is lost.
In order to emphasize, we restate three important facts about projectile motion. First, we need to apply
force at the time of projection. This force as applied by hand or by any other mechanical device, accelerates
projectile briey till it is in contact with "thrower". The moment the projectile is physically disconnected
with the throwing device, it moves with a velocity, which it gained during brief contact period. The role of
force responsible for imparting motion is over. Second, motion of projectile is maintained if there is no net
external force (Newton's laws of motion). This would be the case for projection in force free space. The
projectile is initiated into the motion with certain initial velocity, say
u.
Had there been no other force(s),
then the ball would have moved along the dotted straight line (as shown in gure below) and might have
been lost in to the space.
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Projectile motion
Figure 2: Path of a projectile projected at an angle with horizontal direction.
Third, the projectile, once out in the space, is acted upon by the force due to gravity and air resistance.
We, however, neglect the eect of air resistance for the time being and conne our study of the motion which
is aected by force due to gravity acting downwards. The motion or velocity of projectile is then moderated
i.e. accelerated (here, acceleration means change of speed or change of direction or both) by gravity. This
is the only force. Hence, acceleration due to gravity is the only acceleration involved in the motion. This
downward acceleration is a constant and is the acceleration in any projectile motion near Earth, which is
not propelled or dragged.
2 Analysis of projectile motion
There is a very useful aspect of two dimensional motion that can be used with great eect. Two dimensional
motion can be resolved in to two linear motions in two mutually perpendicular directions : (i) one along
horizontal direction and (ii) the other along vertical direction.
The linear motion in each direction can,
then, be analyzed with the help of equivalent scalar system, in which signs of the attributes of the motion
represent direction.
We can analyze the projectile motion with the help of equations of motion. As the motion occurs in two
dimensions, we need to use vector equations and interpret them either graphically or algebraically as per the
vector rules. We know that algebraic methods consisting of component vectors render vectors analysis in
relatively simpler way. Still, vector algebra requires certain level of skills to manipulate vector components
in two directions.
In the nutshell, the study of projectile motion is equivalent to two independent linear motions.
This
paradigm simplies the analysis of projectile motion a great deal. Moreover, this equivalent construct is not
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merely a mathematical construct, but is a physically veriable fact. The motions in vertical and horizontal
directions are indeed independent of each other.
To illustrate this, let us consider the ight of two identical balls, which are initiated in motion at the
same time. One ball is dropped vertically and another is projected in horizontal direction with some nite
velocity from the same height. It is found that both balls reach the ground at the same time and also their
elevations above the ground are same at all times during the motion.
Projectile motion
Figure 3: Comparing vertical and projectile motion
The fact that two balls reach the ground simultaneously and that their elevations from the ground during
the motion at all times are same, point to the important aspect of the motion that vertical motion in either
of the two motions are identical. This implies that the horizontal motion of the second ball does not interfere
with its vertical motion. By extension, we can also say that the vertical motion of the second ball does not
interfere with its horizontal motion.
3 Projectile motion and equations of motion
Here, we describe the projectile motion with the help of a two dimensional rectangular coordinate system
such that (This not not a requirement. One can choose reference coordinate system to one's convenience):
•
•
•
Origin of the coordinate system coincides with point of projection.
The x axis represents horizontal direction.
The y axis represents vertical direction.
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3.1 Initial velocity
Let us consider that the projectile is thrown with a velocity u at an angle
θ
from the horizontal direction
as shown in the gure. The component of initial velocity in the two directions are :
ux = ucosθ
uy = usinθ
(1)
Projectile motion
Figure 4: Component projection velocities in x and y directions
3.2 Equations of motion in vertical direction
Motion in vertical direction is moderated by the constant force due to gravity. This motion, therefore, is
described by one dimensional equations of motion for constant acceleration.
3.2.1 Velocity
The velocity in the vertical direction is given by :
vy = uy − gt
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(2)
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An inspection of equation - 2 reveals that this equation can be used to determine velocity in vertical
direction at a given time t or to determine time of ight t, if nal vertical velocity is given. This assumes
importance as we shall see that nal vertical velocity at the maximum height becomes zero.
Projectile motion
Figure 5: Vertical component of velocity during motion
The equation for velocity further reveals that the magnitude of velocity is reduced by an amount gt after
a time interval of t during upward motion. The projectile is decelerated in this part of motion (velocity
and acceleration are in opposite direction).
The reduction in the magnitude of velocity with time means
that it becomes zero corresponding to a particular value of t. The vertical elevation corresponding to the
position, when projectile stops, is maximum height that projectile attains. For this situation (
vy
= 0), the
time of ight t is obtained as :
vy = uy − gt
⇒ 0 = uy − gt
⇒ t =
(3)
uy
g
Immediately thereafter, projectile is accelerated in vertically downward direction with increasing speed.
In order to appreciate variation of speed and velocity during projectile motion, we calculate the values of a
projectile for successive seconds, which is projected with an initial velocity of 60 m/s making an angle of
with the horizontal. Here, vertical component of velocity is 60 sin
30
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0
" i.e. 30 m/s.
300
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Time
gt
Velocity
Magnitude of velocity
(s)
(m/s)
(m/s)
(m/s)
-------------------------------------------------------0
0
30
30
1
10
20
20
2
20
10
10
3
30
0
0
4
40
-10
10
5
50
-20
20
6
60
-30
30
-------------------------------------------------------Above table substantiate the observations made earlier. The magnitude of vertical velocity of the projectile rst decreases during upward ight; becomes zero at maximum height; and, thereafter, picks up at
the same rate during downward ight.
It is also seen from the data that each of the magnitude of vertical velocity during upward motion is
regained during downward motion. In terms of velocity, for every vertical velocity there is a corresponding
vertical velocity of equal magnitude, but opposite in direction.
The velocity time plot of the motion is a straight line with negative slope. The negative slope here
indicates that acceleration i.e acceleration due to gravity is directed in the opposite direction to that of
positive y- direction.
Velocity time plot
Figure 6: The velocity time plot for constant acceleration in vertical direction
From the plot, we see that velocity is positive and acceleration is negative for upward journey, indicating
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deceleration i.e. decrease in speed.
The time to reach maximum height in this case is :
⇒ t =
uy
g
=
30
10
= 3s
The data in the table conrms this. Further, we know that vertical motion is independent of horizontal
motion and time of ight for vertical motion is equal for upward and downward journey. This means that
total time of ight is 2t i.e. 2x3 = 6 seconds. We must, however, be careful to emphasize that this result
holds if the point of projection and point of return to the surface are on same horizontal level.
Projectile motion
Figure 7: Initial and nal velocities are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
There is yet another interesting feature that can be drawn from the data set. The magnitude of vertical
velocity of the projectile (30 m/s) at the time it hits the surface on return is equal to that at the time of the
start of the motion. In terms of velocity, the nal vertical velocity at the time of return is inverted initial
velocity.
3.2.2 Displacement
The displacement in vertical direction is given by :
y = uy t −
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1 2
2 gt
(4)
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Projectile motion
Figure 8: Vertical displacement at a given time
This equation gives vertical position or displacement at a given time. It is important to realize that we
have simplied the equation
∆ y = y2 − y1 = uy t −
1 2
2 gt by selecting origin to coincide by the point of
projection so that,
∆ y = y2 − y1 = y ( say )
Thus, y with this simplication represents position or displacement.
The equation for position or displacement is a quadratic equation in time t. It means that solution of
this equation yields two values of time for every value of vertical position or displacement. This interpretation
is in ne agreement with the motion as projectile retraces all vertical displacement as shown in the gure.
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Projectile motion
Figure 9: All vertical displacement is achieved twice by the projectile except the point of maximum
height.
3.2.3 Time of ight
The time taken to complete the journey from the point of projection to the point of return is the time of the
ight for the projectile. In case initial and nal points of the journey are on the same horizontal level, then
the net displacement in vertical direction is zero i.e. y = 0. This condition allows us to determine the total
time of ight T as :
1
2
2 gT
= uy T − 12 gT 2
uy − 12 gT
=
2uy
= 0 or T = g
y = uy T −
⇒ 0
⇒ T
⇒ T
0
T = 0 corresponds to the time of projection. Hence neglecting the rst value, the time of ight is :
⇒ T =
2uy
g
(5)
We see that total time of ight is twice the time projectile takes to reach the maximum height. It means
that projectile takes equal times in "up" and "down" motion. In other words, time of ascent equals time of
descent.
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Example 1
Problem :
11
A ball is thrown upwards with a speed of 10 m/s making an angle 30
◦
with horizontal
and returning to ground on same horizontal level. Find (i) time of ight and (ii) and time to reach
the maximum height
Solution :
Here, component of initial velocity in vertical direction is :
uy = usinθ = 10sin30 ◦ = 10 x
1
2
= 5m / s
(i) The time of ight, T, is :
⇒ T =
2uy
g
= 2x
5
10
= 1s
(ii) Time to reach the maximum height is half of the total ight when starting and end points
of the projectile motion are at same horizontal level. Hence, the time to reach the maximum height
is 0.5 s.
3.3 Equations of motion in horizontal direction
The force due to gravity has no component in horizontal direction. Since gravity is the only force acting on
the projectile, this means that the motion in horizontal direction is not accelerated. Therefore, the motion
in horizontal direction is an uniform motion. This implies that the component of velocity in x-direction is
constant. As such, the position or displacement in x-direction at a given time t is :
x = ux t
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(6)
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Projectile motion
Figure 10: Horizontal displacement at a given time
This equation gives the value of horizontal position or displacement at any given instant.
3.4 Displacement of projectile
The displacement of projectile is obtained by vector addition of displacements in x and y direction. The
magnitude of displacement of the projectile from the origin at any given instant is :
Displacement, OP =
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p
( x2 + y 2 )
(7)
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Displacement in projectile motion
Figure 11
The angle that displacement vector subtends on x-axis is :
tanα =
y
x
(8)
3.5 Velocity of projectile
The velocity of projectile is obtained by vector addition of velocities in x and y direction. Since component
velocities are mutually perpendicular to each other, we can nd magnitude of velocity of the projectile at
any given instant, applying Pythagoras theorem :
v =
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p
( vx 2 + v y 2 )
(9)
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Velocity of a projectile
Figure 12
The angle that the resultant velocity subtends on x-axis is :
tanβ =
Example 2
Problem :
vy
vx
(10)
A ball is projected upwards with a velocity of 60 m/s at an angle 60
◦
to the vertical.
Find the velocity of the projectile after 1 second.
Solution :
In order to nd velocity of the projectile, we need to know the velocity in vertical
and horizontal direction. Now, initial velocities in the two directions are (Note that the angle of
projection is given in relation to vertical direction.):
ux = usinθ = 60sin60 ◦ = 60 x
uy = ucosθ = 60cos60 ◦ = 60 x
√
3
2
1
2
√
= 30 3 m / s
= 30 m / s
Now, velocity in horizontal direction is constant as there is no component of acceleration in this
direction. Hence, velocity after "1" second is :
√
vx = ux = 30 3 m / s
On the other hand, the velocity in vertical direction is obtained, using equation of motion as :
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vy = uy − gt
⇒ vy = 30 − 10 x 1
⇒ vy = 20 m / s
The resultant velocity, v, is given by :
p
( v x 2 + vy 2 )
q
p
√ 2
2
{ 30 3
+ ( 20 ) } =
( 900 x 3 + 400 ) = 55.68 m / s
⇒ v =
v =
3.6 Equation of the path of projectile
Equation of projectile path is a relationship between x and y. The x and y coordinates are given by
equations,
y = uy t −
1 2
2 gt
x = ux t
Eliminating t from two equations, we have :
y =
uy x
ux
−
gx2
2ux 2
(11)
For a given initial velocity and angle of projection, the equation reduces to the form of
, where A and B are constants.
The equation of y in x is the equation of parabola.
of the projectile motion is a parabola.
ucosθanduy = usinθ
y = Ax + Bx2
Hence, path
Also, putting expressions for initial velocity components
ux
=
, we have :
⇒ y =
( usinθ ) x
ucosθ
⇒ y = xtanθ −
gx2
2u2 cos2 θ
gx2
2u2 cos2 θ
(12)
gx2 sec2 θ
2u2
(13)
−
Some other forms of the equation of projectile are :
⇒ y = xtanθ −
⇒ y = xtanθ −
gx2
1 + tan2 θ
2u2
(14)
4 Exercises
Exercise 1
i
A projectile with initial velocity 2 +
(Solution on p. 19.)
j is thrown in air (neglect air resistance).
projectile before striking the ground is (consider g = 10
(a) i + 2j (b) 2i j (c) i 2j (d) 2i 2j
Exercise 2
m / s2
(Solution on p. 19.)
Which of the following quantities remain unaltered during projectile motion :
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The velocity of the
) :
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(a) vertical component of velocity and vertical component of acceleration
(b) horizontal component of velocity and horizontal component of acceleration
(c) vertical component of velocity and horizontal component of acceleration
(d) horizontal component of velocity and vertical component of acceleration
Exercise 3
(Solution on p. 19.)
Motion of a projectile is described in a coordinate system, where horizontal and vertical directions
i
of the projectile correspond to x and y axes. At a given instant, the velocity of the projectile is 2
+ 3
j m/s.
Then, we can conclude that :
(a) the projectile has just started its motion
(b) the projectile is about to hit the ground
(c) the projectile is descending from the maximum height
(d) the projectile is ascending to the maximum height
Exercise 4
A projectile, thrown at angle "
(Solution on p. 19.)
θ
" with an initial velocity "u", returns to the same horizontal
ground level. If "x" and "y" coordinates are in horizontal and vertical directions, the equation of
projectile in x and y coordinates has the form :
Exercise 5
(a)
x = Ay − By 2
(b)
y = Ax − Bx2
(c)
(1 − A) x = By 2
(d)
x = (A + B) y 2
(Solution on p. 20.)
Select correct observation(s) about the "xy" - plot of the projectile motion from the following :
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Projectile motion
Figure 13: Projectile motion
(a) it covers greater horizontal distance during the middle part of the motion.
(b) it covers greater vertical distance during the middle part of the motion.
(c) it covers lesser horizontal distance near the ground.
(d) it covers greater vertical distance near the ground.
Exercise 6
(Solution on p. 20.)
A projectile is projected with an initial speed "u", making an angle "
θ " to the horizontal direction
along x-axis. Determine the average velocity of the projectile for the complete motion till it returns
to the same horizontal plane.
Exercise 7
(Solution on p. 20.)
A projectile is projected with an initial speed "u", making an angle "θ " to the horizontal direction
along x-axis. Determine change in speed of the projectile for the complete motion till it returns to
the same horizontal plane.
Exercise 8
(Solution on p. 20.)
A projectile is projected with an initial speed "u", making an angle "θ " to the horizontal direction
along x-axis.
Determine the change in velocity of the projectile for the complete motion till it
returns to the same horizontal plane.
Exercise 9
(Solution on p. 21.)
A projectile is projected at 60
an angle 30
◦
◦
to the horizontal with a speed of 10 m/s. After some time, it forms
with the horizontal. Determine the speed (m/s) at this instant.
Exercise 10
(Solution on p. 22.)
The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile at a given instant after projection are
and
vy
respectively at a position specied as x (horizontal),y (vertical). Then,
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vx
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(a) The "x - t" plot is a straight line passing through origin.
(b) The "y - t" plot is a straight line passing through origin.
(c) The "vx
(d) The "vy
− t " plot is a straight line passing
− t " plot is a straight line.
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through origin.
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Solutions to Exercises in this Module
Solution to Exercise (p. 15)
The vertical component of velocity of the projectile on return to the ground is equal in magnitude to
the vertical component of velocity of projection, but opposite in direction. On the other hand, horizontal
component of velocity remains unaltered.
Hence, we can obtain velocity on the return to the ground by
simply changing the sign of vertical component in the component expression of velocity of projection.
Projectile motion
Figure 14: Components of velocities
v
i j
= 2 -
Hence, option (b) is correct.
Solution to Exercise (p. 15)
The horizontal component of acceleration is zero. As such, horizontal component of velocity is constant. On
the other hand, vertical component of acceleration is g, which is a constant. Clearly, vertical component
of velocity is not constant.
Hence, options (b) and (d) are correct.
Solution to Exercise (p. 16)
Here, the vertical component of the velocity (3 m/s) is positive. Therefore, projectile is moving in positive ydirection. It means that the projectile is still ascending to reach the maximum height (the vertical component
of velocity at maximum height is zero).
It is though possible that the given velocity is initial velocity of
projection. However, the same can not be concluded.
Hence, option (d) is correct.
Solution to Exercise (p. 16)
The equation of projectile is given as :
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y = xtanθ −
gx2
u2 cos2 θ
This is a quadratic equation in x. The correct choice is (b).
Solution to Exercise (p. 16)
There is no component of acceleration in horizontal direction. The motion in this direction is a uniform
motion and, therefore, covers equal horizontal distance in all parts of motion. It means that options (a) and
(c) are incorrect.
In the vertical direction, projectile covers maximum distance when vertical component of velocity is
greater. Now, projectile has greater vertical component of velocity near ground at the time of projection
and at the time of return. As such, it covers maximum distance near the ground.
The correct choice is (d).
Solution to Exercise (p. 17)
Average velocity is dened as the ratio of displacement and time. Since we treat projectile motion as two
dimensional motion, we can nd average velocity in two mutually perpendicualr directions and then nd the
resultant average velocity. Projectile motion, however, is a unique case of uniform acceleration and we can
nd components of average velcity by averaging initial and nal values.
If
v1
and
v2
be the initial and nal velocities, then the average velocity for linear motion under constant
acceleration is dened as :
vavg =
v1 + v2
2
Employing this relation in x-direction and making use of the fact that motion in horizontal direction is
uniform motion, we have :
⇒ vavgx =
⇒ vavgx =
ux + vx
2
ucosθ + ucosθ
= ucosθ
2
Similarly, applying the relation of average velocity in y-direction and making use of the fact that component of velocity in vertical direction reverses its direction on return, we have :
⇒ vavgy =
⇒ vavgy =
u y + vy
2
usinθ − usinθ
=0
2
Hence, the resultant average velocity is :
⇒ vavg = vavgx = ucosθ
Solution to Exercise (p. 17)
Both initial and nal speeds are equal. Hence, there is no change in speed during the motion of projectile.
Solution to Exercise (p. 17)
Initial velocity is :
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Projectile motion
Figure 15: Components of velocities
u = ucosθi + usinθj
Final velocity is :
v = ucosθi − usinθj
Change in velocity is given by :
⇒ ∆v = ucosθi − usinθj − ucosθi − usinθj
⇒ ∆v = −2usinθj
where j is unit vector in y-direction.
Solution to Exercise (p. 17)
We shall make use of the fact that horizontal component of projectile velocity does not change with time.
Therefore, we can equate horizontal components of velocities at the time of projection and at the given
instants and nd out the speed at the later instant as required. Then,
ux = vx
⇒ ucos600 = vcos300
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⇒
10
=
2
√
10
⇒v= √
3
3v
2
m/s
Solution to Exercise (p. 17)
The displacement in x-direction is given as :
x = vx t
Since
vx
is a constant, the "x-t" plot is a straight line passing through origin. Hence, option (a) is correct.
The displacement in y-direction is :
1
y = uy t − gt2
2
This is an equation of parabola. The option (b), therefore, is incorrect.
The motion in horizontal direction is uniform motion.
direction is a constant. Therefore, "vx
−t
This means that component of velocity in x-
plot should be a straight line parallel to time axis. It does not
pass through origin. Hence, option (c) is incorrect.
The motion in vertical direction has acceleration due to gravity in downward direction. The component
of velocity in y-direction is :
vy = uy − gt
This is an equation of straight line having slope of "-g" and intercept "
is a straight line. Hence, option (d) is correct.
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uy
". The "vy − t plot, therefore,