LITERATURE FOR A NEW NATION
1
Literature for a New Nation:
The Importance of Published Texts to
American Readers in Washington Irving’s
The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.
| SONYA FILMAN |
America’s premier author, Washington Irving, knew that a new nation
demanded a new standard for the publication of literature. The beginnings of
American literature at first do not seem so different from pre-established models
of Western publishing, with letterpress printing, popularized in Europe,
allowing for the increasingly efficient production of books and newspapers.
However, on closer inspection, it is clear that the earliest publications of
American authors set a new precedent not only for the form published texts
would take in America, but also for how physical texts would come to be valued
and understood worldwide. These alterations to the state of literature are
exhibited in the work of the first internationally published American author,
Washington Irving. Irving’s particular concerns as an author over the state of
publishing were further developed by his move to work as an American author
in England. It is here that he crafted The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.
(1819-1820), and these concerns are reflected in his prose.
The Sketch Book, as its title suggests, is a conglomeration of small texts
rather than an extended narrative. It is a collection of thirty-four essays, short
stories, American folk tales, and reflections on the English countryside and
culture. Irving presents the reader with a catalogue of collected impressions
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through his narrator Geoffrey Crayon, who acts as a mouthpiece for Irving, as his
experiences often follow those of his author. This relationship is established early
in the Sketch Book with “The Author’s Account of Himself,” in which Crayon’s
enthusiasm for Europe and all its “charms of storied and poetical association…
masterpieces of art [and] refinements of highly cultivated society” recall Irving’s
early travels beginning in 1804 through France, Italy, Switzerland, and Holland
(Irving, “Author’s Account”). Likewise, one of the earliest essays in the Sketch
Book, “Roscoe,” finds Crayon amongst the scholarly and literary greats of
Liverpool, where Irving had worked for his brothers’ publishing house
beginning in 1810 (“Biography”). Due to this
strong bond between author and narrator, the
thoughts expressed by Crayon arguably
reflect Irving’s own. Thus, in the instances
throughout the Sketch Book when Crayon
makes observations on the state of publishing
and the significance of literary texts, Irving is
considering his own work. The essay “English
Writers on America,” for example, resonates
deeply with Irving’s own concerns as a writer,
as Crayon “observe[s] the literary animosity
daily growing up between England and
America” (“English Writers”). It is through
Crayon that Irving ruminates on the importance of printed texts for America in
relation to his experiences and observations in England.
Irving’s conception
of the value of
literature revolves
around England’s
antiquated libraries,
and in turn the
availability of texts
to the masses
Amidst the gathered prose of the Sketch Book there are a number of stories
and essays which speak explicitly about the state of published literature in the
nineteenth century. Irving’s voice resonates through these texts, and as the
reader progresses through the Sketch Book, the change in Irving’s own
understanding of published literature may be observed. This evolution of
Irving’s conception of the value of literature revolves around England’s
antiquated libraries, and in turn the availability of texts to the masses. Finding
the distribution of informative literature in England to be limited to the upper
classes, as he describes in the essay “Roscoe,” Crayon considers the importance
of the printed text to all Americans in “English Writers on America.” It is
through these considerations that Crayon comes to view the great past of
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England as a largely unsuitable model for his own country. In “The Mutability of
Literature,” Crayon proposes the forms that American literary distribution and
proliferation should take in order to be of the greatest benefit to the democratic
ideals of his nation. The progression of these essays throughout the Sketch Book
are an indication of Irving’s changing literary ideals, and his developing ideas
demonstrate the evolution of the state of publishing in America.
During the Sketch Book Crayon moves away from the idealization of
English models of scholarship and spaces of literary discourse, particularly
libraries and collections which are made available only to particular socioeconomic classes, such as Liverpool’s Athenaeum. Instead, Irving introduces new
ideals for the American democratic populace which allow for an increased
general readership by renouncing institutional exclusivity and de-emphasizing
the monetary value of printed materials. As demonstrated in “Roscoe,” “English
Writers on America,” and “The Mutability of Literature,” American literature in
Crayon’s view is prized for the social and cultural significance of its
contemporary texts, while the commodification of such texts results in their
increasingly ephemeral nature. Crayon contrasts these ideas with his
observations in England, where he finds that the material cost and age of books,
rather than their written content, define their value for the reader. Thus, the
Sketch Book prompts a movement away from the ancient archives of England
toward a broader and rapidly superseded proliferation of literature. As he
advances through the Sketch Book, Crayon comes to understand the importance
of accessible printed texts in America as a means of maintaining the informed
minds of citizens of all classes. This model for American literature both increases
access to texts and allows for a rejection of the elitism of authorship.
Crayon first introduces readers to the Liverpool Athenaeum at the
beginning of “Roscoe” in order to demonstrate the exclusivity of access to
printed books in England. The Athenaeum is a gentleman’s club that maintains a
membership of 500 proprietors at any given time and grants access to its facilities
to a selected few, all of whom must be able to pay membership costs
(“Athenaeum”). Crayon pays particular attention to the scholarly merits of the
Athenaeum, noting that it “contains a good library, a spacious reading-room,
and is the great literary resort of [Liverpool]” (“Roscoe”). Crayon’s further
observation of the “grave-looking personages, deeply absorbed in the study of
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newspapers” highlights the main function of the Athenaeum’s reading room: to
provide up-to-date newspapers and pamphlets for the purpose of maintaining an
informed proprietorship (Athenaeum). The high-class nature of the gentlemen’s
club is elaborated when Crayon notes the spacious reading room, which lends a
sense of luxury to the space that is unlike a public library. This space of select
readership and proliferation of knowledge, being the “great literary resort” of
Liverpool, suggests that while the Athenaeum caters to few citizens of Liverpool,
there is no public institution, according to Crayon, which matches its stock of
available texts or environment of informed
readership. The exclusivity of this library
indicates the class-based accessibility of highly
cultivated reading materials and spaces of
informed discourse in Liverpool.
Crayon watches as
the “wreckers”
seek to claim
whatever they
may without much
discrimination
It is here in this “haunt of the learned”
that Crayon first encounters William Roscoe,
“an author of celebrity” and a historian whom
Crayon idolizes (“Roscoe”). Roscoe exemplifies
Crayon’s ideal European intellectual, a type of person that he does not find in
America. Crayon notes that such men “pass before our imaginations like
superior beings, radiant with the emanations of their genius, and surrounded by
the halo of literary glory” (“Roscoe”). This pedestal on which Crayon places
Roscoe is one reserved for men who can afford access to the great libraries and
collections that inspire intellectual greatness. It is with the dismantling of
Roscoe’s personal library that Crayon is first driven to consider ways in which
private libraries withhold literature from the public.
Crayon’s observation of the Athenaeum’s collection, a privatized space of
intellectual and social discourse, is contrasted in the second part of “Roscoe”
where Crayon witnesses the loss of Roscoe’s library due to his bankruptcy. As
Roscoe’s library is auctioned off, Crayon observes the redistribution of prized
texts to eager buyers who do not meet his expectations of the great men who can
afford to possess such a wealth of literature. While members of the public pick
through the vestiges of the library, Crayon considers the desirable qualities of the
texts, maintaining his elitist ideals about the collection of literature. In recounting
the scene of the auction, Crayon describes how “the good people of the vicinity
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thronged like wreckers to get some part of the noble vessel that had been driven
on shore” (“Roscoe”). Crayon watches as the “wreckers” seek to claim whatever
they may without much discrimination. These “pigmies [which are seen]
rummaging through the armory of a giant and contending for the possession of
weapons they could not wield” appear to Crayon to be small-minded in
comparison to the “giant” Roscoe, and are thus unable to appreciate the true
value of the texts which they snatch up at the auction (“Roscoe”). Using the
metaphor of a great ship to describe Roscoe’s library, Crayon emphasizes the
scale and value that he places on the collection. The image Crayon paints of the
wreckage of the ship pillaged by “pigmies” exemplifies his opinion of the
common folk as unfitting owners of such a fine collection, in contrast with his
high esteem for the scholar Roscoe. Crayon continues to describe their scouring
of written materials, noting that the “knot of spectators, debating with
calculating brow over the quaint binding and illuminated margin of an obsolete
author” are engulfed by an “air of intense, but baffled sagacity, with which some
successful purchaser attempted to dive into the black-letter bargain he secured”
(“Roscoe”). Crayon acknowledges the fixation of the spectators on the
illuminated manuscripts, texts that are valued for their hand-written, carefully
illustrated and embellished appearance. As Crayon notes, the authors of such
texts have themselves become obsolete, and the redeeming virtues of these texts
for the buyers truly lie in their value as commodities. It is for this reason that
Crayon observes these buyers choosing with an unreasonable and confused
excitement. Crayon is disappointed by the buyers’ lack of regard for the written
content of the texts, which he believes to be the true value of a text to the scholar.
In his description of the auction of Roscoe’s library, Crayon has again provided
readers with a view of a literary collection which is protected from public access
by high-class ownership. When the collection falls into public hands the
literature is described by Crayon as unappreciated by the common folk. At this
stage of the Sketch Book, Crayon believes that true literary value can only be
understood by the scholar or connoisseur. This focus on the private ownership of
literature reinforces the impressions of literary access given in Crayon’s
discussion of the Athenaeum by portraying England as maintaining an exclusive
system for the limited distribution of printed texts.
Although Crayon observes these scenes of exclusive accessibility to
literature in England, he does not oppose them. Rather, his observation of the
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sale of Roscoe’s fine literary collection to common citizens frustrates him as he
finds the texts to be unsuitable for possession by anyone other than the scholar.
However, his allegiance to these elitist ideals is diminished as Crayon considers
the significance of accessible texts in his own country.
In “English Writers on America,” Crayon comes to consider the differences
between England and America, particularly with regard to the accessibility of
written texts. He begins to critique the exclusivity which he found so admirable
while observing the Athenaeum and Roscoe’s collection. In his discussion
concerning English writers, Crayon elaborates on the importance of literacy to all
Americans. As Crayon notes, “over no nation does the press hold more absolute
control than over the people of America; for the universal education of the
poorest classes makes every individual a reader” (“English Writers”). It is worth
noting that this claim of universal literacy
may not be completely accurate, considering
Crayon’s status as a gentleman of some
wealth. Despite this, Crayon’s optimistic view
of the American readership reflects the
significance that he views literature to have in
America, as well as the general importance of
the press to the populace. Crayon notes that
the importance of literacy and access to
contemporary news sources is particular to
America, as the state of American politics is
governed “entirely by public opinion” and as such “the utmost care should be
taken to preserve the purity of the public mind” (“English Writers”). It is also
worth noting that the “purity of the public mind” that Crayon mentions refers to
the importance of keeping Americans informed on American issues, rather than
polluted by English works which have little social currency in the democratic
state. Crayon believes that for a democratic American populace it is imperative
that informative texts regarding the state of the country be made available to the
public so that all citizens may be able to construct their own opinions based on
the literature of their country. This demand for a constant cycle of renewed,
current literature, requires a step away from the idealized archives described in
“Roscoe” toward a free-flowing public exchange of printed materials.
America’s
developing
character may be
improved by
selecting only the
best knowledge
from England’s past
LITERATURE FOR A NEW NATION
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As Crayon ruminates upon the importance of accessible literature for
Americans, he comes to view England as an unfit model for America in light of
its exclusivity. Crayon suggests instead that Americans may “place England
before [them] as a perpetual volume of reference, wherein are recorded sound
deductions from ages of experience” (“English Writers”). Of this “volume,”
however, Crayon encourages Americans to avoid the mistakes made previously
in England’s history, declaring that they “may draw thence golden maxims of
practical wisdom, wherewith to strengthen and to embellish [American] national
character” (“English Writers”). This appeal by Crayon to maintain England as a
point of reference takes care to acknowledge that, despite its great history, the
country is not faultless. Crayon notes that America’s developing character may
be improved by selecting only the best knowledge from England’s past, and as
such Crayon views England as a reference for his nation, but certainly not as an
unproblematic model for his own country.
The reinvention of the old models of literary access in England is further
discussed in “The Mutability of Literature,” as Crayon continues to explore the
ways in which the proliferation and distribution of literature will play out in
America. “The Mutability of Literature” depicts a conversation between Crayon
and a talking book, called Quarto, in the library of Westminster Abbey.
Lamenting that he has not been read for more than two centuries, Quarto
declares that he “was written for all the world” and was “intended to circulate
from hand to hand, like other great contemporary texts” (“Mutability”). While
Quarto’s author had been renowned in his time, his popularity had waned with
the ages, leaving Quarto long forgotten. It is through the development of
language, and the passing of years, that Crayon declares literature is made
mutable. The mutability of literature is its tendency toward change with the
fluctuation of taste and the variation of language, which in turn leads most texts
to fall out of popularity, making way for more relevant works.
Over the course of their conversation, Crayon expresses to Quarto that he
“consider[s] this mutability of language a wise precaution of providence for the
benefit of the world at large, and of authors in particular… fading into dust to
make way for their successors” (“Mutability”). Crayon’s trust in providence
indicates his feeling that it is God’s will that literature have a shortened life span,
allowing for new authors and texts to emerge and have influence in their own
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time. Crayon considers this mutability to be more than an economic process—
rather it is one that is impelled by a divine will, and should not be questioned or
resisted. With this acceptance, Crayon continues to note that “were this not the
case, the fecundity of nature would be a grievance instead of a blessing”
(“Mutability”). This reference to nature’s fecundity suggests that Crayon views
authorship as a naturally creative impulse. Any individual capable of writing
might continue to produce writing by an internally driven, natural inclination.
Crayon believes that that the American populace has the opportunity to generate
a wealth of written work as a result of their literacy. Crayon also points out to
Quarto that “the inventions of paper and the press have put an end to
[restrictions on mass publishing]. They have made everyone a writer, and
enabled every mind to pour itself into print,
and diffuse itself over the whole intellectual
world” (“Mutability”). Not only has literacy
given the American populace the impulse to
write, but technical advancements in
printing have created an ever-growing outlet
for publication of the thoughts and
knowledge of the population. Crayon finds
that the divine will driving the mutability of literature has prompted
technological developments which have revolutionized the distribution of
printed texts and have allowed all citizens of the democratic nation to be authors.
Perhaps printed texts
will come to embody
a different kind of
value in the libraries
of the world
In reflecting on the mass readership and authorship of America, the
restricted access to published works which Crayon described in “Roscoe” and
opposed in “English Writers on America” can have no currency in Crayon’s
nation. Unwilling to remain bound to the guarded archives of England, filled
with untouched volumes such as Quarto, Crayon celebrates a greater
proliferation of thought and a greater opportunity for Americans to engage in
the sphere of persuasion through publishing. Though the mutability of literature
will not allow for the mass of published texts to withstand time and become
archived, it allows citizens to remain engaged with up-to-date information on
contemporary issues as Crayon described in “English Writers on America.” This
emphasis on publication which is more ephemeral, such as the newspaper or the
pamphlet, focuses American literary interest on texts which are easily accessed
and afforded, which may be passed around and discarded, without shame, when
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they fall out of currency. It is this mode of publication which best suits Crayon’s
ambitions for America, allowing all citizens to access informative texts. It also
permits the voices of more Americans to be heard, thus allowing for a broader
engagement in critical discourse among the public.
The idealization of an ephemeral form of American literature may appear
to contradict Irving’s choice to publish the Sketch Book in book form after its
initial serialized publication. However, Irving’s ephemeral ideal for printed texts
is indeed modeled by his own work, as the Sketch Book in its bound format has
been treated with a different attitude by consumers than the texts which had
existed in Roscoe’s library. Irving’s Sketch Book has been repeatedly re-published
and released in different formats, including paperback. The on-going republication of Irving’s literature models the variety of ephemeral texts which he
had grown to idealize as the model for American literature; Irving’s text is itself
one which may first be consumed and then replaced with a more updated
version. This ephemeral literature has become a standard model for publishing,
as most texts today are published in multiple editions, disregarding the now oldfashioned assumption that only one version of a published text is made to last.
Irving’s predictions for the future of American publishing have been
played out since the publication of the Sketch Book, with texts becoming
increasingly inexpensive to produce with the advent of improved printing
technologies, including digital printing (as opposed to letterpress). These
changes allow printed texts to be more easily acquired, reducing limited access to
relevant literature for all social groups. The emergence of the Internet in recent
years has made the greatest contribution to dismantling frameworks of
exclusivity around informative texts, as it provides a democratic platform for all
citizens with access to have their own voices published for a mass audience. The
Internet also expedites the mutability of literature to a great degree, as social
networks and news outlets are continually updated with the most current
opinions and events of significance. In this space of digital publication, the texts
of the past are not forgotten. Many texts, including The Sketch Book of Geoffrey
Crayon, are digitized into an ebook, allowing readers to bypass the need even to
hold the printed text in their hands.
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In a world where publication of texts no longer requires physical printing
and distribution, the place of printed texts must be reconsidered. Are they to end
up like Quarto, locked away for the sake of maintaining an archive? Or will
individuals continue to prize them as much for their physical form as for their
written contents, as the buyers of Roscoe’s library had? At a time in history when
a mass readership has little trouble accessing whole libraries of books, perhaps
printed texts will come to embody a different kind of value in the libraries of the
world, and on the bookshelves of our homes.
WORKS CITED
The Athenaeum Liverpool. N.p. n.d.Web. Accessed 23 Nov. 2012.
“Biography.” Prairie Farmer (1843-1877). 12 Jan. 1860: 26. American Periodicals Series
II. Web. Accessed 1 July 2013.
Irving, Washington. “The Author’s Account of Himself.” The Sketch Book of Geoffrey
Crayon, Gent. Project Gutenberg EBook. Ed. Nelson Nieves and David Widger. 2012.
Web. Accessed 15 Sept. 2012.
---. “English Writers on America.” The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. The
Project Gutenberg EBook. Ed. Nelson Nieves and David Widger. 2012. Web. Accessed
15 Sept. 2012.
---. “The Mutability of Literature.” The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. Project
Gutenberg EBook. Ed. Nelson Nieves and David Widger. 2012. Web. 15 Sept. 2012.
---. “Roscoe.” The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. Project Gutenberg EBook.
Ed. Nelson Nieves and David Widger. 2012. Web. Accessed 15 Sept. 2012.