IS T H E EAST RIVER, NEW YORK, A RIVER
OR LONG ISLAND AN IS L A N D ?
by R. L a w r e n c e S W A N S O N '" , C h a rle s A. P A R K E R 1' 1
M ic h ae l C. M E Y E R 1” a n d M ic h ae l A. C H A M P 1,1
ABSTRACT
T h e S tate o f R h o d e Island is d isputing (U n ite d S tate s v e r s u s M a in e ) the
d e linea tion o f th e closing line (a p art o f th e baseline th a t crosses a b o d y o f w a te r
f r o m w h i c h m a rg in a l seas are m e a s u r e d ) se p a r a tin g t h e w a te r s u n d e r F e d e ra l
jurisd ic tio n f ro m S tate W a te r s in th e vicinity o f e a s te r n L ong Island S o u n d .
Ju risd ic tio n o v e r s o m e 595 k m 2 (172 nautical miles: ) o f th e c o n tin e n ta l sh e lf is in
q u es tio n . T h e U n ite d S tates legally co n s id e rs L o n g Isla n d S o u n d as historic inland
w aters. R h o d e Island c o n te n d s th a t L o n g Island is p a r t o f th e m a in la n d , th u s
m o v in g th e b aselin e s e a w a r d . T h e f u n d a m e n ta l issue r e v o lv e s a r o u n d w h a t
co n s titu tes the m a in la n d , as d e te rm in e d b y w h e t h e r the E a s t R i v e r is a riv er o r a
tidal strait.
T h is p a p e r e x a m in e s the definitions o f rivers a n d straits a n d d e v e lo p s w o r k i n g
defin itions for th e m . T h e physical c h a racteristics o f the E a st a n d H a r le m R iv ers are
e x a m in e d a n d c o m p a r e d w ith the w o r k i n g definitions as p a r t o f the litigation in this
case.
*
*
*
O th e r s will e n t e r th e gates o f th e ferry a n d cro ss fro m s h o r e to sh o re.
O th e r s will w a t c h th e r u n o f th e floo d-tid e
O th e r s will see the shipping o f M a n h a t t a n n o r t h a n d w est, a n d th e h eig h ts o f
B r o o k ly n to th e so u th a n d east.
O th e r s will see th e islands large a n d small ;
(1) Office o f M a r i n e P o l l u ti o n A s s e s s m e n t , N O A A , R o c k v il l e , M a r y l a n d 2 08 52, U .S .A .
(2) Office o f M a r i n e P o l l u ti o n A s s e s s m e n t. N O A A , S t o n y B r o o k . N e w Y o r k 11794,
U .S .A .
(3) T h e A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i ty , W a s h i n g t o n , D C . 2 00 16. U .S .A .
Fifty y e a r s h e n c e , o th e r s will see th e m as th e y cross, the su n half a n h o u r
high
A h u n d r e d y e a r s h e n c e , o r e v e r so m a n y h u n d r e d y e a r s hence, o th e rs will see
th e m ,
Will enjoy th e sunset, the p o u r in g - i n o f the flood-tide, the falling-back to the
sea o f th e ebb-tide.
W a lt W h i t m a n
f ro m Crossing Brooklyn F e rry .- 1856
IN T R O D U C T IO N
E c o n o m ic r e s o u r c e s in the o c e a n s c o n tin u e to g r o w in im p o rta n c e , a n d the
t e c h n o lo g y to d e v e lo p the se r e s o u r c e s is m o r e accessible. T e rritoriality, as e x e m p li­
fied b y the c o m p le x a n d p ole m ic al L a w o f th e S ea T r e a t y , is a m a jo r issue. C lo se r
to h o m e , th e States a n d F e d e ra l g o v e r n m e n t vie for ta x a b le r e v e n u e f ro m r e s o u r c e s
in o u r coastal w a te rs. D elin ea tio n o f coastal b o u n d a r ie s is th u s an e x tre m e ly
i m p o r ta n t a n d o f te n c o n tro v e rs ia l issue.
S u c h a disp u te is n o w o c c u r r in g in th e ca se o f U n ite d States v e r s u s M a in e
( M a ss a c h u s e tts, R h o d e Island, a n d N e w York). T h e issue involves th e location o f
th e baseline b e t w e e n e a s te r n L o n g I s la n d a n d the N e w E n g la n d m a in la n d (Fig. 1).
T h e U n ite d S tate s c o n s id e r s L o n g Island, N .Y . as an island a n d n o t p a r t o f the
m a in la n d . T h u s , L o n g Isla n d S o u n d is n o t a ju ridical bay. F lo w e v e r, the S o u n d is
tr e a te d as historic in la n d w a te r s ( S t r a n d p e rs o n a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ).
body
P o in t
from
to be
W i t h this in te r p re ta tio n , th e clo sin g line (a p a r t o f the baseline th a t cr o s s e s a
o f w a te r f ro m w h ic h m a rg in a l se as a r e m e a s u r e d ) (Fig. 2) r u n s f ro m C u llo d e n
to O rie n t P o in t, th e n c e to P lu m Island, to R a c e P o in t o n F ishers Island, a n d
E ast P o in t o n F ish e rs Island to N a p a t r e e P oint, R.I. Block Islan d is c o n s id e r e d
a n o f fs h o r e island.
T h e S tate o f R h o d e Islan d , h o w e v e r , c o n t e n d s th a t L o n g Island
m a in la n d . In this s c e n a rio t h e r e are t h r e e possible so lu tio n s (Fig. 2). In
th e closing line w o u ld r u n f ro m M o n t a u k P oint, N .Y .. to S o u th w e s t
I slan d , a n d th e n f r o m S a n d y P o in t, B lock Island, to the m a in la n d o f
R.I. (S t r a n d , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a ti o n ) .
is p a r t o f the
the e x t r e m e ,
P o int, Block
P oint J u d ith ,
T h u s , ju risd ic tio n o v e r s o m e 595 k m 2 (172 n autica l miles2) o f c o n tin e n ta l sh e lf
b y th e F ed era l G o v e r n m e n t a n d th e S tate s o f N e w Y o rk a n d R h o d e Island is in
q u e s tio n . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l issue, h o w e v e r , r ev o lv e s a r o u n d w h a t c o n s titu te s the
m a in la n d , as d e t e r m in e d b y w h e t h e r th e E ast R iv er (and possibly by im plication,
th e H a r le m R iver) is a r iv e r o r a tidal strait.
T h e ultim ate dec isio n in th e c a s e resides in th e c o u r ts a n d it m a y be decided
co n s id e r in g a n y n u m b e r o f issues, inclu ding p h y sic a l ch a racteristics, historical
u sa g e, a n d phy sic al a n d in stitutional ties b e t w e e n M a n h a t t a n a n d B ro o k ly n . T h e
N a ti o n a l O c e a n ic a n d A tm o s p h e r i c A d m in is tra tio n ( N O A A ) w a s r e q u e ste d b y the
(*) M a r g a r e t S t r a n d , U .S. D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e , W a s h i n g t o n , D C.
Fig 1. - Locator map of Long Island and vicinity
F ig 2. -
Detailed
map
of Block
Island
Sound
showing
disputed
closing
line.
U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s tic e to r e v ie w th e p h y sic a l c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e E a s t a n d
H a r le m R iv e rs a n d to d e t e r m in e th e n a tu re o f th e s e b o d ie s o f w a t e r as p a r t o f the
judicial proce ss. T h is r e p o r t s u m m a r iz e s o u r a n a ly sis a n d findings.
G E N E R A L D E SC R IP T IO N
T h e 25.8 k m (13.9 n autica l miles) w a t e r b o d y c o n n e c t in g w e s t e r n L o n g Island
S o u n d w ith the N e w Y o rk U p p e r Bay is n a m e d th e E a s t R iv e r [N a tio n a l O c e a n
S u r v e y (NOS) C h a r t s 12339 a n d 12366] (Fig. 3). T h e S o u n d e n t r a n c e is b e t w e e n
T h r o g s N e c k a n d W ille ts P o in t; th e U p p e r Bay e n t r a n c e is in th e vicinity o f T h e
B attery a n d G o v e r n o r s Islan d. T h e tidal cy c le in th e E a s t R iv e r is d e riv e d f r o m the
tides in th e se t w o la rg e r b o d ie s o f w a te r . T h e tide at T h r o g s N e c k has a r a n g e that
is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 m e te r g r e a te r t h a n th a t at T h e B a tte ry , a n d it lags t h a t o f T h e
B a tte ry b y a b o u t 3 h o u r s. A F e d e r a l p ro je c t p r o v id e s for m a i n - c h a n n e l d e p t h s fro m
10.7 m (35 ft) at th e n o r t h e r n e n d o f th e E a s t R iv e r to 12.2 m (40 ft) at th e s o u t h e r n
e n d ( N O A A , 1981). A u th o r iz e d s h ip p in g c h a n n e l w id t h s r a n g e fro m 167.8 m (550 ft)
to 305 m (1 000 ft) ( H a m m o n , 1976). T h e E a s t R i v e r h as b e e n a n i m p o r ta n t
n a v ig ab le w a t e r w a y for se v e ra l c e n tu r ie s a n d has p la y e d a n essential ro le in the
c o m m e r c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e P o r t o f N e w Y ork.
T h e H a r le m R i v e r is a 12.4 k m (6.7 n au tica l miles) c h a n n e l c o n n e c t in g the
H u d s o n R iv e r at th e n o r t h e n d o f M a n h a t t a n Islan d w ith th e E a s t R iv e r n e a r Hell
G a te (Figs. 1 & 3). M a r m e r (1935) states t h a t th e H a r le m R i v e r originally c o n n e c t e d
w ith t h e H u d s o n R i v e r t h r o u g h a n a r r o w c h a n n e l k n o w n as S p u y te n D u y v il C ree k .
H o w e v e r , in 1895 a n a v ig a b le c h a n n e l w a s c u t t h r o u g h th e m a rs h . T h e c o n tro llin g
d e p th in th e c h a n n e l is 4 m (13 ft) a n d the w i d th is g e n e ra lly a b o u t 114 m (375 ft).
T h e ea rly geolog ical th e o rie s o n th e origin o f th e E a s t a n d H a r le m R i v e r s h a v e
b e e n r e v ie w e d b y HOBBS (1904). E a r ly g eologists a t tr ib u te d t h e lo c atio n o f th e E ast
R iv e r C h a n n e l to th e d istrib u tio n a n d d iss o lu tio n o r e r o s io n o f lim esto n e beds.
H o b b s r e f u te d th e se th e o rie s w ith e v id e n c e o f h a r d e r r o c k u n d e r ly in g th e r iv e r, the
d ire c tio n o f w h ic h w a s largely d e t e r m in e d b y lines o f jo in tin g a n d d isp la c e m e n t.
FU LLER (1914) r e p o r te d th a t th e r o c k c h a n n e l w a s p r o d u c e d b y th e m e c h a n ic a l
e r o s io n o f s tr e a m s , r a t h e r t h a n so lu tio n (due to lack o f lim e s to n e in th e area), w ith
the f o r m o f th e tidal c h a n n e l m o s t likely c o n t r o l le d b y join ts (or possibly fault
planes) o r b y th e str ik e o f th e b e d s , w ith n o c o n t r i b u t i o n d u e to d o w n f a u lti n g . T h e
n o r t h e r n p a r t o f th e E a s t R iv e r c h a n n e l s e e m e d to arise b e f o r e t h e M a n h a s s e t
P e rio d ( F u l l e r , 1914). w h i c h is n o w t h o u g h t to be p a r t o f th e W i s c o n s i n se q u e n c e ,
possibly m o r e th a n 55,000 y e a r s B.C. ( F l i n t , 1971). T h e ice m elt f r o m th e r e tre a tin g
ice s h e e t a n d s u b s e q u e n t tidal s c o u r r e m o v e d th e d e p o s its left by glaciers ( F u l l e r ,
1914).
Hell G a t e ( D u tc h - “Helle G a t ” - literally tr a n s la te d , “ hole t h r o u g h h ell”), a
n a tu ra l r o c k sill, divid es th e E a s t R iv e r a l m o s t e x a c tly in h a l f (Fig. 4). Hell G a t e w a s
an a p p r o p r ia t e d e s ig n a tio n , especially in th e e a r ly d a y s w h e n ro c k reefs, sw ift
c u r r e n ts , a n d th e t o r t u o u s c h a n n e l r e n d e r e d n a v i g a tio n e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s . It
w a s n o to r io u s a n d d r e a d e d by ea rly m a rin e rs. H o w e v e r , t h e L o n g Isla n d S o u n d
a p p r o a c h to N e w Y o r k H a r b o r b e c a m e a t tr a c tiv e as th e d r a f t a n d t o n n a g e o f the
Manhattan and surroundings
W «3t
New York,
M anhattan
Union
City £
Jersey City
The
Bâttery
Governors
Island
Compiled and drafted for the
Brooklyn
Upper B a y
N A U T IC A L M ILE S
K IL O M E T E R S
F ig 3. - Manhattan and surroundings showing locations of tide and tidal current stations
F ig 4. - East River showing locations of tide and tidal current stations.
g r o w i n g ste am p o w e r fleet increased in the se co n d q u a r te r o f th e 19th ce n tu ry .
C r o s s in g th e bar, w ith a d e p t h o f only 7.3 m (24 ft) at m e a n low w ate r, o f f S a n d y
H o o k lim ited the ac ce ss o f th ese la rger vessels to the H a r b o r , and oce an d r ed g in g
• w a s n o t technologically feasible at th a t tim e. D re d g in g a c h a n n e l at S a n d y H o o k did
n o t co m m en ce until 1885. T h u s , r e m o v a l o f th e h az ard s in th e E ast R iv er b e c a m e
e x t r e m e l y im p o r ta n t ( K l a w o n n , 1977). Since 1851 a c o n s id erab le a m o u n t o f ro ck
h as b ee n re m o v e d at Hell G ate , so th a t the ch a n n e l is a b o u t 262 m (850 ft) w id e
( M a r m e r , 1935) a n d 10.7 m (35 ft) deep. O f particular n o te is th a t in 1876 th e
C o r p s o f E n g in e e rs c o m p le t e d tun n e lin g u n d e r Hallets P o in t R e e f (Figs. 4 & 5) an d
th e n blasting o f o v e rla y in g rock. A fter r e m o v a l o f o v e r 90 000 to n s o f rock, the
c h a n n e l w a s d e e p e n e d to 7.9 m (26 ft). A sim ilar te c h n iq u e w as e m p lo y e d at F lood
R o c k cu lm in a tin g in “th e g reatest q u an tity o f explosives e v e r a tte m p te d in a single
o p e r a tio n ." It w a s p ro je c te d th a t r e m o v a l o f th e rock w o u ld r ed u c e the tidal c u r r e n t
in th e vicinity f ro m 18.5 to 8.3 k m / h (iO to 4 i / 2 knots) ( K l a w o n n , 1977).
H istorical perspective
In A pril o f 1524, G io v a n n i d a V E R R A Z A N O , a F lo re n tin e sailing in the interest
o f th e King o f F r a n c e , sailed t h r o u g h the N a r r o w s a n d into N e w Y ork H a r b o r.
F r o m his ship, th e D auphine, he to o k a sm a lle r b o a t into th e N e w Y ork U p p e r Bay.
H o w e v e r , it w as n o t until 1614 th a t A d rie n BLOCK, an E n g lis h m a n , p u sh e d th r o u g h
th e h a z a r d o u s c h a n n e l w h i c h is n o w called Hell G ate (W IL S O N , 1892). T h e te rm
“ H ele g att" a p p e a r s o n a m a p o f the m e tr o p o lita n region d a te d 1616. T h e n o ta tio n
a p p e a r s o n land in th e vicinity o f T h r o g s N eck. L a e t (1625) p o ints o u t th a t the
D u tc h settlers r e fe rre d to the p r e s e n t E a st R iver as Hellegat. C aptain B l o c k
d e s c r ib e d this b o d y o f w a t e r as flow ing f r o m grea t b a y (L ong Island S o u n d ) into
th e g r e a t river (H u d s o n R iv er) a n d th e c u r r e n t o f this b o d y o f w a te r as c o m in g a
d ista n c e o f a b o u t 111 miles (fro m the e n t r a n c e o f L ong Island Sound).
The R em o n stra n ce o f N ew N etherlands d rafted by th e people o f N e w
N e t h e r l a n d in 1649, refers to the E ast R iv e r as b o r d e r in g the n o r th side o f L ong
Islan d (i.e., the p r e s e n t L o n g Island S ound ), sep aratin g it f ro m M a n a th a n s (D u tch
Spelling) Island as far as th e Hellgate a n d bein g highly desired by the E n glish “o n
a c c o u n t o f its c o n v e n ie n t positio n, its suitable h a r b o r s , a n d a n c h o r a g e g r o u n d s ” .
A lso, th e E a st R iv e r w a s so n a m e d , “b ec a u s e it stretch e s E a s t fro m the M a n a th a n s .
T h is is es te e m e d by m a n y n o t a river b u t a b ay , b ec a u s e ‘tis v ery w ide in so m e
places, a n d o p e n s at b o t h e n d s into th e sea. W e , h o w e v e r , co n s id e r it a river, an d
it is g ene rally so r e c k o n e d " (O C a l l a g h a n , 1856).
T h u s , for s o m e tim e, ju s t as th e H u d s o n R iv er w a s called th e N o r t h R iv er
b e c a u s e o f its d irec tio n , w h a t w e k n o w as L o n g Island S o u n d w as co n sid ered th e
E a s t R iv er b ec au se o f its E a st tre n d in g direction. H o w e v e r , th e te rm L on g Island
S o u n d w a s u sed as early as 1670 o n a m a p by R o b e r t R y d e r (on file, N e w Y o rk
H istorical Society).
C o n f u s io n o v e r th e n o m e n c la tu r e a n d actual b o u n d a r ie s o f the p r e se n t E a st
R i v e r a n d L o n g Island S o u n d ste m s f ro m th e e x p lo ra tio n a n d se ttlem ent o f this
re g io n b y tw o nationalities d u rin g th e sa m e period. T h e failure o f th e N e w
N e t h e r l a n d s co lonists to c o r r e c t th e ir m is n a m in g the E a s t R iver, presently L on g
I s la n d S o u n d , k n o w i n g it w a s n o t a river, p ro b a b ly reflects the h a rsh n e ss o f
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colonial life an d th e s u b s e q u e n t im p o rta n c e placed o n survival v e r s u s p r o p e r
delineation a n d descriptio n o f w a t e r bodies.
Post colonial perspective
T h e early residents, w h o re g a rd e d the E ast R iver as s o m e th in g o th e r t h a n a
river, s h o w e d “little p ro p rie ty in d e n o m in a tin g it [East River] a r iv e r ” a c c o r d in g to
H a s k e l a n d S m i t h (1849). E n g in e e rin g a n d scientific studies o f the E a st R iv e r in
th e latter half o f the 19th c e n tu r y are follow ed by the assertion o r pa re n th e tic a l
c a v e a t that th e E a st R iv e r is not a tr u e river bu t r a th e r a strait, tidal strait o r
h y drau lic strait [M IT CH E L L, 1867, ! 886 ; HARRIS, 1966 (reprinted f ro m a 1900
re p o rt); M a r m e r , 1935; J a y a n d B o w m a n , 1975; a n d B o w m a n , 1976].
E X TA N T RELEV A NT D E F IN IT IO N S
Since o u r objective is to m a k e a r e c o m m e n d a tio n as to w h e th e r , o n a physical
basis, the E a st R iv er is a river o r a strait, it is a p p r o p r ia te to review th e ac c e p te d
definitions o r a x io m s fo r s u c h te r m s as river, strait, tidal strait, o r h yd rau lic strait.
T h e actual physical p ro ce sses th a t o c c u r in th e E ast R iv er are ch a racterize d ,
c o m p a r e d , a n d discussed relative to these definitions.
Legal D efinitions
D efinitions fo r riv er an d strait m a y be fo und in SHALOWlTZ's Shore a nd Sea
B oundaries, Vol. 2 (1964) a n d Vol. 1 (1962), respectively ;
R iver : “A river has b ee n d efine d legally as ‘a natu ra l strea m o f w a te r , o f
g rea ter v o lu m e th a n a creek o r rivulet, flow ing in a m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t
bed o r c h a n n e l, b e t w e e n d e fin e d b a n k s or walls, w ith a c u r r e n t w h ic h m a y
either be c o n t in u o u s in o n e d irec tion o r affected by the ebb a n d flow o f the
tide’ (B l a c k , L a w D ic tio n a ry (4th ed.) 1491 (1951), citing A labam a v. G eorgia ,
23 H o w . 505, 513 (64 U.S., 1860) a n d M otl v. Boyd , 286 S .W . 458 (1926)
(Tex.))” .
S tra it : "... the I n te rn a tio n a l C o u r t o f Justice laid d o w n the doctrine th a t the
decisive criterion for a strait being o p e n to the passage o f vessels o f o th e r
n atio ns is 'its [the strait’s] g e o g ra p h ic a l situation as con n e ctin g tw o p a rts o f the
high seas a n d th e fact o f its being used fo r in ternatio nal n a v i g a ti o n ’
H o w e v e r , a strait in th e g e o g ra p h ic a l sense is “defined as a relatively n a r r o w
w a te r w a y c o n n e c tin g tw o la rg e r bodies o f w a t e r ”.
In th e A cts o f the 1930 H a g u e C o n fe re n c e , the r e p o r t o f the S eco n d
S u b -C o m m itte e c o n ta in s th e follow ing ; “W h e n a river flow s directly into the sea,
the w ate rs o f th e river co n stitu te inlan d w aters up to a line follow ing th e general
direc tio n o f the C o a st ac ro ss the m o u t h o f th e river, w h a te v e r its w idth. I f a river
flo w s in to a n e s tu a r y , the rules a p p lic a b le to b a y s a p p ly to th e e s t u a r y ”. T h e
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f th e Special M a s t e r o f th e 1958 G e n e v a C o n v e n t i o n w a s
s u b sta n tia lly th e sa m e , e x e p t th a t n o m e n t i o n w a s m a d e o f riv e rs th a t flow into
e stuarie s.
Com m on D efin ition s
T h e O xfo rd E nglish D ictionary (1970 E d itio n ) is t a k e n as th e m o s t c o m p r e h e n ­
sive a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e s o u r c e for the E n g lish L a n g u a g e :
R iv e r : “A c o p i o u s s tr e a m o f w a t e r flo w in g in a c h a n n e l t o w a r d s t h e sea, a
lake, o r a n o t h e r s t r e a m ”.
S tr e a m : “A c o u r s e o f w a te r f lo w in g c o n t in u o u s ly alo n g a b ed o f e a r th ,
f o r m i n g a river, riv u le t, o r b r o o k ” .
S tr a it : “A c o m p a r a ti v e ly n a r r o w
w a t e r w a y o r p a s sa g e c o n n e c t in g la rge r
b o d ie s o f w a t e r ”. In th e adjective f o rm , strait w a s listed in th e p h y sic a l se nse
as “tight, n a r r o w . .. 3. o f a w a y , p a s sa g e o r c h a n n e l ; so n a r r o w as to m a k e
tr a n s i t difficu lt” .
I n g e n e r a l, t h e d efinition for “s tr a i t” in se v e r a l c o m m o n u sa g e d ic tio n a rie s
c o n s u lte d is e q u i v a le n t; h o w e v e r , s e v e ra l d e v ia tio n s a r e o b s e r v e d for “r i v e r ” :
“A n a t u r a l s tr e a m o f w a t e r o f c o n s id e r a b l e v o l u m e " (W ebster's S e ve n th New
C ollegiate D ictionary , 1970).
“A large n a t u r a l s tr e a m o f w a t e r e m p t y i n g in to a n o c e a n , lake, o r o t h e r b o d y
o f w a te r , a n d usually fed alo n g its c o u r s e b y c o n v e r g in g tr ib u ta r i e s " ( N e w
C o lleg e E d iti o n , (The A m erica n H eritage D ictionary o f the English L a n g u a g e ,
1976).
“A n a t u r a l s tr e a m o f w a t e r o f fairly large size f lo w in g in a definite c o u r s e o r
c h a n n e l o r series o f d iv e rg in g a n d c o n v e r g in g c h a n n e l s ” (The R a n d o m H ouse
C ollege D ictio n a ry , 1980).
S cien tific D efinition s
T h e G lossary o f O ceanographic T erm s (B a k e r et at., 1966) d e f in e s :
S tr a it : “A n a r r o w sea ch a n n el w h i c h s e p a r a te s t w o la n d m a s s e s ” ;
and
C h a n n e l .- “A
n a t u ra l o r artificial w a t e r w a y w h i c h e ith e r p e r io d ically o r
c o n t in u o u s ly c o n t a in s m o v in g w a t e r o r w h i c h f o r m s a c o n n e c t in g link
b e t w e e n t w o b o d ie s o f w a t e r ” .
T h e s e t w o d efinitions in c o m b in a t io n s e e m to c a r r y all th e p r o p e r tie s o f a
g e o g r a p h ic a l strait a s d e f in e d in d ic tio n a rie s a n d in SHALOWiTZ (1962). T h e y also
im ply t h e m o v e m e n t o f w a t e r b e t w e e n th e t w o c o n n e c t e d w a t e r b o d ie s via th e
strait, a t least in te r m itte n tly if n o t c o n t in u o u s ly . T h e r e is n o s e n se o f direc tio n a lity
o f this flow . T h e possibility o f n e t flo w in b o t h d ir e c tio n s is n o t e x c lu d e d n o r is a n y
driv in g fo rc e (tidal, g ra v ity , etc.) im plied for this flow . A t first g lance, th e c h a r a c t e r
o f th e w a te r b o d ie s b ein g c o n n e c t e d b y th e strait is n o t specified e x c e p t t h a t th e y
b e la rg e r th a n th e n a r r o w strait, p r e s u m a b ly in w id th . M o s t o c e a n o g r a p h i c
glossaries a n d d ic tio n a rie s d o n o t v e n t u r e a definitio n for “river", p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e
it is n o t c o n s id e r e d an o c e a n o g r a p h i c f e a tu r e asso cia te d w ith salt w a t e r s ; h o w e v e r ,
B a k e r et a l ., (1966) d efin e s riv er d is c h a r g e :
R iver D ischarge : (also called r iv e r o u tf lo w , r iv e r r u n o ff) "T h e rate o f flow o f
w a te r p ast a p o in t in a s tr e a m , e x p r e s s e d as v o l u m e p e r u n it tim e. M o r e
specifically, th e v o l u m e o f r iv e r w a t e r th a t flo w s into th e sea is usually
m e a s u r e d in c u b i c k ilo m e te rs , c u b i c miles, c u b ic m e te r s , o r cub ic feet, a n d
so m e tim e s a c r e - f e e t” .
"R iv e r d is c h a r g e m a y affect tidal c u r r e n t s c o n s id e r a b ly , especially d u r in g
rain y se a so n s, b y in c re a sin g th e s t r e n g t h a n d d u r a t i o n o f e b b a n d d e c r e a s in g
the s tr e n g th a n d d u r a t i o n o f f lo o d "
A lth o u g h t h e “ f re s h " ( v e rsu s “salt") quality o f th e w a t e r is n o t explicit in this
d e fin itio n , th e d istinction o f riv er (fre sh ) w a t e r flo w in g into th e sea (salt w a te r)
s e e m s to im ply this. C e r ta in ly f r e s h w a t e r in p u t is a m a jo r o c e a n o g r a p h i c c o n s i d e r a ­
tio n in d e t e r m in in g th e d istrib u tio n o f salt ( th u s d en sity ) in e s tu a r in e a n d co a sta l
w a te r s . A p p a r e n t ly , g e o g r a p h e r s also g e n e r a lly rec o g n ize t h e f r e s h - w a te r q uality o f
riv e r so u rce s. A c c o r d i n g to W illia m G a r r e n o f th e D e f e n s e M a p p in g A g e n c y a n d
a m e m b e r o f t h e B o a r d o f G e o g r a p h i c a l N a m e s , th e B o a r d ’s w o rk in g list o f
“D efin itio n s a n d D e s i g n a ti o n s ” (in te rn a l, J u n e 1979) d o e s n o t directly list “ river",
b u t lists “s tr e a m " :
S tre a m : “a riv er o r o t h e r r u n n i n g f r e s h w a t e r b o d y , p e r e n n ia l in all o r a p a r t
o f its c o u r s e ” .
A Glossary o f G eographical T erm s, a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t p r e p a r e d by a
c o m m i t t e e o f th e British A s so c ia tio n fo r th e A d v a n c e m e n t o f S cience (S t a m p ,
1966), p r e s e n t s :
R iver
O xfo rd English D ictionary .- “A c o p i o u s s tr e a m o f w a t e r flow ing in a c h a n n e l
t o w a r d s th e sea, a lake o r a n o t h e r s t r e a m ”.
W ebster .- “A n a t u r a l s tr e a m o f w a t e r larger th a n a b r o o k o r a creek. A r iv e r
has its stages o f d e v e l o p m e n t , y o u t h , m a tu r ity , a n d old age. I n its earliest
stages a riv er s y s t e m d r a in s its b a s in im p e r fe c tly ; as valleys a re d e e p e n e d , the
d r a in a g e b e c o m e s m o r e p erfec t, so th a t in m a tu r ity th e total d r a in a g e a r e a is
large a n d th e r a te o f e ro s io n high. T h e final sta g e is r e a c h e d w h e n w id e fiats
h a v e d e v e lo p e d a n d th e b o r d e r in g la n d s h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t l o w ”.
S w a y n e (in S t a m p , 1 96 6); "A la rg e b o d y o f fresh w a t e r w h ic h flow s w ith a
perc ep tib le c u r r e n t in a c e rta in d e f in ite c h a n n e l o r c o u r s e , usually u n i n t e r r u p ­
ted ly t h r o u g h o u t th e y e a r ”.
“R iv e r " is a v e r y g e n e ra l te r m , a n d t h e O xford E nglish D ictionary d efinition is
t o o n a r r o w ; th e w a t e r is o f te n far f r o m “c o p io u s " , a n d m a n y riv ers are r e d u c e d to
a string o f poo ls in t h e d r y se a s o n . F u r t h e r , in h y d r o lo g y it is m o r e c u s t o m a r y to
d isc u ss s tr e a m flow r a t h e r t h a n riv e r flow . S tre a m flow is « th e m o v e m e n t o f
(fresh) w a t e r u n d e r th e f o rc e o f g r a v it y t h r o u g h w ell-d e fin ed , s e m i- p e r m a n e n t
s u r f a c e c h a n n e l s ” (LlNSLEY et al., 1949).
PRrTCHARD (1967), in his t r e a tm e n t o f es tu a rie s, a r g u e s th a t o n e o f th e key
d e t e r m i n a n t f a c to rs physically e s tab lishing a b o d y o f w a t e r as an e s tu a r y is th a t
t h e r e is a m e a s u r a b l e dilution o f sea w a t e r b y fre sh w a te r . H e identifies t h r e e m a jo r
s e g m e n t s o f a r iv e r - e s tu a rin e s y s t e m : (1) a n e s tu a r in e s e g m e n t w ith m e a s u r a b l e sea
salt w h i c h is u n d e r th e in flu e n ce o f tid e s ; (2) a f r e s h w a t e r tidal s e g m e n t ( w i th no
m e a s u r a b l e se a salt) gen e rally e x te n d in g a b o v e th e f r o n t o f th e salt w e d g e ( to w a r d
the r iv e r s ’s sources), a n d (3) implicitly a n o n -tid a l s e g m e n t a b o v e t h e tidal s e g m e n t
in flu e n c e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y by grav ity flo w o f fre sh w a te r.
D IST IL L A T IO N O F W O R K ING D E F IN IT IO N S
In s u m m a r y , th e definition o f riv er in SHALOWITZ (1964) is s a tisfa c to ry as far
as it goes, b u t it is t o o g e n e r a l a te r m fo r a p h y sic a lly d is c r i m in a n t d e t e r m in a tio n
o f m o s t w a t e r bodies. T h e f o llo w in g p hy sic al c h a r a c te r is tic s s h o u ld also be
in corporated :
1) h a v i n g a s o u r c e o f fre sh w a t e r w h ic h f lo w s in o n e d ire c tio n d o w n r iv e r t o w a r d
a sea, lake, o r o t h e r r iv e r u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f g ra v ity t h r o u g h o u t its le n g th ;
2) in the tidal a n d e s tu a r in e s e g m e n t s o f its le ngth, this flo w m a y be a f f e c te d b y the
e b b a n d f lo o d o f th e tide, b u t th e net t r a n s p o r t o f this fre sh w a t e r is
u n id ir e c tio n a l, d o w n riv er, c a u s e d b y a to p o g r a p h i c c h a n g e in th e h e a d o f w a te r
b e t w e e n th e s o u r c e a n d th e rec eiv in g w a t e r s (sea, lake, o r o t h e r s tr e a m ) ; a n d
3) in th e e s tu a r in e s e g m e n t, th e r e is a m e a s u r a b l e q u a n t i t y o f se a w a t e r w h i c h m a y
be c a r rie d u p r iv e r w ith in this s e g m e n t via th e e s tu a r in e c irc u la tio n ; h o w e v e r ,
th e n e t t r a n s p o r t o f salt o v e r a p p r e c ia b le p e r io d s m u s t be z e ro (to d o o th e r w is e
in definitely w o u l d result in e v e r in c re asin g salinity in th e riv er at th e s o u r c e o f
fresh w ater).
T h u s , w e h a v e c h o s e n th e f o llo w in g w o r k i n g defin itio n fo r a r iv e r :
A n a t u r a l s tr e a m o f g r e a te r v o l u m e th a n a c r e e k o r rivu let, h a v i n g a
f r e s h w a t e r s o u r c e flo w ing , in g e n e r a l, in o n e d ire c tio n t o w a r d a sea, lake, o r
o t h e r riv er, in a m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t b e d o r c h a n n e l , w ith a c u r r e n t w h ic h
m a y b e e ith e r c o n t i n u o u s in o n e d ire c tio n o r affe c te d by th e e b b a n d flo w o f
t h e tidal c u r r e n t. T h e f r e s h w a te r flow is c o n t ro lle d b y th e to p o g r a p h i c
d if fe r e n c e in th e h ea d o f w a te r b e t w e e n th e s o u r c e a n d th e re c e iv in g b o d y o f
w a te r . W h e r e u n d e r th e influ e n ce o f tidal c u r r e n t s , t h e l o n g - te r m flux o f salt
u p riv er m u s t b e zero.
T h e g e o g r a p h ic d efinition o f a stra it g iv e n b y SHALOWITZ (1962) is alm o st
u n iv e rsa lly a c c e p te d w ith relatively sm a ll v a r ia tio n s in t h e w o r d i n g , w it h th e
e x c e p t io n o f t h e o c e a n o g r a p h i c defin itio n , w h ic h im plies t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f m a rin e
(sea salt) b o d ie s o f w a te r , a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h (th e strait) w a t e r s o f th e t w o b o d ie s
a re e x c h a n g e d .
T h u s , o u r w o r k i n g defin itio n o f a strait is :
A relatively n a r r o w w a t e r w a y c o n n e c t in g t w o la rg e r b o d ie s o f w a t e r in
w h i c h w a t e r m o v e m e n t is d e t e r m i n e d b y th e i n te r c o n n e c te d bodies.
P H Y S IC A L O C E A N O G R A P H Y O F T H E EAST
A N D H A R L E M RIVERS
Overview o f T ides, Tidal Currents, and Transport
Before exam ining the tides and currents o f the East and Harlem Rivers in any
detail, it is appropriate to provide an overview o f the various nested system s within
w hich they reside. The Long Island Soun d-N ew York Harbor system com m unica­
tes w ith the open sea within the Middle Atlantic Bight through tw o connections The Race at the eastern end o f Long Island Sound and the m outh o f the Lower Bay
entering into the Bight at Sandy H ook, N.J. (fig. Î). The semidiurnal nature ot the
Bight tides is basically preserved throughout the Harbor-Sound system, but tidal
w aves develop within these tw o water bodies in distinctly different w ays. Specifi­
cally, the tidal w ave in the Harbor is predominantly a progressive w ave with tidal
heights and currents tending to be in phase, whereas in the Sound it is more like
a standing w ave with tidal heights and current about 90° out o f phase (i.e., strength
o f current'*1 occurs near mean tide level rather than at high or low waters as is the
case for a progressive w ave) (S w a n s o n , 1976). These w ave forms meet and
interfere within the reaches o f the East River causing the East/Harlem Rivers to
exhibit a perm anent, oscillatory (at semidaily frequency) hydraulic flow regime
driven by the tw o dissimilar w ave form s in the larger water bodies at the opposite
ends o f these passages ( M a r m e r , 1935). Other physical phenom ena (such as
m eteorological and hydrological disturbances) occurring within the Middle Atlantic
Bight or H arbor/Sound bodies also com m unicate through the same routes as the
tides and affect sea level and flow through the East/H arlem River system.
It is important here to establish som e definitions and sign conventions regarding
the East/H arlem River system s. As M a r m e r (1935) points out, the com m on usage
o f the terms “the tide”, “the tides ”, and “ebb and flood” is rather indiscriminately
applied to both horizontal and vertical tidal m otions, and in general to the tidal
phenom ena, only to be understood in the context o f usage.
H icks (1975) revised S c h u r e m a n ’s (1949) definition o f ebb (flood) current to
include estuaries : “The m ovem ent o f a tidal current aw ay from shore (toward the
shore) or dow n (up) a tidal river or estuary” ; but otherw ise, these long-established
definitions have rem ained unaltered and do not satisfactorily apply to straits. This
has long bothered hydrologists and oceanographers and led M i t c h e l l (1867) to state
w ith regard to Hell Gate ; “I propose not to use these terms (ebb and flood) because
they cannot be properly applied to interference currents w h ose epochs bear no
necessary relations to high and low w ater.” W ith regard to the East/H arlem Rivers
w hich M a r m e r (1935) labels straits, “upstream and dow nstream , therefore, have no
precise m eaning... and the designations o f the flood and ebb currents here m ust be
made w ith reference to the time relations betw een local currents and tides”. Regardless
o f these reservations, conven tion s have been established based on the criteria given
(*) M a x i m u m c u r r e n t .
b y M a r m e r . Specifically, flood is d efin e d as th e direc tio n o f m a x i m u m c u r r e n t
o c c u r r in g o n th e rising tide, e b b being g en e ra lly d irec ted o p p o site to flood.
F ig u re 6 p r e s e n ts sc hem a tic ally th e c o n v e n t i o n s fo r v a r io u s w a t e r b o d ie s a r o u n d
N e w Y o r k H a r b o r . W h e r e app licable in m a th e m a ti c a l o r n u m e r i c a l te rm s , e b b is
c o n s id e r e d positiv e a n d flood negative. It is in te resting to n o te th a t ebb in U p p e r Bay
a n d H u d s o n a n d E a s t R iv ers p o in ts to th e se a b y w a y o f th e m o u t h o f L o w e r Bay
at S a n d y H o o k , N .J., w h ile in L o n g I s la n d S o u n d , it p o in ts to th e se a t h r o u g h th e
R ace. T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f this is a d isc o n tin u ity in th e se n se o f d irec tio n , se p a ra tin g
th e u p p e r E a s t R iv e r f r o m L o n g Islan d S o u n d . T h is is in dicated by th e d a s h e d line
in f ig u re 6 lo c a te d alo n g a section b e t w e e n W i lle ts P o in t a n d T h r o g s N ec k .
In classical rivers a n d estuaries, th e n o n - tid a l g r a v ity flow o f fre sh w a t e r is d o w n
riv er to th e se a a n d o v e rrid e s salt w a t e r w h ic h m a y also, w ith in th e e s tu a r in e s e g m e n t
F ig . 6. - Conventions used to describe flood and ebb tidal current patterns.
o f t h e river, m o v e u p riv er w ith c o n s id e r a b le stren g th . T his in te ractio n has a n u m b e r
o f c o n s e q u e n c e s in m o d if y in g th e tidal c u r r e n t s as well as th e tides th e m se lv es. T a b l e 1
s u m m a r iz e s M ARM ER (1935) a n d lists s o m e o f th e se n o tio n s r e g a rd in g tidal c u r r e n ts ,
w i t h the H u d s o n R iv e r r e p r e s e n tin g th e classic e x a m p le o f a tr u e tidal riv e r fo r
c o m p a r i s o n to th e E a s t / H a r l e m R iv e rs.
A c c o r d i n g to M a r m e r (1935), th e u p p e r E a st R iv er clearly ex h ib its the effects o f th e
f r e s h w a t e r flo w o n th e c u r r e n t , w h e r e a s th e s e effects a r e a b s e n t in th e l o w e r E a s t
R iv e r. It is in teresting to n o te th a t t h e flood ca rrie s th e fre sh w a te r to th e se a (via
L o n g I sla n d S o u n d ) in c o n t r a s t to t h e e b b in classical tidal rivers. H a r d y (1972) a n d
J a y a n d B o w m a n (1975), u p o n th e e x a m i n a t i o n o f m o r e r e c e n t data, r e p o r t e d a n
e s tu a r in e c h a r a c t e r in the u p p e r E ast R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n L o n g Islan d S o u n d d e n s ity
s t r u c t u r e a n d c u r r e n ts . F o r this to b e t h e case, o n e m ig h t e x p e c t th e b o t t o m c u r r e n t
in th e u p p e r E a s t R i v e r to be o f lo n g e r d u r a ti o n a n d g r e a te r s tr e n g th o n th e eb b ,
w h i c h is n o t th e ca se a c c o r d in g to M a r m e r (table 1).
In a t r u e r iv e r th e lo n g - te r m n e t t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h a n y c r o s s se ction m u s t be
d o w n river, w i t h f re s h w a t e r d e r iv e d f r o m th e riv e r a n d its tributa ries. T h e r e c a n
b e a t r a n s p o r t o f salt w a t e r u p riv er in b o t t o m w a te r s , b u t this in c re a se d v o lu m e m u s t
b e reflected in in c re a se d s u r fa c e flo w c a r ry in g a n e q u a l a m o u n t o f salt d o w n river,
so th a t, in the long t e r m , t h e r e is n o n e t tr a n s p o r t o f salt u p river. T h a t is, net t r a n s p o r t
o f w a t e r e q u a ls t h e n e t t r a n s p o r t o f fre sh w a t e r in a tr u e riv er estu ary .
H o w e v e r , in straits c o n n e c t in g la rg e r b o d ie s o f w a te r , t r a n s p o r t p r o c e s s e s a re
v e r y c o m p le x a n d th e n e t f r e s h w a t e r t r a n s p o r t (if ex istent) d e p e n d s o n facto rs w ith in
Ta ble 1 ( S u m m a riz e d fro m M a rm e r. 1 9 3 5 )
S u b s u rfa c e C u rre n ts
S u rfa c e C u rre n ts
B o tto m C u rre n ts
C h a n g e w ith D e p th
Longer
D ura tion
E bb
H udson
R iver
E bb
Longer
D ura tion
D e c re a s e s
ra p id ly
S lo w
d e c re a s e ;
m ay
in c re a s e
F loo d
F lo o d
D e c re a s e s
re la tiv e ly
F lo o d
F lo o d
E.H
In c re a s e s
to mid
d e p th , then
d e c re a s e s
s lo w ly to
b o tto m
In c re a s e s
D e c re a s e s
D e c re a s e s
Ebb
E bb
D e c re a s e s
D e c re a s e s
E bb
Ebb
Ebb
D u ra tio n
D e c re a s e s
Ebb
S tre n g th
D
Upper E
R iver
( mid
channel
o n ly )
F lo o d
F lo o d
E bb
E bb
A
L o w e r E.
R iver
H arlem
R iver
B.F
E qua l
C
B.F
Ebb
G re a te r
S tre n g th
F lo o d
S tre n g th
G re a te r
S tre n g th
In c re a s e s
1
1
E.F
In c re a s e s
G
N o te s to T a ble 1 : A) E qua l a t H ell G a te , d u ra tio n in c re a s e s e a s tw a rd . B) M ig h t im p ly fre s h w a te r flo w
to U p p e r B ay bu t s u b s u rfa c e c u r re n ts d o n o t b e a r th is o u t. C) E b b lo n g e r n e a r H u d s o n R ive r; flo o d
lo n g e r n e a r Hell G a te . D) B ro u g h t a b o u t by an e a rlie r s la c k b e fo re flo o d w ith in c re a s in g d e p th ;
tim e o f s la c k b e fo re e b b n o n -c h a n g in g . E) B ro u g h t a b o u t by b o th a la te r s la c k b e fo re flo o d and e a rlie r
s la c k b e fo re e b b w ith in c re a s in g d e p th F) A ls o h ig h ly va ria ble d u e to e ffe c ts o f c u rv a tu re and
m o m e n tu m . G) B ro u g h t a b o u t b y a la te r s la c k b e fo re flo o d w ith in c re a s in g d e p th ; tim e o f s la c k b e fo re
e b b n o n -c h a n g in g . H) C o n s ta n t a t H ell G ate.
I) H ig h ly va ria b le , n o t w e ll d e te rm in e d .
the la rg e r b o d ie s a n d th e ir relative in flu e nce o n c h a n n e l h yd raulics. L ikew ise, a
lo n g - te rm n e t salt t r a n s p o r t m a y exist, th e d irec tio n o f w h i c h ex hibits sim ilar c o m p le x
d e p e n d e n c e o n th e e x te rn a l w a t e r bod ies a n d m a y be in d e p e n d e n t o f th e direction
o f f re s h w a te r tr a n sp o r t. It will be s h o w n later t h a t the m o v e m e n t o f w a te r t h r o u g h
th e E a s t / H a r l e m R iv ers can be e xp laine d q u ite well by c o n s id e r in g th a t the
in d e p e n d e n t tides at ea c h e n d d e te r m in e the slope o f an oscillating sea su rfa c e causing
th e ebb a n d flood c u r r e n ts in th e c h a n n els. A net w a t e r tr a n s p o r t f r o m L o n g Island
S o u n d to th e U p p e r Bay o c c u r s d u e to a h ig h e r stage a n d lo n g e r d u r a ti o n o f ebb
t h r o u g h o u t th e c h a n n e l. S im ilarly, the H a r le m R i v e r ex hib its a n e t t r a n s p o r t o f w ate r
fro m Hell G a te to th e H u d s o n River. T h e s e n e t tr a n s p o r t s n o t o n ly reflect th e effects
o f th e d issim ilar n a tu re o f th e a s tro n o m ic tide s at b o th e n d s b u t also th e effects o f
so m e o f the o t h e r factors influencing th e n et tr a n s p o r t s o f salt a n d fre sh w a te r . As
in dic ated a b o v e , the direction o f th e t r a n s p o r ts o f salt a n d fresh w a t e r c a n n o t be
in ferred f ro m th e net w a te r tr a n s p o r t alone.
In actuality, the situation is m o r e c o m p le x in th a t th e H a rle m R iv e r intersects
th e E a s t R iv e r at its m id -p o in t, resulting in a s y ste m o f th r e e h y d r a u lic c h a n n e ls
w ith th e ir ju n c tio n at Hell G a te (Fig. 3). O n e e n d o f b o th H a r le m a n d l o w e r E ast
R ivers a d jo in s th e H u d s o n R iv e r at loc ations s e p a r a te d by a p p r o x im a te ly 21.7 k m
(11.7 nautical miles) along its le n g th (the n o r t h e r n a n d s o u th e r n e n d s o f M a n h a t t a n
Island), w h ile their o t h e r e n d s are essentially c o -lo c ate d at Hell G ate. D iffe re n ce s in
th e m e a n r a n g e a n d tim e o f tide b e tw e e n th e tw o H u d s o n R iv e r e n d s a r e relatively
small, being a b o u t 0.21 m (0.7 ft) a n d slightly less th a n o n e h o u r respectively. T h e
u p p e r E a st R iv er, o n the o t h e r h a n d , has o n e e n d also in c o m m o n w ith th e o th e r
t w o c h a n n e ls at Hell G a te , b u t its op p o site e n d at T h r o g s N e c k (W illets P oint) is
u n d e r th e influe n ce o f L o n g Islan d S o u n d tide s w h ic h are distinctly d iffe ren t f ro m
th e tides in th e H u d s o n R iver.
E x a m in a ti o n o f tidal c u r r e n t c h a r ts illustrates th a t th e th r e e c o m p o n e n t
c h a n n e ls (excluding the s tre tc h in th e u p p e r E a s t R iv e r f ro m H u n ts P o in t to T h ro g s
N ec k ) m a k e up a h a r m o n i o u s c u r r e n t sy stem e b b in g an d flooding m o r e o r less in
u n ison. F ig u re 7 p rese n ts tidal p h a s e in f o rm a ti o n fo r th e E a s t R iv e r for a giv e n day.
A lth o u g h th e ran g e an d the tim es o f o c c u r r e n c e o f tide p h a s e s c h a n g e t h r o u g h o u t
the sy stem , in cluding a h y d r a u lic j u m p (a s u d d e n , u sua lly tu r b u le n t, rise in w a te r
flow ing in a n o p e n c h a n n e l w h e r e it e n c o u n t e r s an o b s tr u c t io n o r c h a n g e in
c h a n n e l slope) at Hell G a te , c u r r e n t p h a s e s v ary slow ly a n d o c c u r m o r e o r less
s im u lta n e o u sly th r o u g h o u t th e system . F r o m H u n t s P o in t east, h o w e v e r , slack
w a te r [w h e n th e tidal c u r r e n t c h a n g e s f r o m flood (ebb) to e b b (flood) a n d the
velocity o f the c u r r e n t is zero] c o m e s c o n s id e r a b ly earlier. It s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t
th e H u d s o n R iv e r tides are n o t in p h a s e w ith the c h a n n e l sy ste m . T h e r e are p erio d s
w h e n th e H u d s o n R iv e r b o th e b b s a n d floods w h ile th e c h a n n e l s y ste m floods, a n d
again th e H u d s o n R iv er floods a n d e b b s w hile th e c h a n n e l sy s te m ebbs. T h e r e f o r e ,
f r o m H u n ts P o in t w est, th e c h a n n e l sy s te m acts as t h o u g h H u n t s P o in t w e r e the
“ u p r iv e r s o u r c e " o f the net tr a n s p o r ts , e x c e p t th a t th is o b v io u sly co u ld n o t be a
f re s h w a te r riv er str e a m as in a tr u e river. F u r th e r , this situ atio n d o e s n o t p r e c lu d e
a n e t f r e s h - w a te r t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h th e u p p e r E a s t R iv e r to L o n g Islan d S o u n d
f ro m th e H a r le m or lo w e r E a s t Rivers. D u rin g the last 2 h o u r s o f th e H u d s o n R iv e r
eb b, th e E a st R iv e r has a lre a d y b e g u n to flood a n d lo w salinity s u r fa c e w a te r s are
c a rrie d a r o u n d T h e Battery an d in to E a s t R iver. T his w a te r , alo n g w ith the
f lo o d -t ra n s p o r te d w a te r f r o m th e H a rle m R iv e r , is vertically m ix e d by tu r b u l e n c e at
Hell G a te b e f o r e e n te rin g the u p p e r E a st R iver.
TIME OF TIDES AND CURRENTS IN THE EAST RIVER
SEPTEMBER 23, 1972
S ja i8 L U 0 |!> i
H a r d y (1972), in his e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r q u a lity o f L o n g Islan d S o u n d ,
d e v e lo p e d a c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l (Fig. 8) o f the g e n e r a l c i rc u la tio n a n d t r a n s p o r t in the
E a s t R iv e r to e x p la in th e d istrib u tio n s o f salinity a n d c o n t a m i n a n t s in w e s t e r n L o n g
Islan d S o u n d . T h e m o d e l relied heav ily o n his s y n th e s is a n d in te r p r e ta t io n o f th e
w e a lth o f in f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n te d b y M a r m e r (1935) as w ell as his in d e p e n d e n t
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f w a t e r p ro p e rtie s. T h e m o d e l p o r t r a y s a tw o - l a y e r flow in the
u p p e r E a s t R i v e r , w ith a net t r a n s p o r t o f f re sh w a t e r in t h e s u r fa c e la y er into L o n g
Islan d S o u n d m a in ta in in g th e salinity d istrib u tio n t h e r e ; a n d a s u b s u r f a c e t r a n s p o r t
o f saltier c e n tr a l b a s in w a te r flo w in g t o w a r d s Hell G a te . T h e l o w e r E a s t R i v e r is
c o n s id e r e d n o n - s tr a tifie d , a n d th e n e t w a t e r flow t o w a r d s U p p e r B a y d o e s n o t
e x h ib it t w o - l a y e r e s tu a r in e flow ch a racteristics. H o w e v e r , th e tidal e x c u r s io n [the
a v e r a g e d is ta n c e tr a v e le d b y a particle o f w a t e r o n th e floo d tide ( H a r d e m a n ,.
1966)] e x c e e d s th e le n g th o f th e lo w e r E a st R i v e r ; th e r e f o r e , it is p o ssib le fo r fresh
FLOOD TIDE IN NEW YORK HARBOR
H A R LE M R IVE R
E A S T RIVER W ATER
-V
----- *-
------» .
C EfÏTR A L^BASIN WATER"
/7///7/77/ / / / //A fh
LOWER E A S T R IV E R
H E LL GATE
UPPER E A S T R IV E R
W ESTER N LONG
(S LA N O SOUND
EBB TIDE IN NEW YORK HARBOR
--------------Æ 77 7 7 7 7 J7 T K / f r -
NET TIDAL TRANSPORT IN EAST RIVER
H A R L E M R IV E R
E A S T TflV E R WATER
-
-*•
-►
♦.
-*■
47777777777^
LOW ER E A S T R IV E R
H E L L O ATE
U PPER E A S T R IV E R
W E S T E R N LONG
IS L A N D SOUND
F i g . 8. -
G e n e r a l w a t e r c ir c u l a t i o n in t h e E a s t R i v e r .
w a te r to be tr a n s p o r t e d f r o m the H u d s o n R iv e r a n d o v e r th e Hell G a te sill d u rin g
the flood.
A l th o u g h the net w a t e r t r a n s p o r t in the H a r le m R iv er is p o r tr a y e d as directed
fro m Hell G a te to the H u d s o n R iver, this sh a llo w a n d n a r r o w c h a n n e l injects its
relatively small flow into larger, s w if t- m o v in g w a t e r bodies. T h is, c o u p le d w ith the
fact tha t th e tidal e x c u r s io n is a p p r o x im a te ly e q u a l to its leng th, results in tw o
o p p o site ly direc ted net t r a n s p o r t s (salt a n d fresh w ater). D u rin g th e e b b th e saltier
Hell G a te w a t e r is t r a n s p o r t e d to the H u d s o n R iv e r at S p u y te n D u y v il; c o n v e rse ly ,
d u r in g the flood, f re s h e r H u d s o n R iv er w a te r is t r a n s p o r t e d to Hell G ate . C o n s i d e r ­
ab le tu r b u l e n c e at Hell G a te effectively m ix e s the w a te r s passing o v e r the sill. J a y
a n d B o w m a n (1975) e x a m in e d a d d itio n a l h y d r o g r a p h i c d a ta a n d direct c u r r e n t
m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d fo u n d f u r t h e r s u p p o r t for the H a r d y c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l (Fig. 8).
F ig u re 9 s h o w s th e tide a n d tidal c u r r e n t p h a s e r e la tio n sh ip s in th e H a r le m River.
TIME OF TIDES AND CURRENTS IN THE HARLEM RIVER
SEPTEMBER 23, 1972
PREDICTED TIDAL
RANGE (METERS)
KILOMETERS
LUNAR HOURS
S LA C K ------------ HIGH TIDE .............. LOW T I D E ----------F ig . 9. -
J av a n d B o w m a n , 1975.
H ig h w a t e r o c c u r s slightly earlier (a b o u t 0.7 h o u rs) at t h e H u d s o n R iv e r e n d o f the
H a r le m R iv e r. S lack w a t e r o c c u r s alm o st s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith high a n d low w a te rs.
T h u s , flow in t h e H a r le m is n o t o f the classic p r o g r e s s iv e w a v e f o rm typically
f o u n d in rivers.
C haracteristics o f the M ean H ydraulic Strait
In the H a r r i s (1966) s y s te m o f classification o f riv e rs, straits, b a y s , etc., th e
E a s t R i v e r is classified as “ a s h o r t strait o f v e r y small c r o s s se ctio n c o n n e c t in g t w o
i n d e p e n d e n tly tided b o d ie s o f w a t e r . ” A c c o rd in g to M a r m e r (1935), th e p r i m a r y
tidal p h e n o m e n o n in effect in th e E a st R iv e r is the i n te r f e r e n c e o f t w o tide w a v e s
e n te r in g o p p o s it e e n d s o f th e c h a n n e l : specifically, th e tides o f N e w Y o rk H a r b o r
a n d o f L o n g I sla n d S o u n d . T h e m e c h a n is m o f tidal m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h th e c h a n n e l
ca n b est be v isu a liz ed b y c o n s id e r in g a sim plified m o d e l o f m e a n tidal a n d non -tid a l
flow . T h e m e a n r a n g e o f tide at T h e B a tte ry a n d W ille ts P o i n t is 1.4 m (4.5 ft) a n d
2.2 m (7 ft), re sp e c tiv e ly . T ida l p h a s e s at W ille ts P o in t lag th o s e at T h e B a tte ry by
a b o u t 3 h o u r s . T h e resu ltin g d iffe ren ce s in elev a tio n ( A H ) o f th e e n d s o f the
c h a n n e l are t h u s se e n to flu c tu a te as illustrated in fig u re 10. W h e n the w a t e r
e lev a tio n at W ille ts P o in ts is h ig h e r th a n th a t a t T h e B a tte r y , th e sea su r fa c e slopes
t o w a r d s T h e B a tte ry a n d th e w a te r flow in th e strait e b b s t o w a r d s U p p e r B a y ;
w h e n t h e w a t e r level at T h e B a ttery is h ig h e r, th e slo p e r e v e r s e s a n d th e w a te r
floods t o w a r d s L o n g Isla n d S o u n d . T h e vertical d a s h e d lines (Fig. 10) indicate the
tim e w h e n t h e se a s u r f a c e is level (i.e., at slack w a t e r b e g i n n in g a re v e rsa l in the
direc tio n o f t h e tidal c u r r e n t.)
In this sim plified m o d e l o f h y d r a u lic flo w (Fig. 11), th e sea su r fa c e slope is
a s s u m e d to b e linear. U n d e r this c o n d itio n , t h e m e a n sta g e o f th e e n tire c h a n n e l
d u r in g a n e b b o r f lo o d c u r r e n t c a n be o b ta in e d by th e e q u a l a r e a g r a p h ic a l m e t h o d
f ro m th e m e a n level c u r v e (Fig. 10). T h e m e a n slope d u r i n g th e flood a p p r o x im a te ly
e q u a ls th a t o f th e e b b a n d t h e d u r a ti o n o f th e e b b is o n ly slightly lo n g e r th a n the
flood. All o t h e r th in g s b e in g e q u a l, (i.e., if v elocity is d e p e n d e n t solely o n th e slope)
th e m e a n e b b a n d flo od c u r r e n t s s h o u ld b e e q u a l w ith a slightly la rg e r e b b
t r a n s p o r t d u e to th e lo n g e r d u r a ti o n o f t h e e b b . H o w e v e r , t h e m e a n w a t e r sta g e
t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t R i v e r d u r in g th e e b b is h ig h e r t h a n th e flood b y a b o u t 0.5 m
(1.6 ft). T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f this are to in c re a se th e c r o s s se c tio n a l a r e a o f the
c h a n n e l d u r in g th e e b b , r e d u c in g th e resistan c e to flow ; to f u r t h e r in c re a se th e e b b
tr a n s p o r t o v e r t h a t o f th e flood.
R E D F IE L D (1978) h as a n a ly z e d a n u m b e r o f t h e s e m i- e n c lo s e d b o d ie s o f w a te r
a lo n g th e c o a s t b e t w e e n N e w Y o rk a n d t h e Bay o f F u n d y . T h e E a s t a n d H a r le m
R iv e r s w e r e in c lu d e d in th e analysis. T h e o r e tic a l e q u a t i o n s fo r the in te r f e r e n c e o f
t w o p r o g re s s iv e w a v e s w e r e used to d e s c r ib e th e tide t h r o u g h o u t th e c h a n n e ls .
P a r a m e te r s d e a lin g w i t h a m p litu d e s o f th e t w o in te rfe rin g w a v e s a n d a n a t t e n u a ­
tion coe ffic ie n t f o r t h e a m p litu d e o f th e c o m b i n e d w a v e w e r e d efin e d as c h a r a c t e ­
ristics f o r tidal straits.
T h e E a s t R i v e r , a c c o r d in g to R E D F IE L D , ca n n o t b e c o n s id e r e d as a single
h y d r a u lic strait a s s u g g e s te d by M a r m e r (1935). O n t h e basis o f his analysis,
R e d f i e l d c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e E a s t R iv e r as con sistin g o f t h r e e s e g m e n t s (Fig. 7 ):
L o w e r R e a c h , f r o m G o v e r n o r s Isla n d to H allets P o in t; M id d l e R e a c h , f r o m H allets
—
lu
s u |6 a a q q 3 ■
and Willets Point, and mean hydraulic
(modified J ay and B o w m a n , 1975).
s u iB a g p o o | j ------- - _ j —
s u jB a g p o o y
10. - Mean tidal height curves for the Battery
c\j
i-
—
o
~i
(SH3131AI) 1 H 9 I 3 H
for the East River
*-
head and water surface elevation
n
F ig
( 133d) 1 H 0 I 3 H
THE
BATTERY
CO
GC
LU
O
m
o
m
o
S Ü 3 1 3W
(Marmer,
1935).
hiü II . - The simultaneous tidal heights at the Battery and Throgs Neck are connected by
straight lines for each lunar hour of the tidal cycle. The envelope of the bundle gives the
approximate elevation of the MHW
and MLW
surface at each point along the River
W ILLtlSHI.
1333
P oint to N o r t h B r o th e r I s la n d ; a n d U p p e r R e a c h , f ro m N o r t h B r o th e r Island to
T h r o g s N e c k . T h e n u m e ri c a l v a lu e s o f the ch a racteristic p a r a m e te r s fo r e a c h o f the
th re e s e g m e n t s o f th e E a st R iv e r w e r e c o n s iste n t w ith th o se specified for tidal
straits. F u r t h e r m o r e , th e L o w e r a n d M id d le R e a c h e s h a v e flow r e g im e n s sugge stive
o f h y d r a u li c c u r r e n t s (flow r e su ltin g f r o m a d iffe ren ce b e t w e e n w a t e r levels o f th e
tw o e n d s o f th e channel). H y d r a u l i c c u r r e n ts w e r e not ju d g e d to be a p r o m i n e n t
f e a tu re o f the U p p e r R e a c h . T h e H a r le m R iv e r w a s classified as a strait w ith
h y d r a u lic c u r r e n t s in th e R e d f i e l d analysis.
E stim ates o f Net W ater, Saltw ater, and Freshwater Transports
T h e p ro c e sse s in v o lv e d in s a ltw a te r a n d f r e s h w a te r t r a n s p o r t a re m o r e
c o m p le x th a n th e m e r e t r a n s p o r t o f w a t e r ; this is p articu la rly tr u e in th e u p p e r E a s t
R iv er, w h i c h ex h ib its a n e s tu a r in e c h a r a c te r . In ad d itio n to th e salt w a t e r o r fresh
w a te r c a rrie d b y l o n g - te r m m e a n f lo w , diffusive a n d e s tu a r in e tr a n s p o r t p r o c e sse s
are also o p e ra tiv e . In g e n e r a l, th e lo n g - te rm net effects o f th e se latter t w o p ro c e sse s
c a n n o t be e v a lu a te d d u e to a p a u c ity o f data. H o w e v e r , s o m e g e n e r a l s ta te m e n ts
bas ed o n o c e a n o g r a p h i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g re g a rd in g th e d irec tio n o f th e lo n g - te r m net
t r a n s p o r ts o f th e se fra c tio n a l c o m p o n e n t s ca n b e m a de.
J a y a n d B o w m a n (1975) m a d e so m e c a lc u latio n s for the se c o m p o n e n t flow s
t h r o u g h a se ction lo c a te d b e t w e e n T h r o g s N e c k a n d W illets P o in t d u r in g S e p t e m ­
b er 1972, a p e rio d o f relatively lo w f r e s h w a te r ru n o ff . T h r o u g h th e e n tire vertical
section, a total v o lu m e o f w a t e r w a s t r a n s p o r te d at th e rate o f 560 m ’/ s t o w a r d
N e w Y o r k H a r b o r . A lso 1.56 x 10“ k g / s o f salt w a s t r a n s p o r t e d t h r o u g h th e section
to the H a r b o r ; h o w e v e r , 13 m ’/ s o f th e f r e s h w a te r flow w a s d ire c te d t o w a r d Island
S o u n d . T h e su r fa c e t r a n s p o r t a b o v e 7 m w a s 103 m ’/ s o f w a te r , 1.56 x 102 k g / s o f
salt, a n d 32 m ' / s o f fresh w a t e r , all direc ted t o w a r d L o n g Islan d S o u n d .
E x a m i n a t i o n o f th e h isto ric al (1947-1965) s u rfa c e salinity d a ta fo r W illets
P o in t a n d T h e B a tte ry yields a v a lu e for th e m e a n salinity for W ille ts P o in t to be
25.2%o a n d at T h e B a tte ry 21.4%», resulting in a m e a n salinity d if fe r e n c e a lo n g the
E ast R i v e r o f 3.8%o. T h e m o n t h l y m e a n d iffe ren ce ra n g e s o v e r t h e y e a r b e t w e e n
2.1 -2.296o in J u ly t h r o u g h O c t o b e r to 7.5%x> in A p ril d u r in g th e s p r in g freshet. J a y
a n d B o w m a n (1975) a s se rt t h a t o n ly d u rin g v e r y low r u n o f f p e r io d s is th e re a n y
possibility o f T h e B a tte ry salinity e x c e e d in g th a t at W illets P oint. M o s t o f th e
variability in the diffe re n c e s is d u e to salinity c h a n g e s in th e H a r b o r , since th e r an g e
o f m e a n m o n t h l y salinity a t W ille ts P o in t is o n ly 1.9%o.
A c tu a l sea su r fa c e e l e v a tio n at e ith e r e n d o f th e E a s t o r H a r le m R iv e r s varie s
fro m tidal cycle to tidal cycle, d a y to d a y , w e e k to w e e k , m o n t h to m o n t h , a n d e v e n
for lo n g e r a v e r a g in g p e r io d s, d u e to m a n y f a c to rs su c h as v a r ia tio n s in river
d isc h a rg e , w in d stress, d ire c t a t m o s p h e r ic p re s s u r e , a n d salinity d istrib u tio n . J a y a n d
B o w m a n (1975) h a v e e v a lu a te d m a n y o f these v a ria b le f a c to rs a n d h a v e d e t e r m i­
ned th a t, o n a n y given d a y , th e m e a n slope o r h y d r a u lic h e a d p r o d u c e s a net flow
in th e E a s t R iv e r w h i c h m a y b e eith er t o w a r d L o n g Island S o u n d o r t o w a r d th e
U p p e r Bay o f N e w Y o rk H a r b o r , d e p e n d in g o n th e direc tio n o f t h e a v e r a g e slope.
T h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f th e slo p e t o w a r d s T h e B a tte ry in c re ase s as th e p e r io d o f
a v e r a g in g increases. T h e y e s tim a te lo n g - te rm a v e r a g e net flow in th e E a s t R iv e r to
be a b o u t 340 m ’/ s direc ted to w a r d T h e B a tte ry . H o w e v e r , e x a m in a tio n o f all
available estim a te s o f the net flux based o n historical c u r r e n t m e a s u r e m e n ts ra n g e s
f r o m - 3 2 4 % ( to w a r d L o n g Islan d S o u n d ) to + 182% ( to w a r d U p p e r Bay) o f this
value. U n f o r tu n a te l y , these e s tim a te s are b a s e d on c u r r e n t m e a s u r e m e n ts o f only a
few tidal c y c le s ’ d u r a tio n a n d c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t a stable lo n g - te rm m e an . T h e y do,
h o w e v e r , illustrate th e p o in t m a d e a b o v e w i t h re g a rd to th e variability o v er s h o r t
a v e r a g in g periods.
G e n e ra lly , in th e long te r m , the m e a n salinity g ra d ie n t ( d o w n t o w a r d s T h e
B attery) a n d es tu arin e c h a r a c t e r o f u p p e r E a st R iv er a n d w e s t e r n L o n g Island
S o u n d are p ersisten t fe a tu re s o f the reg ion. C o n s e q u e n t ly , o n e w o u ld e x p e c t a
diffusive t r a n s p o r t o f salt to a u g m e n t the a d v e c tiv e salt t r a n s p o r t to the H a r b o r d u e
to th e longitu d in al salinity g ra d ie n t. T h e e s tu a r in e t r a n s p o r t o f salt in the b o tto m
w a t e r la yer w o u ld also o p e r a te in the s a m e direction. S ince all o f th e t r a n s p o r t
p ro ce sses a r e o p e r a tin g in th e sa m e d ire c tio n , it is c o n c lu d e d th a t th e re is a
lo n g - te rm n et salt t r a n s p o r t to th e H u d s o n R i v e r f ro m L o n g Islan d S o u n d .
J ay a n d Bo w m a n (1975) e x a m in e d th e f r e s h w a te r so u r c e s a n d t r a n s p o r t
p r o c e s s e s a n d c o n c lu d e d th a t t h e H u d s o n R i v e r p r o v id e d th e f r e s h w a te r s o u r c e
n ec es sary to m ain tain the e s tu a r in e c h a r a c t e r o f the u p p e r E a st R iv e r a n d L ong
Islan d S o u n d . T h e m e c h a n is m o f tr a n s p o r t, h o w e v e r , is n o t riv erin e as p er th e
definition o f a river. F u r th e r , so u r c e s (such as u r b a n r u n o f f a n d s e w a g e t r e a tm e n t
p la n t efflu en t) local to th e r e a c h e s o f the E a s t R iv e r ca n be o f the sa m e o r d e r o f
m a g n itu d e as th e H u d s o n R i v e r in p u t d u r in g lo w r u n o f f periods. In g ene ral, this
w o u ld be e x p e c te d to a u g m e n t the e s tu a r in e t r a n s p o r t o f fresh w a t e r fro m Hell
G a te to L o n g Island S o u n d .
E FFE C T S O F M A N -M A D E M O D IF IC A T IO N S
T h e E a st a n d H a rle m R iv e r s h ave b e e n c o n s id e r a b ly m o d ifie d as th e P o rt o f
N e w Y o rk h as d e v e lo p e d , p articu la rly o v e r t h e p a s t c e n tu r y . T h e H a r le m R iv er w a s
d a m m e d in th e early 19th c e n tu r y , d re d g e d , a n d its c o u r s e e v e n m o d ifie d in th e
vicinity o f S p u y te n Duyvil.
T h e c h a n n e l in th e E a s t R iv e r has b e e n c o n s id e r a b ly d e e p e n e d b u t the
m e tr o p o lita n a r e a has also e n c r o a c h e d b e y o n d th e p re-co lo n ial c h a n n e l b ank s. In
the P o r t ’s ea rlier years, th e slips [w ith piers u p to 122 m (400 ft) in length] grad u a lly
s h o a led d u e to se d im e n ta tio n a n d trash a c c u m u la tio n . E v e n tu a lly , the slips w e r e
filled a n d piers e x te n d e d f u r th e r into the r iv e r ( K l a w o n n , 1977). M u c h o f E ast
R iv e r D riv e is c o n s tr u c te d o n fill d erive d f r o m ballast ca rrie d as p a r t o f o u r trading
w ith E u r o p e ( D e l a n e y , 1965). In a d dition to th e e x te n siv e to p o g r a p h i c m o d ific a­
tio n s a s so cia te d w ith r e m o v i n g o b s tr u c tio n s a n d d e e p e n in g th e c h a n n e l in th e Hell
G a te reg io n , th e re has also b e e n c o n s id e ra b le filling, m u c h o f th e m a teria l being
d e riv e d f r o m these o th e r n a v ig atio n al projects. W a r d s Island, R a n d a lls Island an d
S u n k e n M e a d o w h a v e b e e n m a d e o n e and ac tu a lly jo in e d to th e m a in la n d . S a n f o rd
P o in t has b e e n built o u t to a c c o m m o d a t e L a G u a r d i a A ir p o rt a n d n o w practically
join s R ik e r s Island (Fig. 4).
T h e s e n u m e r o u s m o d ific a tio n s h a v e h a d a c o n s id e ra b le effect o n local flow
c o n d i tio n s in the t w o c h a n n e l s o f c o n c e r n . But h a v e the c h a n g e s b e e n e n o u g h to
alter th e ir f u n d a m e n ta l flo w c h a ra c te ristic s ? T h e r e w e r e s o m e m e a s u r e m e n ts o f
tides a n d tidal c u r r e n t s p r io r to the m a j o r p e rio d o f m o d ific ation. C o m p a r is o n o f
early d a ta w ith m o r e m o d e r n in f o r m a ti o n c a n p r o v id e s o m e insight into the e x t e n t
of change.
O n e - t o - o n e g e o g r a p h ic c o m p a r i s o n s a r e for the m o st p a r t no t possible b e c a u s e
o f p h y s ic a l c h a n g e s . In a d d itio n , o u r ability to m e a s u r e tides a n d tidal c u r r e n ts (an d
for lo n g e r p e r io d s o f tim e) has g rea tly i m p r o v e d o v e r the last c e n tu r y so th a t th e r e
is u n d o u b t e d l y c o n s id e r a b le m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r to b e co n s id e re d . N e v e rth e le ss, in
this s tu d y w e are c o n c e r n e d w ith th e b r o a d issue o f w h e t h e r the E ast a n d H a r le m
R iv e rs arc ch a racteristically d riv e n by the s a m e flow c o n d itio n s as in years past.
W e are f o r tu n a te to h a v e a c tu a l m e a s u r e m e n t s to help in th e decision process.
T h e 19th a n d 20th c e n tu r y v a lu e s o f m e a n r a n g e a n d arriv al tim es o f high
w a te r a r e ta b u la te d for lo c atio n s o n th e E a s t a n d H a r le m R iv e rs w h e r e r e p e a t
o b s e r v a tio n s h a v e b e e n m a d e (Table 2 a n d Fig. 3). T h e g re a te s t c h a n g e in m e a n
r a n g e w a s at P o t C o v e , in p r o x im it y to w h e r e th e r e e f w a s r e m o v e d o f f H allets
P oint. H e r e the m e a n r a n g e is r e p o r t e d to h a v e d e c re a s e d 0.25 m (0.82 ft). A t
C o lleg e P o in t site (L), th e r a n g e is s h o w n to h a v e d e c re a s e d 0.17 m (0.54 ft), w h ile
o n ly 0.46 k m (0.25 n au tica l miles) a w a y th e re h as b ee n a p p a r e n tly n o c h a n g e in
m e a n ran g e .
T h e g re a te st c h a n g e in th e tim e o f arriv al o f high tide in the E ast R iv e r also
o c c u r r e d at P o t C o v e . H ig h tide n o w a r r iv e s s o m e 47 m in u te s earlier th a n
d e t e r m i n e d in 1868. W h i le th e d ata is n o t ta b u la te d by M a r m e r (1935), he states
t h a t th e tide in th e H a r l e m R iv e r, n e a r the H u d s o n , a r r iv e s c o n s id e r a b ly earlier th a n
b e f o r e n a v ig a tio n a l i m p r o v e m e n t s . H ig h w a te r is a b o u t 1 h o u r e a r lie r , a n d low , 2
h o u r s earlier.
T h e r e are f e w e r c u r r e n t m e a s u r e m e n ts . T h e c o m p a r i s o n s o f m a x i m u m
c u r r e n t s a re ac tua lly q u ite close, c o n s id e r in g th e difficulties o f m e a s u r e m e n t. T h e
g r e a te s t c h a n g e is n o te d in th e 1.5 k m / h (0.8 k n o ts) in c re ase in flood n e a r F lo o d
R o c k in Hell G ate. It is in te restin g to n o te th a t th e g re a te st r e p o r te d m e a n s tr e n g t h
o f flo o d b y M a r m e r (1935) is 10.6 k m / h (5.7 knots), o b s e r v e d in 1845, a l th o u g h a
n o te o n th e 1893 e d itio n o f th e Hell G a t e c h a r t states th a t 14.8 k m / h (8 knots) w a s
m e a s u r e d o n th e flood b e t w e e n H allets P o in t a n d H o g ’s Back. O n e m u s t q u e s tio n
t h e e a r ly s ta te m e n ts c o n c e r n in g 18.5 k m / h (10 k n o ts) c u r r e n t s in th e E a st R iver.
C o m p a r i s o n o f d a ta f ro m th e t w o c e n tu ries , h o w e v e r , indicates th a t th e
g e n e r a l flow c h a r a c te r is tic s r e p o r te d t o d a y w e r e o b s e r v e d p r io r to th e m a jo r
c h a n n e l m o d ific atio n s. T h e r e are local c h a n g e s in tidal ch a ra c te ristic s a n d p r o b a b ly
c o n s id e r a b l e re d u c tio n in t u r b u le n c e as a result o f n a v ig a tio n a l im p r o v e m e n ts .
E v e n in th e ca se o f th e H a r le m R iv er, w h e r e n a v ig a tio n w a s lim ited p r io r to 1895,
t h e r e w a s a p p a r e n tly re stric te d flow b e t w e e n th e H u d s o n R iv e r a n d Hell G ate.
K l a w o n n (1977) sta te s th a t settlers a r o u n d 1700 r e p o r te d th a t th e H a r le m a n d
S p u y t e n D uyv il s t r e a m s w e r e n av ig a b le ( p ro b a b ly at h ig h tides). In pre-colonial
tim es, th e a r e a in th e vicinity o f B r o a d w a y a n d w e st o f 2 3 0 th S tre e t w a s k n o w n as
th e W a d i n g Place ( M c N a m a r a , 1978), w h e r e th e I n d ia n s fo rd e d ( F o r d h a m ) the
m a r s h y c o n f lu e n c e o f th e S p u y te n D u y v il, T ib b e ts C r e e k , a n d the H a r le m . E a r ly
c o lo n is ts m e n tio n e d a d o u b le tide in th e m a r s h a r e a w h e r e th e H a r le m R iv e r a n d
Table 2
C o m p a r i s o n o f 19th a n d 2 0 th C e n t u r y T id e a n d T id a l C u r r e n t O b s e r v a t io n s
( M o d i f i e d M a r m e r , 1935)
(See figure 3 for s ta tio n locations)
20th C e n t u r y
19th C e n t u r y
T ide
S tation
A T h e Battery
(M anhattan!
B B ro o k ly n
N av y Yard
(Brooklyn)
C G reenpoint
D u p o n t St.
(Brooklyn)
D A s to r i a Blvd
(Queens)
E H o r n s Hook
E. 9 0 t h St.
(M anhattan)
F S .W . e n d
W a r d s Island
G P o t C o v e , Asto ria
(Queens)
H N o r t h B ro th er Is.
( W e s t Side)
J P o r t M o rris
141st St.
(The B ro nx )
K College Pt.
E a s t River
(Q u een s)
L College Pt.
F l u s h i n g Bay
(Q u een s)
M T h r o g s N eck
F o r t S ch u y ler
(The B ronx)
N W illets Pt.
F o r t T o tten
(Q u een s)
P R a n d a l ls Island
H a r l e m River
Q S o u t h o f H ig h Bridge
H a r l e m River
( T h e Bronx)
R B r o a d w a y Bridge
H a r l e m River
S S p u y t e n Duyvil
H arlem &
H u d s o n River s
Year
M e an
Range
m (ft)
T im e o f
h igh tide
relative
to Willets
P oint
Year
M ean
Range
m (ft)
T im e o f
hig h tide
relative
to Willets
P oint
1921-26
1.35 (4.45)
- 3 .05
1869
1.25 (4.10)
- 2.42
1943-45
1.25 (4.11)
-2.21
1855
Î .35 (4.43)
- 1.87
1932
1.30 (4.25)
- 1.90
1868
1.46 (4.80)
- 1.32
1932-33
1.49(4.89)
- 1.28
1868
1.45 (4.77)
- 1.14
1940-42
1.48 (4.84)
- 1.29
1866
1.56 (5 .11)
- 1 25
1932
1.54 (5.06)
- 1.12
1868
1.85 (6.07)
+ 0.13
1932
1.60 (5.25)
-0 .6 6
1847
1.91 (6.27)
-0 .8 9
1933
1.97 (6.47)
+ 0.01
1886
2.08 (6.84)
+ 0.49
1952
1 93 (6.34)
+ 0.21
1883
2.09 (6.85)
+ 0.49
1933-33
2 09 (6.85)
+ 0.14
1886
2.20 (7.21)
+ 0.63
1933
2 0 3 ( 6 .6 7 )
+ 0.35
1847
2.12 (6.96)
-0 .7 2
1960-78
2 .1 8(7.14)
+ 0.04
1886
2.13 (6.99)
0
1932-33
2.1 6(7.1 0)
0
1886
1.59 (5.24)
- 1.03
1932
1.54(5.06)
- 1.31
1856
1.36 (4.45)
-0 .2 5
1927-32
1.34(4.41)
- 1.37
1886
1.21 (3.96)
- 2.06
1932-33
1.19 (3.89)
- 1.77
1928-32
1.15 (3.78)
-2 .0 7
Table 2
(cont.)
19th C e n t u r y
S tation
1 O f f G o v e r n o r s Is.
2 O f f B ro o k ly n
N avy Y ard
3 G reenpoint
D u p o n t St.
(B roo kly n)
4 O f f 80 th St.
(M anhattan)
5 Hell G a t e
6 L a w r e n c e P oin t
(Q u eens)
7 Old F e r r y P oin t
(The Bron x )
8 B e tw e e n T h r o g s N e c k
& W illets Point
9 R a n d a lls Island
H a r l e m River
10 B r o a d w a y Bridge
H a r l e m River
11 S p u y t e n Duy v il
20th C e n tu r y
Year
Mean
S tre n g th
o f Flood
km /h
(kts)
M e an
S tre n g th
of Ebb
k m /h
(kts)
3.5(1.9)
1932
1.8 (1.0)
2.2(1.2)
8.3(4.5)
7.2 (3.9)
1920
7.2(3.9)
6.1 (3.3)
1854
1 .3 (2.3}
3.0 (! 6)
1920
3.9(2.1)
3.3(1.8)
1845
1845
7.8 (4.2)
4.4(2.4)
8 .9 (4.8)
7.8(4.2 )
1920
1932
8.9(4.8)
5.9(3.2)
9.3 (5.0)
6.7 (3.6)
1858
5.7(3.1)
4 .4(2.4 )
1932
7.0(3.8)
4 .6(2.5)
1885
3.7 (2.0)
2.8 (1.5 )
1932
3.1 (1.7)
3.0(1.6)
1858
1.8(1.0)
1.5(0.8)
1929
1.7 (0.9)
1.1 (0.6)
1856
0.9 (0.5)
1.1 (0.6)
1932
2.4 (1.3)
0.4(0.2 )
1920
1932
3.9 (2.1)
2.8 (1.5)
4.4 (2.4)
4.1 (2.2)
Year
M e an
S t re n g th
o f F lood
km /h
(kts)
Mean
S tre n g th
of Ebb
km /h
(kts)
1858
2.6( 1.4)
1855
S p u y t e n D u y v il m e t ( M c N a m a r a , 1978). T h is p r o b a b ly o c c u r r e d as a result o f the
tide rising f r o m flow in th e H u d s o n , b e g in n in g to fall, a n d t h e n rising again as a
c o n s e q u e n c e o f the rising tid e in th e H a r le m . T h u s , fo u r h i g h - w a te r p e a k s m ig h t
h a v e o c c u r r e d in o n e tidal d a y . T h is m e c h a n is m w o u l d h a v e resu lted in a lim ited
e x c h a n g e o f fresh w a t e r f r o m th e H u d s o n R i v e r to t h e H a r le m R iv e r a n d
c o n v e r s e l y a lim ited e x c h a n g e o f saltier w a te r f r o m th e H a r le m into t h e H u d s o n .
T h e g o v e r n in g p r o c e s s e s , h o w e v e r , a r e th e s a m e t o d a y as before. T h e effects
o f m o d if ic a ti o n h a v e b e e n to r e d u c e th e frictional d r a g a n d to a llo w a free e x c h a n g e
o f w a t e r , p a rtic u la rly in t h e case o f t h e H a r le m R iv er. M a n h as n o t altered the E a st
a n d H a r l e m R iv ers to t h e e x t e n t th a t w h a t w a s o n c e a p u r e ly r iv e rin e s y s te m is
n o w a s y s t e m o f tidal straits.
C O N C L U S IO N S
T h e defin itio n s o f r iv e r a n d strait g e n e ra lly a c c e p te d f o r c o m m o n usage in th e
legal o r scientific p r o f e s s io n s a r e n o t su fficie n t to clarify t h e p h y sic a l n a t u r e o f th e
E a s t a n d H a r le m R ivers. C o n s e q u e n t ly , w e h a v e f u r th e r d e v e lo p e d the existing
d e fin itio n s in te rm s o f t h e p h y sic a l p r o c e s s e s co n tro llin g flo w in th e se ty p e s o f
w a t e r b o die s. E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e flow a n d p r o c e s s e s c o n t ro llin g th e flow in th e
E a s t a n d H a r le m R iv e rs p e r m i t s us to d istin g u ish w h e t h e r th e y are m o r e ty p ic a l o f
r iv e rs o r straits. T h e m o d if ie d defin itio n s a r e r e p e a te d h e r e :
R iv e r : A n a tu ra l s t r e a m o f g r e a te r v o lu m e th a n a c r e e k o r rivulet h a v in g a
f r e s h w a t e r s o u r c e f lo w in g , in g en e ral, in o n e d irec tio n t o w a r d a sea, lake o r o t h e r
r iv e r in a m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t b e d o r c h a n n e l , w ith a c u r r e n t w h i c h m a y be
e i th e r c o n t i n u o u s in o n e d ir e c tio n o r a f fe c te d b y t h e e b b a n d flo w o f the tidal
c u r r e n t . T h e f r e s h w a t e r flo w is c o n t r o l le d b y th e to p o g r a p h i c d if f e r e n c e in th e h e a d
o f w a t e r b e t w e e n th e s o u r c e a n d th e r e c e iv in g b o d y o f w a te r . W h e r e u n d e r th e
in f lu e n c e o f tidal c u r r e n ts , th e lo n g - te r m flux o f salt u p r iv e r m u s t be zero.
S tra it : A relatively n a r r o w w a t e r w a y c o n n e c t in g t w o la r g e r b o d ie s o f w a t e r
in w h i c h w a t e r m o v e m e n t is d e t e r m i n e d b y th e i n te r c o n n e c te d b o d ie s.
B a sed o n th e se d efin itio n s a n d a r e v ie w o f th e flow c h a r a c t e r is ti c s in th e E a s t
a n d H a r le m R ivers, w e c o n c l u d e th a t th e s e “R i v e r s ” a r e in fact a c o m p le x n e t w o r k
o f in te ra c tin g tidal straits c o n n e c t in g th e H u d s o n R iv er, U p p e r B a y, a n d w e s t e r n
L o n g Isla n d S o u n d . W h i le t h e r e h a v e b e e n c o n s id e r a b l e m a n - m a d e m o d if ic a tio n s to
th e s e c h a n n e ls , p a rtic u la rly o v e r the last 120 y e a rs, t h e r e is n o in d ic a tio n t h a t th e
b asic ch a r a c te r is tic s h a v e b e e n m o d ifie d f r o m t h a t o f r iv e r s to straits.
T h e c o n tro llin g m e c h a n i s m in th e flow r e g im e n o f th e E a s t a n d H a r le m
R i v e r s is d u e to a m i s m a t c h in the h e ig h ts a n d p h a s e s o f a p r im a r il y p r o g re s s iv e
tidal w a v e m o v in g f r o m L o w e r Bay into U p p e r Bay a n d th e H u d s o n R iv e r, a n d
t h a t o f a p rim a rily s ta n d in g tidal w a v e in L o n g Isla n d S o u n d . T h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f
this sy s te m (the l o w e r a n d m id d le r e a c h e s o f th e E a s t R i v e r a n d t h e H a r le m R iv e r)
t h e flo w is h y d r a u li c . In th e u p p e r r e a c h o f th e E a s t R i v e r th e f lo w m a y b e m o r e
c h a ra c te ristic a lly e s tu a r in e . T h e r e is n o a p p a r e n t t o p o g r a p h i c a l ly c o n t r o l le d h e a d o f
w a t e r b e t w e e n the c h a n n e l s a n d th e c o n n e c t e d b o d ie s o f w a te r . In b o th th e E a s t
a n d H a r le m R iv ers, th e r e is a n e t flux o f salt d ir e c te d o p p o s ite ly to th a t o f f re sh
w a t e r w h i c h is also c o n t r a r y to o u r d e f in itio n o f river.
It is w ith c o n f id e n c e th a t w e state th a t, b a s e d o n t h e p h y s ic a l p ro c e s s e s , th e
E a s t a n d H a r le m R iv e r s are straits. It is also nice to k n o w th a t, b a s e d o n th e s e
fin d in g s, L o n g Isla n d is still a n island a n d n o t p a r t o f th e m a in la n d .
A cknow ledgem ents
P r e p a r a t i o n o f this p a p e r h a s b e e n a c o n s id e r a b l e c h a lle n g e b u t n e v e r th e le s s
e n l ig h te n in g a n d fun. N u m e r o u s p eo p le h a v e assisted in lo c atin g s o u r c e m a te ria l
a n d in te r p re tin g th e h istoric al in f o r m a ti o n in t e r m s o f w h a t w e n o w k n o w a b o u t
t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d o c e a n o g r a p h y o f th e a r e a . D o n a l d S q u i r e s o f t h e N e w Y o rk
S ta te S e a G r a n t In stitu te , M ic h a e l K a w k a a n d S te v e n S t u a r t o f t h e O ffice o f
M a r i n e P o llu tio n A s s e s s m e n t, a n d B ru c e P A R K E R a n d C h a r l e s H A R R IN G T O N o f th e
N a t i o n a l O c e a n S u r v e y h a v e b e e n p a r tic u la rly helpful in this r e g a rd . W e also
a p p r e c ia te t h e critical r e v i e w s p r o v id e d b y S te a c y D . H i c k s , D a n a S w a n s o n , a n d
M a r g a r e t S t r a n d . D o r o t h y N e w m a n d e s e r v e s special r e c o g n itio n f o r ty p in g th e
m a n y d r a f ts o f th e m a n u s c r ip t.
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