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Water Resources in Australian Mine Pit Lakes
R N Kumar1, C D McCullough2 and M A Lund3
ABSTRACT
In Australia and worldwide, open cut mining has become increasingly
common over the last few decades through changes in excavation
technology and ore economics. However, such operations frequently
leave a legacy of open mine pits once mining ceases. Pit lakes will then
form in mine pits that extend below the water table when dewatering
operations cease. Pit lake waters are typically contaminated with metals,
metalloids, saline or acidic/alkaline and rarely approach natural water
body chemistry. Physically, pit lakes have unique bathymetries, are often
strongly wind sheltered and have very small catchments. Nevertheless, pit
lake waters often constitute a vast resource but of limited beneficial use
(due to water quality issues); with a potential to contaminate regional
surface and ground water resources. Water in pit lakes has the potential to
be useful for a range of purposes in the Australian context of
characteristic hot, dry climate and relatively few natural water bodies.
Consequently, pit lakes can be seen to represent either a significant
liability or a water resource to mining companies and regional
communities. However, the lack of knowledge on pit lakes continues to
hinder their proper management. This paper summarises the limited
information currently available on water quality associated with
Australian pit lakes. Information on pit lake occurrence, distribution and
water quantity and quality is not nationally collated and requires
immediate and ongoing attention from both mining companies and
regulating authorities. Lack of a readily available database for pit lake
occurrence, distribution and water quality fails to realise the potential for
these water resources by both mining companies and Australian
communities. Lack of access to pit lake quantity and water quality data
may also lead to failure to manage this significant source of mining
environmental risk.
WA estimated that there are 1800 mine pits in the state potentially
forming pit lakes (Johnson and Wright, 2003) (Figure 1).
Additionally, although most states have created databases of
derelict or abandoned mine workings, pit lakes are not specifically
surveyed for, particularly those on active or unrelinquished
leases, eg Ormsby, Howard and Eaton (2003). Many mining
operations do not collect water quality data on their pit lakes as
they are on unrelinquished mining leases with companies
retaining them with an option to over-mine as technology and
economics alter the viability of their remaining resources. Where
pit lake water quality data are collected, these data are often only
used for ad hoc purposes such as compliance reporting, with no
central database even maintained by the reporting company. Such
lack of detailed data of pit lake water quantity and quality for
many regions currently renders it impossible to assess the risk
and opportunities presented by pit lakes to Australia.
INTRODUCTION
Open cut mining is now common practice in modern Australian
mining operations and, as backfilling is normally unfeasible
practically or economically, their major legacy is typically an
open pit on completion of extraction operations. Pit lakes form in
mine pits that extend below the natural groundwater table. Most
pit lakes fill with groundwater (as many pits are in low rainfall
areas) supplemented by varying quantities of surface inputs. In
some instances, pit lakes can be rapid filled with stream or river
diversions (as these may have been diverted initially to allow
mining to occur). In the absence of rapid fill options, pit lakes
may take many years to naturally fill. For example, it has been
estimated that the Muja pit in Collie (Western Australia) will
take over 50 years to fill. The quality of catchment geology and
of the filling water will contribute to the final water quality of the
pit lake.
It is not known how many pit lakes exist in Australia, as no pit
lake-specific State or Commonwealth inventory has been
undertaken. There have been some recent efforts in Queensland,
New South Wales and Western Australia (WA) to create
state-based databases or reports. For example, a recent study in
1.
Post Doctoral Research Fellow, Mine Water and Environment
Research Group (MiWER), Centre for Ecosystem Management,
Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup WA 6027.
Email: [email protected]
2.
Lecturer, Mine Water and Environment Research Group (MiWER),
Centre for Ecosystem Management, Edith Cowan University,
270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup WA 6027.
Email: [email protected]
3.
Associate Professor, Mine Water and Environment Research Group
(MiWER), Centre for Ecosystem Management, Edith Cowan
University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup WA 6027.
Email: [email protected]
Water in Mining Conference
FIG 1 - One of the many abandoned pit lakes in the Goldfields
region, WA.
Pit lakes occur in all states and territories (Figure 2), yet for a
country with limited water resources, neither ‘pit lake’ or even
‘lake’ are mentioned in the Federal government’s recent ‘Mine
Rehabilitation Handbook’ guidelines (DITR, 2007). Pit lakes also
occur across a broad range of climatic regions. Australia is one
of the driest continents in the world and the demand for water
resources in many of the most arid regions by industry and
communities continues to increase as a result of population
growth and expansion and development of mining operations. Pit
lake water may therefore be of significant potential use to both
industry and surrounding communities (McCullough and Lund,
2006). However, the potential use of pit lake water remains
dependent on the pit lake water quantity and quality (Doupé and
Lymbery, 2005). This paper aims to summarise the currently
available information on pit lakes in Australia to highlight the
need for a national inventory and demonstrate why monitoring of
pit lakes is essential to prepare for relinquishment.
MINE PIT LAKE ISSUES IN AUSTRALIA
Pit lakes differ physically from natural Australian lakes in having
markedly higher relative depths. For example, pit lakes
commonly have relative depths between ten and 40 per cent
compared to natural lakes which are between 0.4 and seven per
cent (Doyle and Runnells, 1997). Where sides are battered for
Perth, WA, 15 - 17 September 2009
247
R N KUMAR, C D McCULLOUGH and M A LUND
FIG 2 - Distribution of historic and operating mines in Australia (Australian Mines Atlas, 2009).
public access or to promote development of riparian zones, deep
pits will still have a bathymetry unlike with natural lakes with
steep sides below the battering. The size of mining pits in
Australia ranges from relatively small urban borrow pits of about
100 m in diameter, to enormous open cut operations such as
Mount Whaleback mine in the Central Pilbara, (WA) which will
have final pit dimensions of 5.5 km by 2.2 km and a depth of
500 m (Johnson and Wright, 2003). These new mining pit lakes
have few natural counterparts to their size in Australia, especially
in depth and volume. Furthermore, as the water level in the pit
lake equilibrates, it is frequently deep within the open-cut,
creating very little opportunity for natural slopes to the water
surface, this also influences water mixing due to sheltering from
winds (Huber et al, 2008). With no natural catchments, inflows
of rainwater can be limited which may be useful in preventing
worsening water quality from exposed geologies but also limits
the amount of freshwater inputs in areas where exposed
geologies are not problematic.
Pit lake water quality can be highly variable; particularly for
acidity, salinity, hardness and metal concentrations which are
primarily governed by the pit lake catchment hydrology and
geochemistry (Miller, Lyons and Davis, 1996). For example, pit
lake water quality may become acidic, through oxidation of
reactive iron-bearing geologies as Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
(Klapper and Geller, 2002). Such acidic mine waters are often
toxic to aquatic biota (Spry and Wiener, 1991; Stephens and
Ingram, 2006; Storer, Whisson and Evan, 2002). Pit lakes waters
affected by salinity and acidity may also adversely influence
nearby and regional groundwater resources and receiving
environments, eg wetlands with contaminated plumes from
flow-through pit lakes extending large distances down-gradient.
The extent of such an impact may vary from insignificant in low
hydraulic conductivity rocks and groundwater systems already
saline, to considerable in high hydraulic conductivity rocks and
naturally low-salinity groundwater environments (Commander,
Mills and Waterhouse, 1994; Johnson and Wright, 2003).
248
The majority of pit lake studies conducted in Australia have
focused on physical and chemical characteristics of water quality
(Boland and Padovan, 2002; Jones et al, 2008; McCullough,
Lund and May, 2008a). These studies have demonstrated that pit
lake water quality is influenced by many factors including
climate, groundwater quality, depth, pit filling method and local
mineralogy. Regionally representative water quality data from a
selection of pit lakes across Australia is summarised in Table 1.
TYPES OF PIT LAKES
Australian pit lakes fall into four main categories in terms of
their water quality. These are acidic (AMD affected), saline (can
co-occur with AMD), neutral pH (but with some degree of
contamination), and good water quality (but not necessarily
comparable to natural regional waterbodies) (Kumar,
McCullough and Lund, in press).
1.
Acidic – As examples, water quality of pit lakes of Collie
(WA) (Figure 3), Collinsville (Figure 4) and Mt Morgan
(both Queensland) are all degraded by AMD. Nevertheless,
Collie pit lakes have low pH and toxic concentrations of Al
primarily due to low buffering rather than high acidity
inputs. Collinsville and Mt Morgan show similar classic
AMD conditions of extremely low pH and very high metal
concentrations. These latter pit lakes also show effects of
ongoing salinisation (see next).
2.
Saline – In drier regions where net evaporation exceeds
precipitation, and surface inflow to the pit is largely
restricted to direct precipitation, can result in dramatic
increases in salinity leading to brackish through to
hyper-saline lakes. Such hyper-saline pit lakes of degraded
value may also contaminate valuable regional groundwater
resources in the future. For instance, in semi-arid regions
such as the Collinsville region, high rates of
evapoconcentration result in significant increases in pit lake
salinity each year (McCullough, Lund and May, 2008b).
Perth, WA, 15 - 17 September 2009
Water in Mining Conference
WATER RESOURCES IN AUSTRALIAN MINE PIT LAKES
TABLE 1
Characteristics of some Australia pit lakes. All values are in mg L-1 unless otherwise stated. N = Number of pit lakes in region considered.
- = no data available (adapted from Kumar, McCullough and Lund, in press).
Kemerton,
Western
Australia
(N = 1)
St. Barbara
Mines, Western
Australia
(N = 2)
Thalanga
Mine,
Queensland
(N = 1)
12°41'S,
132°55'E
33°12'58"S,
115°45'25"E
28°50'25"S,
121°17'17"E
20°20' S,
145°46' E
Ranger Mine,
Mary
Northern
Kathleen,
Territory
Queensland
(N = 1)
(N = 1)
Parameter
Collie Basin,
Western
Australia
(N = 4)
Collinsville,
North Bowen
Basin,
Queensland
(N = 4)
Mount
Morgan,
Queensland
(N = 1)
GPS coordinates
33°21'47 S,
116°09'22 E
20°33'51 S,
147°49'52 E
26°38'22 S,
150°22'02 E
20°45'1 S
140°0'6 E
Ore type
Coal
Coal
Au, Cu
U
U
Silica sand
Au
Cu-Pb-Zn
Depth (m)
8 - 70
4 - 14
-
-
-
6
-
70
0.06 - 1.03
0.01 - 0.06
-
-
-
-
0.006 - 0.95
-
3.8 - 5.0
1.5 - 4.9
2.8
6.1
7.6
8.5
8.0 - 8.6
7.7
Total P
<0.005 - 0.009
<0.005
-
-
0.01
0.02
-
-
Total N
<0.05 - 1.5
0.51
-
-
1.96
0.573
7.3 - 22.8
-
Dissolved
Organic Carbon
3.1 - 7.3
1 - 59
-
-
-
22
-
-
Conductivity (mS
cm-1)
0.42 - 1.4
7.8 - 23.5
11
5.05
0.89
1.2
-
1.07
Sulfate
31 - 107
300 - 25000
12 100
1840
782
296
2570 - 7190
7950
Area
(km2)
pH
Aluminium
0.001 - 0.006
23 - 1300
740
0.032
0.026
0.1
0.02 - 0.06
<1
Calcium
2.3 - 6.0
124 - 519
520
464
0.02
67
334 - 1120
718
Cadmium
<0.002
<0.01 - 0.023
0.15
-
<0.0002
-
0.0002
0.16
Cobalt
<0.005
0.6 - 7.2
-
-
0.0005
-
-
-
Chromium
<0.10
<0.01 - 0.47
-
-
<0.002
-
0.002
-
Copper
<0.002 - <0.05
<0.05 - 2.5
36
1.17
0.0024
-
0.03
<1
Iron
0.0003 - 0.005
139 - 2463
248
3.23
<20
0.14
<0.05 - 0.06
0.575
Lead
-
<0.1 - 6.3
-
-
0.001
<0.1
-
<1
Magnesium
0.077 - 16.3
197 - 2239
1240
140
115
58
865 - 3150
1025
Manganese
0.0002 - 1.2
13 - 150
81
-
0.041
<0.01
-
-
Nickel
0.03 - 0.34
1.2 - 17
-
0.69
0.0053
-
0.09
-
Uranium
0.020 - 0.029
-
0.460
1.76
-
-
-
0.0005 - 6.9
1 - 46
25.3
0.088
0.0037
0.15
0.01
53.5
Chlorophyll a
(µg L-1)
0.1 - 64
0 - 64
-
-
-
6.5 - 8.5
-
-
Zooplankton
studies?
Yes
Yes
-
-
-
No
-
-
Macroinvertebrate
studies?
Yes
Yes
-
-
-
Yes
-
-
Periphyton
studies?
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Catchment
rehabilitation?
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
-
Pit lake
remediation?
1 lake
1 lake
1 lake
1 lake
Backfilling
No
-
Backfilling
Proposed end
use(s)
Aquaculture,
recreation
Industry use
-
-
-
-
None
-
Catchment lease
Bonded
Bonded
-
-
Bonded
Owned
Bonded
n/a
Potential closure
criteria
Recreational
use
Bunded lake
-
-
Backfilled
Pond
Bunded lake
-
Zinc
Limited monitoring data from the Mount Goldsworthy pit,
Western Australia also demonstrated that the salinity of the
pit lake increased from 1400 to 5500 mg L–1 TDS over a 14
year period (Johnson and Wright, 2003). This phenomenon
is particularly pronounced in lakes that are groundwater
sinks (Commander, Mills and Waterhouse, 1994).
Alternatively, arid Australian regions such as the southern
Goldfields of WA may produce hyper-saline pit lakes from
Water in Mining Conference
inputs of saline groundwaters (Johnson and Wright, 2003).
Periodic addition of fresh rainwater to pit lakes can result in
a salinity stratified lake (Johnson and Wright, 2003) or with
sufficient flows can form a freshwater recharge pit lake
(sensu Commander, Mills and Waterhouse, 1994; Gerrard,
2002). Contamination of groundwater in such arid areas can
often be a minimal risk as high evaporation rates ensure the
pit lake remains a groundwater sink.
Perth, WA, 15 - 17 September 2009
249
R N KUMAR, C D McCULLOUGH and M A LUND
FIG 3 - Lake Ewington, a small historic Collie mining lake currently being remined.
FIG 4 - Collinsville (Queensland) acidic pit lake water quality beginning to improve following bioremediation treatment (after McCullough,
Lund and May, 2008a).
3.
Neutral – Mary Kathleen and Thalanga (Queensland),
Ranger (Northern Territory) and Wedge Pit (WA) pit lakes
have generally good water quality that is nevertheless
contaminated by one or more metals; in these cases Cu, Zn,
U and As respectively. Nevertheless, these pit lakes remain
well suited to a variety of end-uses as individual
contaminants can often be more readily remediated or
treated than more complex pit lake chemistries. For
example, As contaminated water is extracted from bores a
few meters away from Wedge Pit, treated and used to
supply potable water to Laverton.
4.
Good water quality – Kemerton (WA) is a silica sand
mining operation with few geological considerations or
mining processes that result in contamination of pit lake
waters, hence water quality is very good. However, there
remain significant differences in lake shape and water
quality compared to shallow naturally acidic wetlands
nearby (McCullough and Lund, 2008).
management strategies are required for officially closed leases, as
well as mining operations under care and maintenance. However,
there are no specific state or national guidelines for pit lake water
quality. Instead, often general environmental water quality
guidelines are used to determine acceptability of pit lake water
quality (ANZECC/ARMCANZ, 2000). In some cases, pit lake
water quality is regulated according to end use requirements or for
safety of nearby environments (Batley et al, 2003). Some states, eg
WA, regulates water quality in pit lakes on a case-by-case basis
depending on mine closure options (Johnson and Wright, 2003).
Present strategies for pit lakes closure in Australia can be
grouped into three main categories (Evans and Ashton, 2000):
1.
enclose and forget approach, this involves construction of a
bund around the void to prevent access and protect mining
companies from litigation arising from accidents;
2.
strategic closures addressing environmental issues often
mainly concerned with development of environmental
values such as biodiversity conservation, eg remediation of
water quality and development of wildlife habitat in mine
lakes (McCullough, Hunt and Evans, 2009); or
3.
initiatives that will result in the creation of employment and
business enterprise opportunities (eg aquaculture,
ecotourism, various forms of horticulture) or result in the
creation of a community resource such as a recreational
facility, eg Harper et al (1997).
PIT LAKE RELINQUISHMENT
A number of pit lakes are now being managed by local and state
governments, mainly through abandonment (eg Stockton and
Black Diamond lakes in Collie) or through agreements for the
government to accept environmental liabilities in return for
facilitating new mining (eg Mt Morgan). Ongoing pit lake
250
Perth, WA, 15 - 17 September 2009
Water in Mining Conference
WATER RESOURCES IN AUSTRALIAN MINE PIT LAKES
This first strategy of enclosing pit lakes addresses immediate
legislative requirements, and liability issues, but creates a future
potential liability and fails to provide any benefits to local
communities. The other two closure strategies hold more
promise for significant local community benefit (Evans and
Ashton, 2000; McCullough and Lund, 2006). However, of equal
importance to identification of social aspects of mine closure is
the application of sound and well-researched science to the end
use development process, be it catchment rehabilitation or water
quality remediation (Evans, 2006; McCullough, Hunt and Evans,
2009). Nevertheless, the continuing paucity of regulatory
direction given to mining companies ensures there remain few
examples of successful pit lake closure and associated lease
relinquishment back to government.
Currently there are no Commonwealth or state guidelines for
developing pit lakes as useful water resources. For instance,
acidic and/or saline pit lakes influenced by AMD with acidic and
metal contaminated water will need to be remediated using either
chemical or biological methods (McCullough, 2008;
McCullough, Lund and May, 2008b; Neil et al, in press). Pit
lakes contaminated with one or two metals but otherwise with
good water quality can be used for a range of activities following
chemical treatment such as selective precipitation. On the other
hand, pit lakes with good water quality can be used immediately
for uses such as aquaculture, water sports and recreation, etc.
Even partial remediation of highly acidic and saline waters can
allow this water to be used for activities such as dust suppression,
potentially reducing demands on other higher quality water
sources (McCullough and Lund, 2006). However, despite the
potential and existing examples of possible beneficial end uses
for pit lakes, there are many pit lakes across the Australian
continent with no current or future use by current or proposed
mining operations (Farrell, 1998).
END USES FOR PIT LAKES
Water quality in pit lakes plays a dominant role in determining the
range of end uses the lake can be used for (see Lund and
McCullough, 2006). It is therefore surprising for a country which
has been facing scarcity of water for a number of years that so
little is known of the significant water resources available in pit
lakes and how they might be remediated and used. The chosen end
use will necessitate a certain water quality within the pit lake and
remediation technologies will be needed in many cases to achieve
the required end use water quality. Research is therefore required
into water quality development in pit lakes by incorporating
hydro-geological, limnological, biological and biogeochemical
processes. Current predictive models do not adequately account
for sufficient of these processes for pit lakes to allow for useful
predictions to be made (Jones, 1997). Instead, such models are
likely to provide information for advancing current conceptual
models and provide advice of pit lake response to different
management scenarios (McCullough, Hunt and Evans, 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
Planned closure or remediation of pit lakes could avoid many of
these adverse effects of degraded pit lake water quality to the
environment (Figure 5). Furthermore, the major steps that needed
to achieve pit lake sustainability in Australia involve developing
better understanding of the hydrology, water quality and other
limiting ecological factors of pit lakes. Based on an understanding
of limiting water quality parameters, appropriate remediation and
rehabilitation strategies may then be available to achieve beneficial
end uses. Key recommendations for future study of Australian pit
lakes are that a focus should be on:
OPEN CUT MINING
MINE VOIDS
BACKFILLING Expensive & Unfeasible
Left as open pits PIT LAKES
CURRENT
UNSUSTAINABLE
SCENARIO
POTENTIAL
SUSTAINABLE
SCENARIO
Low pit lake water quality - acidic,
saline, metal rich - LIMITED
USE/LIABILITY
Good (potentially remediated)
pit lake Water USEFUL RESOURCE
Threat to groundwater and regional
environment; risk to local
communities (drowning etc.); liability
to mining company, community,
environment and government
Safe to environment; possible
drinking water; recreation & tourism
- water sports; resource
for mining company,
government; and community
KNOWING THE
RESOURCE
Liability & Wasted Resource
UNSUSTAINABLE
Beneficial & Optimum Use of
Water
SUSTAINABLE
FIG 5 - Management for realisation of water resources from Australian pit lakes.
Water in Mining Conference
Perth, WA, 15 - 17 September 2009
251
R N KUMAR, C D McCULLOUGH and M A LUND
• addressing many problems of water quality such as AMD in
pit lakes by considering and addressing these possibilities in
the planning stages of open-pit mining development,
• development of a nationwide inventory for pit lakes across
Australia including determining the number and distribution
(regionally and geographically) of pit lakes,
• developing and trialling new rehabilitation and water quality
remediation technologies, and
• developing and trialling beneficial end uses.
As a result of current and likely future mining practices pit
lakes will continue to increase in distribution, frequency and size
in Australia. Australia experiences relatively low rainfall in many
areas and coupled with an increasing demand for water which is
rapidly developing into a very valuable resource, including for
the mining industry (Barger, 2006). Water in the pit lakes can
therefore either be a liability or a resource depending on how it is
managed. Sustainable pit lake management has the potential to
provide great benefit to mining companies, regulating agencies
and communities but this will only be realised through pro-active
involvement by the mining industry and through leadership by
State and Commonwealth regulators.
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Perth, WA, 15 - 17 September 2009
Water in Mining Conference