Przegląd Antropologiczny – Anthropological Review • Vol 62, pp. 113–120 (1999)
BOOK REVIEWS
DAS GEHEIMNIS DES ALTERNS. DIE PROGRAMMIERTE LEBENSZEIT BEI
MENSCH, TIER UND PFLANZE, Roland Prinzinger, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am
Main – New York, 1996, pp. 582, ISBN 3-593-35451-9
There is already a huge body of scientific
literature of various types concerning the
problem of ageing and death. These problems
have been also undergoing intense scrutiny in
fiction and in the mass media. These interests
have been sparked off in Germany by a book
written by Roland Prinzinger entitled Secrets
of Ageing. The programmed stages of life in
humans, animals and plants, in which the
author elaborates his original scientific opinions on this important subject. R. Prinzinger
is a professor of physiology of metabolism at
the University of Frankfurt am Main.
Throughout his career he has dealt mainly
with the problems of energy management and
the thermoregulacy of birds. Up to the present day he has published 5 books and about
140 scientific descriptions in various magazines. He has also made many radio broadcasts and TV appearances. Prinzinger’s extensive publications have dealt with the processes of ageing and death from the point of
view of biological research with little reference to any specific social aspects of ageing
process. He has tried however, to depict the
medical aspects of this process and has often
spoken critically about modern medicine and
the attitude of the medical profession to these
problems.
Prinzinger has stressed the importance of
a biological understanding of the processes of
ageing on living organisms. The main thesis
of the book, based on empirical observations
and experimental studies is as follows: The
ageing phenomenon as observed in animals
and plants probably follows the same pattern
in all living organisms. However, the interactions and processes in particular groups
are (outwardly) very differentiated (p. 217).
Prinzinger’s aim is fairly comprehensive, as
he intends to present both basic biological
and medical aspects of the ageing processes.
The book contains an introduction, seventeen
chapters, an appendix specifying the maximal
life expectancies of organisms, a dictionary
and also a wide subject literature and index.
The author deals with the ‘examining of
ageing’ which is defined as gerontology.
Gerontology is the science investigating the
process of ageing in living organisms. Most
gerontologists understand ‘ageing’ in the
medical sense as the last phase of life. Yet,
Prinzinger has stated that the process of ageing in the real biological sense extends over
the whole period of the organism’s life. At
present gerontology is connected with geriatrics, which deals with prophylactics and the
curing of diseases typical of people advanced
in years. Geriatrics is regarded as the practical branch of gerontology. Ageing in the
widest sense is defined as a course of life
from the moment of cell fertilisation until the
termination of the organism’s life. During
this time the whole chronological and bio-
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medical ageing process takes place. This
process is treated generally as a cyclical phenomenon. That is why we can refer to it as to
a life cycle (the development of reproductive
cells, formation of the zygote, embryogenesis, ontogenesis in the narrower meaning,
adulthood and death).
The term of life span is usually understood as referring only to the postnatal life
period (the life time from the zygote, through
the embryo stage to foetus, i.e., the stages of
pregnancy are not included in this definition).
In the case of some insects as well as
many other organisms, the period of maturity
may sometimes be considerably shorter than
the larval stage. There are no violent developmental processes but a continuous course
of the life cycle. Ageing takes place at different levels of life organisation. It can be ascertained at the organisation level of cells,
organs, unicellular organisms, plants, animals, human beings, and also populations.
Throughout the course of evolution organisms have reached differentiated levels of
organisation. The simplest organisational
level is the cell – the smallest, selffunctioning life unit that is able to exist independently. Moreover, cells contain complex
structures, the so-called cell organelles.
Originally it was thought that cells – at
least in cultures – were capable of continuous
division. The starting – point of this hypothesis were the experiments of Carvel who carried out 34-year long investigations into fibroblasts of hens’ hearts (containing the connective tissue cells). He formulated the
popular and still generally accepted hypothesis of the immortality of cell cultures, which
can be found in the textbooks. Hayflick rejected this hypothesis on the basis of his
empirical studies. The fibroblast cells divide
only 15-35 times and die afterwards. Thus, in
vitro cultures also undergo the process of
ageing and death. This phenomenon is called
the Hayflick effect. It appeared that organisms differing in longevity have different
values of the Hayflick effect. Nowadays,
research data have revealed that the process
of fibroblast division is genetically conditioned. For example, the constant division of
cells, present in crayfish, results in rapid cell
death. Immortality would only be possible if
our body – as a living system – was able to
continuously renew itself and would not need
to contain any old structures. As Prinzinger
stated: The biological system does not have
any visible business in endeavouring to
achieve immortality, if we express ourselves
so anthropomorphically, and the immortality
based on reproductive cells is completely
sufficient ... Supporting its functions through
constant reparation and renewal would be
much more ‘expensive’ and less effective than
new construction which is more able to adapt
to environmental conditions (p. 75). In real
living systems, even in optimal conditions,
the number of cell divisions is restricted, and
subsequently the cells die endogenically
(internally governed death).
There are many living organisms, which
being microorganisms perform all life functions without restriction. These are unicellular organisms. This group includes first of all
Procaryota, that is bacteria (Schizophyta) and
Cyanophyta, which do not have cell nuclei.
Eucaryota on the other hand, have real cell
nucleus and cell organelles. Unicellular eucaryotic organisms are termed ‘Protozoa’.
Many unicellular eucaryotic organisms seem
to be potentially immortal, because there are
still new cells coming into being; the ‘mother
cell’ continues to live in its ‘daughter cells’.
According to Prinzinger’s formulation one
should treat statements that suggest that microorganisms are immortal with extreme
caution. Biological death is quite ‘normal’ for
these organisms, only the genetic material,
that is the cell’s line (clone), would be immortal. Also potentially immortal, in the
above sense, are other eucaryotic unicellular
organisms, e.g., yeasts and amoebas. However, even in these organisms symptoms of
ageing (e.g., decreasing enzymatic activity or
other degenerative phenomena) may be observed, although the existing research results
are contradictory.
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In most plants the processes of ageing and
dying, are distinctly steered by the plant itself. The life cycle of a plant consists of the
following phases: the embryonic phase (state
of ‘repose’ of seeds and spores), the juvenile
phase, the maturity phase and mortification.
Spores (funguses, pteridophytes) and seeds
(vascular plants) carry information, the
building substances and energy for the entire
development of a plant. They are equivalent
to the zygote of animals and characterised by
an extremely low level of metabolism. The
state of ‘repose’ of seeds is not ‘eternal’ because they quickly lose their ability to germinate. This presupposes a transition to the
juvenile phase and most species have systems
of control specifying the exact time of germination. The juvenile phase lasts until the
moment of the appearance of the functional
organs of reproduction. The factors responsible for the juvenile condition of plants have
been thoroughly examined (especially the
role of plant hormones and the so-called
meristems, i.e., those tissues – present in the
growth zone of a plant – comprising of young
undifferentiated cells).
Many observations show, however, that
such plants cannot be reproduced continuously in the vegetative way. Some plants
possess extremely efficient meristems (e.g.,
Pinus aristata – around 4600 years’ old and
grasses of the American prairie which have
been reproducing vegetatively for around
15,000 years). Plants, however, do undergo
the ageing processes, and its final phase is
termed ‘senescence’. It dramatically conducts
the plant towards death. Ageing of plant cells
begins with the loss of the ability to divide.
The process of ageing of plant cells themselves is – according to leading botanists –
distinctly genetically programmed. The first
real mortal remains have probably been
found for multicellular algae. It is clear that
exogenous factors influence the process of
plant ageing in a comprehensive way.
Ageing is a characteristic of all multicellular animals. Sponges, which belong to a
relatively simple group of animals consisting
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of few differentiated cells, are often described
as a highly organised colony of cells. Up to
the present day there has been little gerontological examination of this group of animals. Hydras are also simple animal organisms, although their particular cells are far
more differentiated than those of sponges. So
far no distinct symptoms of ageing have been
found in this group. In the case of worms
many symptoms of ageing have been discovered, one of them being senile pigment in
cells whose structure is similar to those,
which are analogically present in human
beings. Abundant opportunities for regeneration are characteristic of this group as well as
of Annelida. According to Prinzinger: Supposedly primitive worms provide us with
valuable and very interesting information
about ageing (p. 183), because even human
beings share many genes with primitive organisms. Three large groups of animals:
snails (Gastropoda), molluscs (Bivalvia) and
Cephalopods (Cephalopoda) belong to the
phylum Mollusca. Compared to the previous
groups of animals they are far more complex.
The systems of organs, which are also found
in human beings, are present in these organisms. Their life span depends on their activity. The processes of ageing in molluscs are
well known. Fertility decline, loss of cells,
degenerative changes in glands and in the
nervous system, and also parasitical infections are found in this group of animals.
Crustaceans, arachnids and insects belong
to the group of arthropods (Arthropoda)
which encompasses up to over a million
species. From the quantitative point of view
they dominate the animate nature. Genetic
features play an important role in the life
span of insects and all the recessive hereditary features shorten their lives significantly.
Among vertebrates fish comprise a large
and significant group. The ageing phenomena
in fish (in the sense of degeneration) are
difficult to ascertain. They often grow
throughout their whole lifetime and even
have a post – reproductive phase of life. A
genetically programmed life cycle seems to
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occur in this group. Amphibians belong to the
first phylum of terrestrial vertebrates. They
live relatively long. The ageing processes in
amphibians are practically the same as those
of reptiles, birds and mammals. Reptiles
belong to the fully developed group of terrestrial animals. They do not need a water
environment for reproduction. Compared to
birds and mammals, reptiles have a very low
metabolic rate. Animals from this group are
able to live to surprisingly old age.
There is a lot of data on the average life
expectancy of birds, especially with reference
to their length of life in captivity. Gerontologists do not pay much attention to birds,
though a lot is known about their numerous
ageing features. Birds have a very strongly
defined growth phase, which finishes relatively quickly. Compared to mammals, they
reach a relatively old age, in spite of the intensity of their metabolism (which is twice as
high as that of mammals). So far no adequate
explanation of this phenomenon has been
provided. Predatory birds such as ravens and
parrots have a particularly long life span.
They are known to live up to 70 to 80 years.
Mammals, on the contrary, have a relatively
short life expectancy. Even human beings,
despite their longer life compared to other
mammals, live for a relatively shorter time.
In the case of human beings the ageing
processes do not start as late as after the thirtieth or fortieth year of life. In fact they are
present during each phase of life although
they progress with differentiated speed. After
the 30th year of life a slow decrease in practically all functions and processes takes place.
The numerous problems associated with
geriatrics appear gradually. Ageing never has
a homogenous character. The ageing of the
human organism is the sum of the ageing
processes taking place in the cells, tissues and
organs in the synergetic co-existence. The
weakest organ will destine the time of death
of a particular biological system. Death cannot therefore be ascribed to coincidence or
disease but to the loss of function of particular organs. The problem of ageing also relates
to the central nervous system and to the intensification of mental diseases. Characteristically, many old people commit suicide as a
result of psychological diseases, often by a
simple refusal to eat or to take medicine.
In the past old people enjoyed a high social status, because they had valuable knowledge of craftsmanship, religion, military or
medical skills. They often designated young
people’s life chances. Nowadays the importance of elderly people – apart from science,
art and politics – has little connection with
passing on knowledge. Their role has been
superseded by formal methods of education
and technically stored knowledge (books,
mass media, electronic devices).
Throughout the duration of the pre-history
and history the average and maximal life span
has been increasing. It is assumed that the
potentially maximal period of life duration
was about 58 years for Homo habilis, 95
years for the Neanderthal man, while for the
contemporary human being the absolute
value should be estimated at up to about 120
years. Today disease resulting from external
causes, the so-called ecological parameters,
have considerably declined. However, the
average life expectancy of elderly people has
not yet reached this absolute value. At present, eighty-year-olds live on average only two
years longer than those living in 1900 did. In
the case of reaching old age attention should
be paid to the basic factors (sex, body size,
somatotype, hormonal outfit) and also to the
changeable factors which include: ways of
behaviour which are dependent on the free
decision of individuals. Of particular importance for longevity, however, is the genetic
outfit of an individual. The same is true of
sex, because on average women live longer
than men. In Germany this difference
amounts to 6-7 years (which is a 10% difference and in total amounts to 72 years for men
and 79 for women). The average life span can
be shortened by numerous factors (i.e.,
smoking, excessive use of alcohol and medicines, inappropriate and inadequate nourishment, and the pollution of the environment).
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In some regions of the world (the Hunza
Valley in the Himalayas, the Vilcacamba
Valley in Ecuador and the mountain regions
in Georgia) people can live to exceptionally
old age. In these regions there are 26 times
more 80-year-old people than average (they
constitute 2.6 % of the entire population,
while the average is only 0.1%).
There are many diseases whose frequency
increases with age. They are characteristic of
ageing. Osteoporosis, arthritis and arthrosis,
rheumatism, arteriosclerosis, diseases of the
circulation system such as high blood pressure, Alzheimer’s disease, hypertrophy,
prostatism, Parkinson’s disease, senile diabetics, cataract, lung diseases and cancer are
among the most common. Osteoporosis,
which is a particularly serious disease, results
in the ossification of bones, leading to the
loss of 30% to 50% of their substance. It is
encountered in about one third of women that
have exceeded the age of forty. As a preventive treatment against this disease a diet rich
in milk and its products is recommended.
Osteoporosis usually effects the backbone,
the upper arm and the thigh. Arthritis and
arthrosis are diseases, which affect joints.
They are not always connected with age.
Arthritis leads to the soreness of joints, which
results in pain and restriction of movement
while arthrosis is a degenerative disease of
joints – in its mild form it can be found in
nearly all old people. Rheumatism, an illness
closely connected with arthrosis is a collective definition of a number of diseases with
different symptoms. At present 4% of the
world population suffers from chronic rheumatism. Arteriosclerosis, one of the bestknown age related illnesses, usually evolves
after the age of forty. It causes the blocking
of veins, which may result in the loss of their
elasticity and finally affect the functioning of
certain organs. This can be critical if the
functioning of the heart is disturbed and may
lead to a life threatening heart attack. Between the 35th and 64th year of life the risk
of a heart attack is five times greater in men
than in women. There are some controversial
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theories concerning the immediate cause of
arteriosclerosis. Factors such as overeating,
overuse of nicotine and alcohol, high blood
pressure can contribute to the development of
arteriosclerosis.
Ageing may also lead to Alzheimer’s disease, one of the most serious diseases connected with age. Alzheimer’s disease involves progressive atrophy of the brain. Its
onset is most likely between the ages of fifty
and sixty. The early stages are characterised
by loss of memory and orientation, followed
by growing helplessness and eventually
death. Prostatism in men after the 50th year
of life is not uncommon. This condition
makes passing urine more difficult. Among
60-year-olds, up to 80% of men can suffer
from this disease although identified symptoms concern only 40%.
Another serious illness is Parkinson’s disease, mostly present in ageing men, for
which, at present, there is no known effective
medical treatment. Diabetes is a common
complaint, in up to 75% of cases appearing in
people over the age of fifty. Respiratory illnesses also increase with age.
Evidence confirming the genetic background of ageing processes may be found in
numerous genetic diseases connected with
premature ageing. The Hutchinson-Gilford
syndrome (also called progeria), and the
Werner syndrome are examples of this. The
first disease, well known to geneticists and
gerontologists, is very rare. The ageing processes are accelerated by as much as 5 to 6
times. The Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome can
occur in two forms: in childhood as Progeria
infantilis, and also in the later stages of life as
Progeria adultorum. In the case of children
with progeria the maximum life span is between 14-20 years, and children suffering
from this disease usually die of heart attacks
or pneumonia. Their life clock ‘ticks’ 5-6
times faster than in the case of normal development. Progeria infantilis is a visible proof
that a genetic program of development control, cell variability and ageing control exists
within the organism. In turn, in the so-called
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Warner syndrome the accelerated ageing
processes first appear between the ages of 1218 years. Other symptoms involve mainly
accelerated processes of the ageing of particular organs, e.g., skin.
Anti-ageing remedies have raised many
controversies. Nowadays, preservation of
youthful appearance identified with external
beauty, is a primary objective. Next to surgeons’ skills, cosmetics are means used by
ageing women to improve their looks. Of
particular interest are agents, which smooth
wrinkles and lend the skin ‘young’ appearance. Treatments involving the use of fresh
cells of animal foetuses, originally developed
by a Swiss doctor P. Niehans, may be applied. Such treatment usually brings positive
effects, although there may be numerous risks
involved, and it is even banned in many
countries. The question arises: whether rejuvenating agents can be used in a normal diet
Garlic and its derivatives have long been
known to have regenerative qualities and is
used in pharmacological treatments. Kefir
and yoghurt are described as rejuvenating
agents too and great importance is attached
following a diet low in meat. However,
Prinzinger regards statements, which assert
the positive role of vitamin tablets in the
prolongation of youth, as entirely false. He
also assumes a critical attitude towards professor E. E. Baulieu’s ‘tablets of youth’.
According to him, in practice, the substance
commonly called the ‘youth elixir’ only has a
positive influence on the spirits of elderly
people.
However, science is not powerless in the
face of ageing processes. Nowadays there are
chemical agents, which can restrain or even
suppress some of them. They are the socalled geriatric agents. Two classes of these
agents have been distinguished: adaptogens
(substances promoting adaptation of organisms to the ageing processes) and geroprotectors (substances delaying the ageing processes).
Generally speaking, geriatric pharmacological agents are divided into vegetative,
chemical, organic, and homeopathic agents.
The most popular are vegetative agents (garlic, ginseng, mistletoe, and melissa). Chemical agents include e.g., procaine, first applied
by the Romanian scientist A. Aslan (the socalled Aslan therapy), and substances from
the corticoids group (hydrocortisone) and
lecithin. Among the organic agents are extracts from placenta, various glands and foetuses. Anti-depressants and other psychotropic agents may also be of great importance. Practising of sports has a positive influence on the whole system, especially on
the heart and circulation system. However,
over exertion or too much sport can sometimes lead to opposite results.
Death, from a biological point of view, is
the consequence of the decline in the functioning of the bodily organs. The brain and
heart cannot live long without the flow of
blood, while other cells or organs can even
live many hours or days. Each normal organism resists death. It seems that some animals
have a consciousness of death (this concerns
dolphins and elephants). The very moment of
death has been the subject of numerous discussions, particularly in the context of the
collection and transplanting of organs. In
1968 Harvard University scientists (USA)
defined the moment of death as death of the
brain, i.e., the moment when it ceases to
function. The zero line of the curve of brain
functioning on the electroencephalogram
(EEG) is essential to the recognition of brain
death, as is the X-ray picture of the whole
brain. Death is defined here independently of
heart functioning and breathing. From the
biological point of view death is also a process, though society requires a precisely defined time point. Besides clinical death (i.e.,
cessation of heart and blood system functioning) and brain death, there are other
symptoms of death which appear in humans
after some time.
Cancer is very common in old age and
may spread to nearly all organs. In advanced
age the number of people suffering from
cancer increases in the exponential function.
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Cancer is known in practically all vertebrates,
but in invertebrates diseases very similar to
cancer are also present. Vegetative cancers
differ significantly from animal cancers.
Nearly every cell can be transformed into a
cancer cell. While in vertebrates only cells
which have the ability to divide may be affected (cancer of the heart and nervous system is unknown). External conditions (the socalled carcinogens) may trigger the development of cancer. The cancer cells are potentially immortal; they do not differ, and thus
do not undergo ageing. They grow in an uncontrolled way and their centre dwindles only
due to a lack of nutritive agents. Normal cells
and the immune system cannot counteract the
development of cancer cells. Apart from
malignant tumours, benign tumours exist
which have restricted ability to grow. Nowadays, cancer is the primary cause of death,
apart from heart and blood system diseases.
The question of principle often arises:
why do we have to age and then die? It is not
yet possible to answer this question, though
numerous ageing theories have already been
developed. At least 200 different theories
exist concerning the ageing of organisms.
They might be grouped into ‘fundamental’
and ‘epiphenomenal’ theories. Fundamental
theories explain the ageing of organisms
through homogenous factors (usually internal) while the epiphenomenal theories account for the ageing processes as caused by
external factors. However, in most of the
cases both theories lack universality. The
fundamental theories might be defined as the
‘stochastic’ and ‘deterministic’ ones.
According to the stochastic theory the
process of ageing is the result of accidental
(i.e., stochastic conformity). The most important stochastic ageing theories include the
‘the wear and tear’ theory (Pearl, 1924); free
radical theory (Harman, 1954); cross linkage
theory (Verzar, 1957); somatic mutation
theory (Failly & Szilard, 1958/59); error and
fidelity theory (Orgel, 1963) and the immune
theory (Walford, 1969). In the formulation of
the above-mentioned theories the process of
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ageing is an accidental consequence of losses
incurred over the entire life and accumulation of
metabolic products.
The fundamental theories imply an endogenic – genetically programmed process. The
ageing processes are never an accidental
‘product’ of mistakes or cell absence and the
process is characterised by a precisely programmed course. Into the deterministic theories we can include the absolute metabolic
scope theory (Rubner, 1908), and the cell
doubling theory (Hayflick, 1969). Biologists
and medical doctors currently accept the
existence of ageing and death as a hereditary
program. The Hayflick concept is generally
acknowledged. It is astounding that many
authors refuse to accept its reasoning. To date
gerontologists have also ignored the theory of
metabolism developed as long ago as 1908 by
the physiologist M. Rubner. In his formulation there is a connection between the expenditure of energy and the life span. In current
formulation, life span (that is embryogenesis,
youth development and maturity) significantly correlates with the body mass. The
bigger and heavier the organism, the lower its
metabolic rate. Organisms that live longer
have a lower energy turnover. This means
that all organisms must use up nearly the
same amount of energy per one gram of
weight, namely about 2500 kJ/g. The concept
of energy transformation does not contradict
the Hayflick theory. What is more, it allows
to precise stating of the physiological life
span of organisms. Also in the case of human
beings the theory of absolute metabolic scope
finds empirical confirmation. Furthermore, it
optimally fulfils all the conditions imposed
by ageing theories.
Ageing and restricted life times are certainly not only an effect of an undesirable
wear of organisms. However, the limitation
of life span, ageing and death are elementary
attributes of life phenomena. The death of
living organisms is a basic condition for
further development in the direction of better
adaptation to environmental conditions. It is a
phenomenon understood from the evolution-
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ary biology point of view, in the process of
the succession of generations.
R. Prinzinger’s book makes great reading
not only for specialists (biologists, medical
doctors, and gerontologists) but also for a
great body of readers interested in the problems of ageing and death. The author presents
contemporary, up-to-date opinions on the
subject of these important processes. His
perfect knowledge of the problem and his
original approach to these matters inspire
respect. It would be advisable to translate this
very interesting and original book into Polish
as soon as possible.
Eugeniusz Kośmicki
Department of Social Sciences, Agricultural University, Poznań
Joachim Cieślik
Institute of Anthropology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań