The International Joumal of Human Resource Management 10:1 Feb 1999 54-7}
The impact of on-site mentoring on
expatriate socialization: a structural
equation modelling approach
Daniel C. Feldman and Mark C. Bolino
Abstract While the literature on expatriate adjustment has focused on the importance
of back-home mentors and their instrumentality for future career advancement, this
research explores the importance of on-site mentors for the effective socialization of
expatriates into their current overseas assignments. Using a sample of 179 expatriates
located in nineteen countries, this paper presents a structural equation model illustrating
the relationships among mentoring received, expatriate socialization and socialization
outcomes. Amount of mentoring received positively impacts on expatriate socialization,
which in tum positively influences job attitudes, intention to finish the expatriate
assignment and expatriate understanding of global business issues. Using Hofstede's
typology of national cultures, this research also suggests that the intemational context of
the overseas assignment affects how much on-site mentoring expatriates receive.
Specifically, expatriates are more likely to receive mentoring in small pmwer distance,
weak uncertainty avoidance and individualistic cultures.
Keywords
Expatriates, expatriate adjustment, mentoring, socialization
Mentors are individuals who support, guide and counsel tess experienced colleagues in
order to facilitate their career development (Krani. 1985). There are four key ways
mentors can help their proteges: (1) by providing them witb task assistance. (2) by
providing them with social support, (3) by providing them witb career advice, and (4)
by serving as role models for them (Turban and Dougherty, 1994; Whitely et al., 1991).
Over tbe past decade, the research on expatriates has stressed the value of having
mentors 'back home' as well as on-site.
In tenns of the research on 'back-home' mentors, the focus has largely been on
mentors' instrumentality in finding repatriates appropriate job assignments upon their
return (Napier and Peterson., 1991). For example, Harris (1989) and Harvey (1989)
comment upon the 'brownout' which often occurs when repatriates are put in holding
patterns when they return from overseas without permanent new assignments.
Similarly. Feldman and hi.s colleagues have found that mentoring is critical for
repatriates to keep them on the fast track in terms of subsequent career advancement
(Feldman, 1991; Feldman and Thomas, 1992; Feldman and Tompson, 1993). In
general, the perspective taken in this research stream suggests that 'back-home' mentors
are most critical for helping repatriates adjust to the internal changes in corporate
culture which have occuned wbile they were overseas. However, this research stream
also suggests that, for repatriates who have been overseas a long time, mentors can also
Daniel C. Feldman and Mark C. Bolino, University of South Carolina. College of Business
Administration. Columbia. South Carolina 29208, USA. Tel.: 803 777 5971. Fax.: 803 777
6876. E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright © Routledge 1999 0958-5192
Feldman & Bolino: The impact of on-site mentoring
55
be belpful in assisting them during their 're-entry shock' to their own cultures (Zeira
and Banai, 1987).
In terms of the research on 'on-site' mentors, the focus has been largely on their role
in the socialization process (Oddou, 1991; Tung, 1988). For example, several
researchers have presented data indicating that on-site mentoring is highly related to
fast learning of new jobs, better adjustment to new work groups and greater
cotnmitment to new organizational units (Allen and Meyer, 1990; Baker, 1995; Nelson
and Quick, 1991). Black and his colleagues suggest that mentors not only play an
important part in helping expatriates leam tbeir new organizational roles, but are also
critical in helping them adjust to new national cultures as well (Black, 1992; Black and
Gregersen, 1991; Black et al., 1991). Thus, 'on-site' mentors are equally important in
helping expatriates get socialized into their new jobs and adjusted to new national
cultures.
While the importance of mentors in expatriate adjustment has frequently been
discussed, there are still several gaps in our knowledge about mentoring in an
international context. The present study, then, has four goals.
The first goal of the paper is to examine more fully how the intemational context of
the expatriate assignment influences how much on-site mentoring expatriates receive. In
an intemational context, tbe host-country culture may be much more critical, since
newcomers are less likely to receive mentoring to Ihe extent tbey are dissimilar from
potential mentors (Jackson et al., 1993). That is, potential mentors may be reluctant to
establish developmental relationships with proteges from cultures different from their
own. Using Hofstede's (1980) national culture framework, then, we examine the extent
to which expatriates are likely to receive mentoring within the host country. More
specifically, we investigate how Hofstede's four dimensions of national culture (power
distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism, and masculinityfemininity) impact on the amount of informal mentoring received.
The second goal of tbe paper is to examine how the amount of on-site mentoring
received influences expatriate socialization. Here we illustrate how four different types
of mentoring (task assistance, career assistance, psycho-social support and role
modelling) influence how quickly expatriates both leam their new jobs and adju.st to
their new work groups. In this section of the paper, multiple types of mentoring (Turban
and Dougherty, 1994) are empirically linked to multiple dimensions of socialization
(Feldman, 1981).
The third goal ofthe paper is to examine the impact of expatriate socialization on job
attitudes and job behaviours. In particular, we document the links between expatriate
socialization and expatriates' job satisfaction, intention to finish their overseas
assignments and understanding of global business issues. While the literature on 'backhome' mentors has used as its criterion variables career advancement after the
expatriate assignment has ended, here we focus on the potential positive outcomes for
expatriates and their employers during the expatriate assignment.
The fourth, and final, goal of the paper is to use a structural equation mode! to
illustrate formally the relationships among host-country culture, amount of mentoring
received, expatriate socialization and socialization outcomes. The use of structural
equation modelling here allows the investigation of several hypothesized relationships
simultaneously and mitigates against chance findings of significance due to measurement error. Furthermore, while structural equation models do not provide proof of
causality, they do peniiit stronger conclusions about tbe plausibility of lhe specified
causal model presented (Hayduk, 1987; Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989). When coupled
with a sample of expatriates from nineteen countries, this methodology should provide
56
The Intemational Joumal of Human Resource Management
stronger, more generalizable results about the antecedents and consequences of on-site
mentoring for expatriate assignments.
Theory
The basic theoretical model to be tested in this research appears in Figure 1. It proposes
that expatriates working in countries with small power distance, collectivist. weak
uncertainty avoidance and feminine cultures (Hofstede. 1980) will be more likely to
receive informal mentoring on their expatriate assignments. In addition, it hypothesizes
that the more on-site mentoring expatriates receive fin terms of task assistance, career
guidance, psycho-social support and role modelling), the more likely that they will be
successfully integrated into their new work groups and successfully leam their new
jobs. Finally, the model suggests that this expatriate socialization will be positively
related to three outcome variables: job satisfaction, intent to finish the expatriate
assignment and increased knowledge of intemational business. The five formal
hypotheses and their rationales are discussed in more detail below.
Host-country culture and mentoring
Hofstede (1980) describes national cultures along four dimensions. These four
dimensions are power distance (large-small); individualism-collectivism; uncertainty
avoidance (strong-weak); and masculinity-femininity.
Power distance is the extent to which a society naturally accepts the unequal
distribution of power in its institutions. In large power distance countries, superiors are
inaccessible and considered unapproachable by subordinates. Conversely, in small
power distance countries, superiors and subordinates view themselves as similar, and
those in power are encouraged to minimize the gap between themselves and their
subordinates. Because the menlor-protege dyad is typically comprised of two
individuals of unequal power, we would expect that small power distance countries
would be more likely to provide a conducive environment for mentoring relationships
to develop.
Individualism-collectivism is the extent to which members of a culture emphasize
individual initiative and achievement- In collectivist cultures, society stresses the
Importance of extended families or 'clans' and protects members in excbange for
loyalty. In contrast, individualistic societies believe that individuals are supposed to
take Ciu'e of tbem.selves and to take personal responsibility for their own affairs. Though
many companies in the United States (a highly individualistic country) establish formal
mentoring programmes, it is unclear whether individualistic cultures are necessarily
more conducive to informal mentoring. Because collectivist cultures are generally seen
as more nurturing of others, we would expect that expatriates would be more likely to
receive informal mentoring in collectivist societies than in individualistic ones.
Unceriainty avoidance is the e.stent to which members of a society feel threatened by
ambiguous situations. In strong uncertainty avoidance countries, there are more written
rules and regulations designed to minimize uncertainty, older people are more
distrustful of younger people and conflict is avoided whenever possible. In weak
uncertainty avoidance cultures, in contrast, people in positions of authority are viewed
as having a major responsibility to serve the citizens. Also in weak uncertainty
avoidance cultures, there is more acceptance of dissent and greater tolerance of
deviance. Because older individuals in weak uncertainty avoidance cultures exhibit
more positive feelings towards younger people and feel more responsible for helping
them, we propose that such cultures will be more facilitative of mentoring.
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The Intemational Joumal of Human Resource Management
Finally, masculinity-femininity
refers to lhe extent that assertiveness and the
acquisition of material possessions are valued over caring for others. In masculine
countries, independence is valued, performance is what counts and material success is
greatly admired. On the other hand, in feminine cultures, individuals are much more
aware of their interdependence with othei^. people value community service and
individuals sympathize more with those who are less fortunate. Thus, we would
hypothesize that feminine cultures would be more supportive of mentoring relationships
than masculine cultures.
HI:
The host-country culture will affect the amount of mentoring that expatriates
receive during their overseas assignments. Specifically, expatriates will receive
more on-site mentoring in: (a) small power distance cultures, (b) collectivist
cultures, (c) weak uncertainty avoidance cultures, and (d) feminine cultures.
Mentoring and expatriate socialization
The research on mentoring suggests that there are multiple ways in which senior workgroup members and supervisors can mentor newcomers (Dreher and Ash, 1990; Kram,
1985). Senior members can provide task assistance and coaching, give useful career
advice, provide social support and counselling and/or serve as good role models for
junior members to emulate.
There are several reasons why mentoring should have a positive impact on expatriate
socialization (namely, the extent to which newcomers are transformed from outsiders to
participating, effective organizational members [Feldman, 1976]). First, mentoring
helps newcomers reduce uncertainty about the new environment, which in turn helps
them leam their jobs more quickly (Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1993). Second, mentoring
helps newcomers get assimilated into the organization's culture and feel more
comfortable with the work group (Heimann and Pittenger, 1996; Morrison, 1993).
Third, mentoring provides newcomers with useful advice about avoiding political
pitfalls in managing their careers (Chao et at., 1992). Finally, spending more time with
a mentor in the first year on the job is positively associated with acceptance of the
firm's values and perceived person-organization fit (Chatman, 1991). For all these
reasons, then, we would expect on-site mentoring during expatriate assignments to be
positively related to expatriate socialization.
H2:
On-site mentoring will be positively related to expatriate socialization.
Expatriate socialization and socialization outcomes
Just a.s there are multiple dimensions of mentoring, so, too, are there multiple
components of socialization. The two which have received the most attention are
socialization to the group and socialization to the task (Chao el al., 1994; Feldman,
1976; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979). Socialization to the group refers to how
comfortable newcomers are with their co-workers, supervisors and group norms, while
socialization to the task refers to how well newcomers have learned their job duties,
organizational procedures and work responsibilities.
There are several reasons why expatriates may have more trouble becoming
socialized into overseas assignments. First, Schein's (1971) work on career transitions
suggests expatriates may have more difficulty crossing the 'inclusionary boundary' in
organizations because host-country nationals may be less willing to trust and be open to
members of other cultures. Second, Louis's (1980) work on organizational entry
Feldman & Bolino: The impact of on-site mentoring
59
suggests that expatriates might find more dramatic changes, contrasts and surprises in
international moves and have fewer colleagues with whom to discuss and interpret
them. Third, Nicholson and West's (1989) work on career transitions makes salient the
point that expatriates' 'encounters' with new assignments and cultures may be
particularly disruptive in the short run. Finally, Jackson et aL's (1993) work on
socialization amid diversity suggests that newcomers who are dissimilar from members
of the existing work group may be much less hkely to receive the types of mentoring
described above.
However, to the extent that expatriates do become successfully socialized, there are
a variety of positive outcomes which might accrue both to expatriates personally and to
their employers (Guzzo, 1996). The three which are focused on here are job
satisfaction, intent to finish the expatriate assignment and increased understanding of
intemational business issues. Previous research on expatriate adjustment suggests that
expatriates who are successfully socialized on their overseas assignments are much
more likely to be satisfied with their jobs and to see them through to their completion
(Black, 1992; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985). Moreover, the successful socialization of
expatriates is positively related to their gaining a fuller understanding and appreciation
of the difficulties and challenges of conducting business in a global marketplace
(Feldman and Tompson, 1993).
H3:
H4:
H5:
Expatriate socialization will be positively related to job satisfaction.
Expatriate socialization will be positively related to intention to finish the
expatriate assignment.
Expatriate socialization will be positively related to increased understanding of
intemational business issues.
Method
Sample
The participants in the study were all expatriates currently working outside their home
country for a Fortune 100 multinational corporation in the technology industry. Four
hundred and ninety surveys were mailed to expatriates; one hundred and seventy-nine
surveys were returned, for a response rate of 37 per cent. This rate compares favourably
to those in other studies of expatriates (cf. Black, 1992).
The sample was 85 per cent male and 15 per cent female. Three-quarters of the
sample were between 30 and 49 years of age. Seventy-five per cent of the sample was
married. The participants in the study had been on their expatriate assignments an
average of one-and-a-half years and had worked for this multinational corporation an
average of eleven years. The expatriates worked in a variety of functional areas, but
were concentrated in the areas of engineering/R&D (52 per cent), marketing (31 per
cent) and finance (10 per cent).
The participants in this research had expatriate assignments located in nineteen
different countries. The assignment countries were: Australia, Belgium, Canada,
France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Mexico, Netherlands, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland, Venezuela and the United States.
Fifty per cent of the expatriates were assigned to the United States (where the firm is
headquartered). These inpatriates were mainly from Pacific Rim (e.g. Japan, Singapore,
etc.) and Westem European (e.g. Italy, Germany, Spain, etc.) countries; the other half
of the sample was split evenly between Pacific Rim and Westem European countries.
All participants in the study were fiuent in English.
60
The Intemational Joumal of Human Resource Management
Measures
Host-country culture The measures for host-country culture were taken from
Hofstede (1980). As noted earlier, Hofstede (1980) found thai country cultures differ
along four dimensions: power distance (large-small); individualism-collectivism;
uncertainty avoidance (strong-weak); and masculinity-femininity. High scores indicate
a large power distance, individualism, stiong uncertainty avoidance and masculinity.
Hofstede developed these ordinal scales by collecting data from over 88,000
employees working in over forty countries on two separate occasions between 1967 and
1973. Based on a standardized factor analysis of questionnaire items exhibiting
acceptable reliability, ordinal scales were developed for each country on each of the
four dimensions. Country scores were indexed to range from just above 0 to 100 on
each of the four dimensions. As in previous research using Hofstede's scale (cf. Kogut
and Singh, 1988; Shane, 1994), a value from Hofstede's scale was assigned for each of
the four dimensions for the particular country in which the expatriate was working.
Because our first hypothesis predicts that small (rather than large) power distance,
collectivism (rather than individualism), weak (rather than strong) uncertainty avoidance and femininity (rather than masculinity) would be positively related to expatriate
mentoring, note that these indices are reverse scored here.
Mentoring The corporation where the study was conducted did not have a formal
mentoring programme. In this study, then, we focused on informal mentoring.
Mentoring received on the expatriate assignment was measured with Dreher and
Ash's (1990) eighteen-item scale. Dreher and Ash's instmment taps four different types
of mentoring: task-related assistance, career guidance, psycho-social support and
serving as a role model (Turban and Dougherty, 1994).
Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they had a mentor in tbe host
country who provided them with the.se four different types of mentoring support. All
mentoring items were measured on five-point Likert scales tapping ihe extent to which
mentors provided expatriates these various types of support, ranging from (1) "None at
air to (5) 'To a very large extent'.
Task-assistance mentoring is a five-item scale (alpha=.92). A sample item from this
scale is: 'Helps you finish assignments or meet deadlines that otherwise would be
difficult to complete.'
The career-related mentoring scale contains six items (alpha^.93). A sample item
from this scale is: 'Goes out of his/her way to promote your career interests.'
Psycho-social support is a four-item scale (alpha^ .96). A sample item from this scale
is: 'Conveys empathy for the concems and feelings you discuss with him/her.'
The role model mentoring scale contains three items (alpha^.95). A sample item
from this scale is: 'Shares his/her career history with you.'
In the survey itself, the items from these four scales were intermixed in the same
section. While lhe term 'mentor" was defined in the instmctions as someone 'who has
helped you by taking you under their wing even though they were not fomially required
to do so', participants were not cued as to the different types of mentoring which might
be available to them (e.g. task, social, career, role model) in order to avoid demand
artefacts.
Expatriate socialization Expatriate socialization was measured by two scales taken
from Chao et al. (1994) and Feldman (1976). The socialization to the group scale
contained eight items and had an alpha of .75. A sample item is: 'Within my work
Feldman & BoUno: The impact of on-site mentoring
61
group, I would be easily identified as "one of the gang".' The socialization to the task
scale had seven items and an alpha of .71. A sample item is: 'I have not yet learned "the
ropes" of my job' (reverse scored).
Socialization outcomes Three outcomes of expatriate socialization were used in this
study. Overall job satisfaction was measured using three items from Hackman and
Oldham's (1980) scale (alpha=.74). A sample item is; 'I am generally satisfied with my
job.' Intent to linish the expatriate assignment is a single-item measure taken from
Feldman and Thomas (1992): 'I fully intend to see my current job through to its
conclusion.' Knowledge of intemational business was measured using Feldman and
Tompson's (1993) five-item scale (alpha-.73). A sample item is: 'The current job has
made me think more carefully about competing effectively in a global environment.'
Information on respondents' demographic status and work history with the
organization was collected by close-ended categorical items. At the end of the survey,
expatriates were also asked several open-ended essay questions about how well their
organization had helped them get assimilated to their new work environments and what
their greatest challenges in adjusting to overseas living had been.
The means and standard deviations of the variables in the study are displayed in
Table 1. Table 1 also contains the correlation matrix of all the variables used in the
structural equation model.
Data analysis
A structural equation model was used to test the proposed relationships among hostcountry culture, mentoring received, expatriate socialization and socialization outcomes. Structural equation modelling allows the investigation of several hypothesized
relationships simultaneously and provides an assessment of the fit between the
hypothesized model and observed data. The proposed structural equation model appears
in Figure 2.
Structural equation modelling relies on the use of both 'manifest' indicators and
'latent' variables. For instance, the scales for socialization to the group and socialization
to the task are manifest indicators; they are empirical indices of two specific aspects of
socialization. In contrast, latent variables are underlying constructs. Thus, in this study,
expatriate socialization is a latent variable underlying the two manifest indicators of
socialization to the group and socialization to the task. Structural equation modelling
tests hypotheses at the latent-variable level in order to assess the relationships among
variables with minimized measurement error. Ideally, each latent variable in the model
should have al least two manifest indicators and those manifest indicators should be
significantly related to each other.
In this study, we originally intended to use four manifest indicators to tap the latent
variable host-country culture: power distance, individualism-collectivism, uncertainty
avoidance and masculinity-femininity. However, because the correlation matrix in
Table 1 revealed that the Hofstede masculinity-femininity measure was not significantly correlated with the other three dimensions, it could not be used as part of the
latent-variable measure of host-country culture. Consequently, in the results reported
here, the latent variable 'host-country culture' will be measured via the three manifest
indicators of power distance, individualism-collectivism and uncertainty avoidance.
The latent variable 'mentoring on expatriate assignment' was measured by the four
mentoring indicators (task assistance, career assistance, psycho-social support and role
modelling). These four manifest indicators are all significantly correlated at the p=.Ol
62 The Intemational Journal of Human Resource Management
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The Intemational Joumal of Human Resource Management
level. Similarly, the 'expatriate socialization' latent variable was measured by the two
manifest indicators (socialization to the group and socialization to the task). These
manifest variables, too, are significantly intercorrelated at the p=.OI level.
In order to estimate the latent variable 'job satisfaction' (which was measured with
one scale), manifest indicators were created by parcelling items of the scale into two
subscales - a procedure recommended and outlined by Rindskopf and Rose (1988) and
Kishton and Widaman (1994). The same procedure was used to create the manifest
indicators of 'international business knowledge'. Because 'intent to finish expatriate
assignment' was a single-item measure, parcelling here was not an option. Therefore,
this variable is measured at the manifest level only.
Results
Overall model
The first step in interpreting the results of a structural equation model is to assess the fit
of the proposed model to the observed data. If the model does not acceptably fit the
data, individual hypotheses cannot be examined. On the other hand, if the overall model
has an acceptable fit, we can then proceed to the second step in interpreting the results,
namely, examining the five specific hypotheses proposed earlier.
The results of the structural equation analysis appear in Figure 3. The statistics
alongside each arrow are standardized path coefficient.s. All the coefficients presented
are significant at the p-.O5 level.
Re.searchers typically use multiple indicators to evaluate the fit of latent variable
models. Here, we used the most commonly used and recommended indices of fit: the
Goodness of Fit Index (GFl), Bentler and Bonnet's (1980) Normed Fit Index (NFl), the
Tucker-Lewi.s Index (TLI) recommended by Marsh et al. (1988), and the Comparative
Fit Index (CFl) recommended by Floyd and Widaman (1995). Values greater than or
equal to .90 for the GFI, ^fFI, TLI and CFl indicate good fit. In this study, these values
were .92. .93, .97 and .98. respectively, indicating a good fit between the observed data
and the proposed model.
Browne and Cudeck (1993) also suggest that various chi-square tests can be used to
assess model fit. In particular, they recommend examining the root-mean-square error
of approximation (RMSEA). the chi-square index of exact fit, the chi-square index of
close fit and whether the proposed model fits the observed data better than the null
model.
Specifically. Browne and Cudeck (1993) suggest that good model fit is indicated by
root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) values of .05 or less. In our study,
the RMSEA for our model was .05. They also suggest that a good model fit is indicated
by statistically non-significant chi-square tests of 'exact fit' and 'close fit'. In this study,
the chi-square test of exact fit was statistically significant (chi-square= 101, df=73,
p=.0I7) while the chi-square test of close fit was not statistically significant (p=.477).
Browne and Cudeck (1993) also suggest that a good model fit is indicated when the
proposed model fits the observed data significantly better than the null model In this
study. lhe observed data significantly fit the proposed model better than the null model
(cbi-square=l468, df=91. p<.01).
Thus, while there is no single fit index that is widely accepted, these various indices,
taken as a group, provide strong convergent evidence of good fit for the model. By both
the commonly used indicators of model fit and the chi-square indicators, the proposed
model fits the data well.
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The International Joumal of Human Resource Management
Specific hypotheses
Subsequently, the standardized path coefficients for each hypothesis were examined.
Hypothesis 1 is partially supported. Host-country culture has a significant impact on the
amount of mentoring received on the expatriate assignment. As predicted, expatriates
were more likely to receive mentoring in small power distance cultures and in weak
uncertainty avoidance cultures. Counter to our hypothesis, however, collectivism was
inversely related to the amount of mentoring received; that is. expatriates are more
likely to receive mentoring in individualistic cultures. The masculinity-femininity
dimension was unrelated to all the mentoring subscales (cf. Table I).
Hypothesis 2 was supported. On-site mentoring during an expatriate assignment is
positively related to expatriate socialization. The three hypotheses on ihe outcomes of
expatriate socialization were also supported. Expatriate socialization is positively
related to job satisfaction (Hypothesis 3), intention to finish the expatriate assignment
(Hypothesis 4) and increased knowledge about intemational business (Hypothesis 5).
Discussion
In this final section, we discuss avenues for future theoretical research in the area of
mentoring in intemational assignments, potential modifications in the general model
presented here, areas for methodological improvement and implications of the results
for the management of expatriate mentoring programmes.
Theory
The present research provides support for the idea that the host-country's culture has a
significant impact on how much informal mentoring expatriates receive while they are
on their overseas assignments. The power distance and uncertainty avoidance
dimensions of host-country culture were related to amount of mentoring received, as
predicted, though the resulis here suggest that expatriates are more likely to receive
mentoring in individuali.stic (rather than collectivist) cultures.
There are at least three possible explanations for this last result. It may be the case
that, while managers in collectivist cultures are loyal to others in their in-group or
'clan', they may be relatively indifferent to outsiders. Alternatively, becau.se collectivist
cultures emphasize group welfare, it may be that these societies may discourage, rather
than promote, the intimacy associated with dyadic mentor-protege relationships. Third,
it is possible that this result could be a finding specific to the present sample. Half of the
respondents here were expatriates working in the US, and there may be more pressure
to engage in mentoring within the domestic operations of this particular firm.
The results were not significant for the masculinity-femininity dimension. At least
part of the reason for this result may be attributable to measurement problems
associated wilh lhe Hofstede (1980) measure. In particular, Sondergaard (1994) has
raised questions about the intemal validity of Hofstede's scales and notes that the
ma.sculinity-femininity continuum is the dimension most difficult to confirm empirically. Hofstede's work still remains the largest extant study of culture and his
measurement device is the most commonly used one in international business research
on culture (e.g. Shane, 1994). However, researchers need to be conservative in
interpreting results using these scales, since the lower the intemal validity of a scale like
masculinity-femininity, lhe less likely that it will significantly predict expatriate
attitudes and behaviours (Kogut and Singh, i98iij.
Feldman & Bolino: The impact of on-site mentoring
67
Model
The model presented in this research is fairly constrained in tenns of number cf
variables ii examines. A major focus for future research should be examining other
individual-level, organizational-level and cultural-level variables which might influence
the extent to which expatriates receive mentoring.
At the individual level, demographic variables like gender and personality traits like
positive affectivity are potentially important predictors. In this study, we did not have
enough variance on gender (85 per cent of the sample was male) to assess its impact'
reliably. None the less, inclusion of these variables would contribute greatly to our
understanding of expatriates' access to mentors. Previous research in the domestic
mentoring literature, for instance, highlights the fact that females may receive less, and
lower quality, mentoring than men (Ragins and Cotton, 1991).
In addition, previous research has been inconclusive as to whether it is job tenure,
organizational tenure or career stage which influences the perceived need for mentoring.
While, traditionally, mentoring has been focused on relative newcomers at early career
stages, ihe evidence suggests that more senior employees who are changing jobs within
firms may need even more assistance but are less likely to receive it (Feldman, 1989).
Because expatriates tend to be more senior in terms of age and tenure, examining this
i.ssue is necessary in order to gain a better understanding of mentoring during overseas
assignments. In this study, there was too little variance on age to examine its effects; not
surprisingly, exploratory analyses on age's moderating effects were not statistically
significant.
In addition, while the present research focuses on the amount of mentoring received,
it did not address the quality of mentoring and the impact that mentoring quality (or
thoroughness) might have on expatriate socialization. Thus, future work should explore
the causes and consequences of mentoring quality.
At the organizational level, several other contextual factors surrounding the
availability of expatriate mentoring also warrant further investigation. Whether the
expatriate assignment is in a joint venture, a wholly owned subsidiary or in a hostcountry-owned fimi may influence how much investment of energy colleagues and
superiors put into socializing expatriates. Along the same lines, expatriates whose job
functions are primarily technical may receive less (and may need less) mentoring than
those whose assignments are primarily managerial or interactive in nature. In this study,
we had data on the departments to which expatriates were assigned, but not on whether
those jobs were technical or non-technical in nature (e.g. whether someone in R&D was
a general manager or a research scientist).
The amount of formal pre-departure and post-arrival training, too, might influence the
need for, and effectiveness of, expatriate mentoring. Furthermore, it would be
interesting to discover the extent to which veteran employees are trained in how to
mentor effectively expatriate newcomers to their organizational units and to their
culture - and the impact that such training has on the socialization and adjustment of
expatriates.
In addition, there may be significant differences between inpatriates and expatriates
in their access to mentors and their success in working with them. In the present study,
we were not able to perform separate structural equation models for these two groups
for two reasons. First, the sample size needed to perform the analyses would be too
small if the sample were split. Second, there would have been no variance on culture for
the sample of US inpatriates. However, there has not been systematic empirical research
68
Tfie International Journal of Human Resource Management
into mentoring differences between inpatriates and expatriates and such research is
clearly warranted.
Another research area which needs further investigation is mentoring for spouses.
Since spouse adjustment is so critical to expatriate success (cf. Black and Gregersen,
1991), it would be useful to develop a model which explains the antecedents,
consequences and effectiveness of spouse coaching/training programmes as well.
At the cultural level, several important research questions also remain. While this
study examined how differences in national culture influence willingness to mentor,
culture can also be expected to influence the willingness to be mentored. For example,
in some cultures seeking out mentoring is a sign of newcomer initiative, while in other
cultures seeking out mentoring may be a sign of newcomer weakness. This issue has yet
to be comprehensively researched and deserves thoughtful attention. Another avenue
for future research at the culture level is the inconsistency between the home-country
culture and the host-country culture of the expatriate (or the 'cultural toughness" of the
expatriate's transition). In other words, the amount of mentoring received may be a
result not only of main effects of host-country culture, but also of contrast effects
between the host- and home-country cultures. Expatriates may require less mentoring
when placed in overseas jobs where there are few differences between their home- and
host-country cultures (and/or few differences between the organizational cultures of
their back-home and expatriate work units).
Methodology
In terms of research methodology, the current study provides the first real empirical
data on the relationships among host-country culture, mentoring on the expatriate
assignment itself, expatriate socialization and socialization outcomes. Moreover, while
structural equation models do not provide proof of causality, they do increase the
plausibility of the specified causal model while simultaneously decreasing the
plausibility of aitemative models, in that sense, then, several researchers have noted that
structural equation models do permit inferences of causality (Hayduk, 1987; Joreskog
and Sorb(>m, 1989).
However, there are still several ways in which the methodology for investigating
mentoring expatriates can be enhanced. While the present study used a larger and more
diverse data set than many previous studies, all the participants in this study were
members of one multinational corporation; inclusion of more firms and firms in more
industries would be very useful. In addition, while the present study is a significant
advance over reliance on anecdotal and qualitative data, only longitudinal data allow
strong conclusions about causality. Like much of the research on expatriate adjustment,
most of the variables in this research are based on self-report responses. Thus, there is
a possibility that common methods variance may have inflated the results obtained.
Greater use of archival data, particularly in terms of outcome measures, would
significantly enhance the research methodology.
Another way in which future re.search could be improved is through obtaining more
information about the mentors themselves. In this study, most of the expatriates went to
locations where they were the only or one of two or three expatriates on site. Moreover.
it was the practice at headquarters to encourage US citizens strongly to mentor new
inpatriates. Thus, in this study, there are strong indications that mentors and proteges
were usually from different cultures. However, since mentoring was informal in nature,
there is no hard evidence on this point. Consequently, we need to determine whether the
mentoring is received from another home-country employee or whether it is received
Feldman & Bolino: The impact of on-site mentoring
69
from host-country personnel - and what the chief differences between same-nation and
cross-national mentoring are.
Management practice
The results here highlight the importance of mentoring expatriates on site. Mentors in
the host country are critical to expatriates' job performance in their current assignments
and to their integration into the host-country culture. Moreover, the results suggest that
successful socialization of expatriates has concrete positive consequences both for the
individual employee and for the multinational corporation in terms of positive job
attitudes, completion of the expatriate assignment and enhanced skill development and
understanding of global business issues.
The qualitative comments from respondents reinforce the empirical findings on this
point:
They [the multinational corporation] spend a lot of money on consultants. A mentor
would have been twice as useful.
We don't do a good job of helping new employees settle into the environment. We could
do better by assigning a welcome partner to help the person for at least the first
month.
We had a very, very difficult assimilation. [The multinational corporation] should set up
mentor programmes for current expatriates.
In my job, there is no mentor to guide me. It's been really tough for me this first year in
the job. The changes are so challenging and difficult to deal with. A colleague of mine
left Ithe firm] because he lacked mentoring.
While the first wave of research on expatriate adjustment highlighted the importance
of helping overseas employees with the logistics, now greater attention must be given
to the 'relational" components of expatriate mentoring (Guzzo, 1996). This would entail
either assigning or facilitating the voluntary linking of mentors with new expatriates
within the host country, it would involve, as well, the training of mentors in how to
provide effective guidance to individuals from different cultures. Moreover, the results
here suggest that, particularly in cultures that are collectivist and where there are large
power distances and strong uncertainty avoidance, multinational corporations have to
pay even greater attention to ensuring that new expatriates receive sufficient amounts of
high-quality mentoring assistance.
Notes
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support of the University of South Carolina's
Center for Intemational Business Educatiun and Research for this project.
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