rn
The University of Newcastle
History Club
Department of History
STUDENT RESEARCH PAPERS
IN.
AUSTRALIAN HISTORY
No. 5
1980
Price : 50 cents
THE U N I V E R S I T Y O F NEWCASTLE
HISTORY CLUB
DEPARTMENT O F H I S T O R Y
STUDENT RESEARCH P A P E R S
IN
AUSTRALIAN H I S T O R Y
No.
5
1980
Printed a t the University o f Newcastle.
PREFACE
In t h e A u s t r a l i a n H i s t o r y course o f f e r e d i n Second Year a t
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Newcastle, a s p a r t o f t h e i r p r o g r e s s i v e assessment,
s t u d e n t s have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f e i t h e r p r e s e n t i n g a conventional
e s s a y o r o f r e s e a r c h i n g a t o p i c o f t h e i r own choice from primary
s o u r c e s . Many s t u d e n t s choose t h e second a l t e r n a t i v e , and s i n c e t h i s
programme began i n 1976 a c o n s i d e r a b l e corpus o f m a t e r i a l on t h e l o c a l
h i s t o r y o f t h i s a r e a has been b u i l t up. The papers a r e a l l a v a i l a b l e
f o r p u b l i c use i n t h e l o c a l h i s t o r y c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e Newcastle Public
Library. The b e s t o f t h e papers, however, a r e made a v a i l a b l e t o a
wider r e a d e r s h i p by p u b l i s h i n g them each y e a r .
T h i s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , may be t h e l a s t i s s u e o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n ,
a s a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e courses o f f e r e d i n t h i s department has
meant t h a t A u s t r a l i a n H i s t o r y w i l l be t a u g h t i n F i r s t Year only, where
u n s t r u c t u r e d p r i v a t e r e s e a r c h by s t u d e n t s would be l e s s a p p r o p r i a t e .
However, t h e e d i t o r s hope you w i l l f i n d t h e papers i n t h i s volume as
i n t e r e s t i n g and u s e f u l a s we d i d .
P e t e r Hempenstall, Margaret Henry, Noel Rutherford.
CONTENTS
THE NEWCASTLE AND NORTHUMBERLAND BENEVOLENT S O C I E T Y
by Susan A r m s t r o n g
'
THE PNEUMONIC INFLUENZA E P I D E M I C OF 1919 I N NEW SOLITH WALES
by Jennifer G r e e n w e l l
13
by B r u c e Jenkins
23
THE GREAT LOCKOUT
SMALL TOWN CINEMA: AN ENTERTAINMENT MONOPOLY
by C a t h y G r a h a m
A PRELIMINARY SKETCH O F I T A L I A N MIGRATION
by M a u r e e n S t r a z z a r i
34
THE PNEUMONIC INFLUENZA EPIDEMIC OF 1919 IN
NEW SOUTH WALES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO NEWCASTLE
JENNIFER GREENWELL
SYNOPSIS :
In our modern s o c i e t y , with i t s r e l i a n c e on medical technology
and health science, influenza i s seen a s l i t t l e more than an
inconvenience. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine a time when it was
viewed i n a much more s e r i o u s l i g h t . Yet i n 1919 a p a r t i c u l a r l y
v i r u l e n t s t r a i n o f pheumonic influenza swept through t h e world,
taking with it t h e l i v e s of m i l l i o n s .
Australia, though i s o l a t e d , was not a b l e t o escape t h e v i s i t a t i o n .
For months, t h e l i v e s o f t h e e n t i r e population were regimented
and disrupted t o a remarkable degree and death came t o many
households. Yet today, t h e influenza epidemic has been v i r t u a l l y
forgotten - a page i n A u s t r a l i a ' s h i s t o r y which f o r many may a s
well never have been w r i t t e n .
*
By January 28th., f o u r cases o f pheumonic i n f l u e n z a were reported
i n Sydney, each having been contracted i n Melbourne. A parliamentarian
declared t h a t IfVictoria, by i t s neglect t o have i t s e l f declared an i n f e c t e d
s t a t e by t h e Commonwealth, has allowed i n f e c t i o n t o become widely
d i s t r i b u t e d amongst i t s population, and by i t s delay t o a c t i n $ e m s of
t h e agreement, has a l s o brought about i n f e c t i o n i n t h i s s t a t e " .
The N.S.W. Government e x h i b i t e d none o f V i c t o r i a ' s llincompetencell,
a c t i n g s w i f t l y t o impose p r e v e n t a t i v e r e s t r i c t i o n s i n Sydney and t h e
County o f Cumberland. The s t a t e , having been declared, i n f e c t e d , was
surrounded by a cordon of i n s p e c t o r s and p o l i c e . T r a f f i c was stopped a t
t h e borders and a quarantine period o f seven days was imposed on a l l
t r a v e l l e r s by land o r sea. Over one thousand Queenslanders were stranded
i n N.S.W., many l e f t q u i t e d e s t i t u t e and without accommodation. The
Government1s decision t o include V i c t o r i a , where t h e epidemic was f l o u r i s h i n g ,
i n t h e quarantine r e s t r i c t i o n s , was c o n t r a r y t o t h e November agreement,
which provided f o r unhindered i n t e r c o u r s e between i n f e c t e d s t a t e s , and
i n i t i a t e d an outraged and b i t t e r debate between t h e N.S.W., t h e Victorian
and t h e Federal Governments.
The N.S.W. r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s contended t h a t t h e November agreement had
been v i r t u a l l y renounced when V i c t o r i a had refused t o observe i t . Although
both s t a t e s had been declared i n f e c t e d , t h e r e l a t i v e l y few cases i n N.S.W.
might, it was hoped, be c o n t r o l l e d i f contact was avoided with V i c t o r i a ,
where t h e d i s e a s e was s o widespread t h a t c o n t r o l was no longer possible.
M r . Watt, t h e Acting Prime Minister, condemned t h e " u n j u s t i f i a b l e inconvenience1'
caused by t h e land quarantine and argued t h a t s i n c e t h e d i s e a s e had escaped
t h e r i g i d measures imposed on overseas t r a v e l l e r s , t h e haphazard methods
employed by t h e N.S.W. Government could not hope t o be e f f e c t i v e .
A s time passed, New South Wales was accused o f causing s e r i o u s t r a d e
and commercial d i s l o c a t i o n and aggravating severe shortages of food and f u e l .
With t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e epidemic, t h e discrimination between one
s t a t e and t h e o t h e r became syperfluous.
Plans were made f o r the "observation,
examination and s ~ p e r v i s i o n ' ~o f i n t e r s t a t e t r a v e l l e r s , b u t these were
delayed i n t h e i r implementation a s t h e s t a t e and f e d e r a l governments wrangled
over t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s .
Within New South Wales i t s e l f , a Medical Consultative Committee was
e s t a b l i s h e d t o advise the government and an Influenza Committee was formed
t o implement i t s r e g u l a t i o n s . I n an endeavour t o check t h e d i s e a s e i n i t s
e a r l y s t a g e s , a number o f r e s t r i c t i o n s was imposed i n t h e Sydney a r e a . A l l
places of public entertainment, including p i c t u r e shows and r a c e meetings,
were closed. Schools d i d not resume following t h e holiday break and church
s e r v i c e s and p u b l i c meetings were p r o h i b i t e d . These c l o s u r e s caused considerable
l o s s e s amongst p r o p r i e t o r s and unemployment amongst workers. I t was estimated
t h a t between 5000 and 6000 cinema employees were o u t o f work8 and t h e demand
f o r a moratorium by those d i r e c t l y involved was both vocal and prolonged.
An uproar arose, e s p e c i a l l y among churchmen who were p r o h i b i t e d from
conducting s e r v i c e s , when no r e s t r i c t i o n s were a t f i r s t imposed upon h o t e l s .
In response, a proclamation was issued r e s t r i c t i n g t h e number of people
permitted i n t h e b a r areas of h o t e l s , and a few days l a t e r such establishments
were completely closed. While such r e s t r i c t i o n s d i d not apply t o t h e as y e t
un-infected Newcastle, a n o t i c e was displayed o u t s i d e t h e Health Department
advising people t o avoid places o f indoor entertainment which might
. encourage t h e spread of d i s e a s e .
Page 16
In the i n i t i a l p a n i c a rush f o r innoculation occurred, with t h e r e s u l t
t h a t t h e Newcastle s u p p l y o f v a c c i n e was t e m p o r a r i l y e x h a u s t e d . When t h e
f i r s t c a s e was r e p o r t e d i n Newcastle, two thousand, t h r e e hundred
i n n o c u l a t i o n s took p l a c e i n one day. L e t t e r s t o t h e E d i t o r s o f l o c a l
newspapers recommending c u r e s and p r e v e n t a t i v e s were numerous, w h i l e t h e
manufacturers o f "wonder c u r e s " were q u i c k t o jump on t h e bandwagon w i t h
t h e i r miraculous remedies. As t h e epidemic p r o g r e s s e d , t h e unscrupulous
d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o make c a p i t a l from t h e f e a r and s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s and
The wearing o f masks i n p u b l i c p l a c e s was made compulsory i n t h e
Sydney m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a and l a t e r on t r a i n s and trams i n Newcastle. In
t h e h e a t o f February such a p r o c l a m a t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y o n e r o u s . I n d i v i d u a l s ,
e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e engaged i n h e a ~ ymanual t a s k s , complained o f " p a r t i a l
a few weeks, most p e o p l e a g r e e d t h a t
s u f f o c a t i o n and i n t e n s e h e a t " .
masks were " i n s t r u m e n t s o f t o r t u r e
Smokers, e s p e c i a l l y , t e n d e d t o f l o u t
t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s . A Sydney j o u r n a l i s t on February 2nd., counted two hupgred
and s i x t y unmasked p e o p l e i n George S t r e e t i n t h e s p a c e o f t e n m i n u t e s .
A few days l a t e r , t h e s t a t e government d e c i d e d t o e n f o r c e i t s r e g u l a t i o n s
more s t r i c t l y and summonses were i s s u e d a g a i n s t n i n e hundred and t h i r t y two
p e o p l e f o r n o t wearing masks. I n Newcastle, where t h e r e had been a s y e t no
i n s t a n c e s o f t h e d i s e a s e , t h e tendency t o i g n o r e t h e r e g u l a t i o n s was more
pronounced.
Affk~f
.
A t t h i s time t h e government r e s t r i c t i o n s were c a u s i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y more
d i s l o c a t i o n and h a r d s h i p t h a n t h e d i s e a s e i t s e l f . Business l i f e was i n
g e n e r a l d e p r e s s e d . A scheme f o r t h e r e l i e f o f t h o s e d i s a d v a n t a g e d by
government a c t i o n s was implemented. Food s u p p l i e s and r e n t payments were
t o be g i v e n and a t " D i s t r e s s R e l i e f Depots" c l a i m s could b e made f o r l o s s e s
i n c u r r e d because o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s i f t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e c l a i m a n t met
c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . If t h e s e were e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e government would p r o v i d e
up t o one t h i r d o f t h e l o s s e s .
Some f i r m s and shops i n t r o d u c e d i n h a l a t i o n chambers i n which fumes o f
a z i n c s o l u t i o n were i n h a l e d a s t h r o a t s t e r i l i z e r s . Although r e s t r i c t i o n s
were imposed on t r a i n t r a v e l from t h e Sydney a r e a , t h e t o u r i s t a r e a s o f t h e
Blue Mountains were crowded w i t h t h o s e who s o u g h t p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e h e a l t h y
mountain a i r . Every c a s e o f s i c k n e s s which was r e p o r t e d was i n v e s t i g a t e d ,
and i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n hundreds o f c a s e s , many b e a r i n g n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t
resemblance t o i n f l u e n z a , were t h e s u b j e c t o f i n q u i r y .
The epidemic was n o t w i t h o u t i t s a s s o c i a t e d i n d u s t r i a l d i s p u t e s . I n
Newcastle wharf workers and c o a l trimmers r e f u s e d t o u n l o a d o r work on s h i p s
u n l e s s given i n c r e a s e d wages because o f t h e r i s k a l l e g e d l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
recently infected vessels.
For a time i t seemed a s i f t h e New South Wales r e s t r i c t i o n s had i n d e e d
been s u c c e s s f u l i n c o n t a i n i n g t h e epidemic. On February l o t h . , o n l y one
hundred and f i v e c a s e s and one d e a t h had been r e p o r t e d i n comparison w i t h
V i c t o r i a , where few r e s t r i c t i o n s had been imposed and two thousand and s e v e n t y
two c a s e s and two hundred and t e n d e a t h s r e p o r t e d .
A s t h e epidemic appeared t o a b a t e , o r a t l e a s t t o g e t no worse, t h e
s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s , succumbing perhaps t o i n t e n s e p r e s s u r e from b u s i n e s s and
p u b l i c o p i n i o n , o r simply because t h e y s i n c e r e l y b e l i e v e d t h e worst t o b e
o v e r , g r a d u a l l y l i f t e d r e s t r i c t i o n s u n t i l by March 3 r d . , few r e g u l a t i o n s
*
were i n f o r c e .
Cases decreased markedly i n l a t e - ~ p r &andl
g r e a t pressure was put upon
t h e governmefit t o remove r e s t r i c t i o n s . Eventually t h e a u t h o r i t i e s
succumbed t o t h e p e r s i s t e n t demands o f t h e p u b l i c and business although
t h e r e was much evidence t h a t t h e peidemic had only undergone a temporary
r e s p i t e . Indeed, some f e l t t h a t t h e removal of t h e c o n t r o l s may have been
premature and a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e m i n i s t e r %as t o r t u r e d , r i d i c u l e d and abused
i n a most scandalous fashion t i l l he was driven i n t o doing what, i f he was
q u i t e s i n c e r e i n h i s e a r l i 5 f u t t e r a n c e s on t h e s u b j e c t , he must have f e l t
was an unwise concession".
For a time t h e epidemic was r e l e g a t e d t o t h e second o r t h i r d pages
o f t h e newspapers, although t h e news items themselves do n o t i n d i c a t e a
s i g n i f i c a n t enough decrease i n cases t o warrant t h e unqualified optimism
expressed by many people.
In Newcastle the d i s e a s e had displayed no evidence o f abatement whatsoever
and on June 6 t h . , a record seventy new cases were admitted t o h o s p i t a l .
On June 1 2 t h . , t h e Department o f p u b l i c Health r e p o r t e d a recrudescence o f
t h e d i s e a s e , and once more t h e f u n e r a l columns grew i n length and number.
The increases i n deaths and absenteeism were taking a remarkable t o l l on t h e
functioning o f t h e e n t i r e s t a t e . In Sydney i t was r e p o r t e d "there i s h a r d l y
a business i n town with a f u l l s t a f f and c e r t a i n public i n s t i t u t i o n s have t o
n o t i f y an e a r l i e r c l o s i n g hour because o f short-handedness. The t h e a t r e s
which foy$t s o hard f o r t h e removal o f t h e masks a r e playing t o h a l f empty
houses".
A Sydney suburban paper reported t h a t "the i n f l u e n z a epidemic i s sweeping
through this23uburb l i k e a cloud o f poison gas. Very few households have
escaped i t t f . On June 1 7 t h . , t h r e e thousand four hundred and s i x t y t h r e e
t r a i n and tram employees throughout t h e s t a t e were absent from work, t o g e t h e r
with f o u r hundred policemen. While advertisements f o r household h e l p had
previously c a l l e d f o r a "trained n u r s e f f , t h e employment s i t u a t i o n was now s o
desperate t h a t t h e reqyests were simply f o r ''someone who has some knowledge
o f household duties".
MaiISand was s u b j e c t t o a "paralysis never experienced i n the worst
and p u b l i c o f f i c e s , shops and f a c t o r i e s were a t a v i r t u a l s t a n d s t i l l .
strike",
There were many c a l l s f o r r e s t r i c t i o n s t o be reimposed but the government
argued t h a t by now t h e public had been educated i n how t o deal with and avoid
i n f e c t i o n 2pd t h e necessary a c t i o n o f evoidance and d i s c i p l i n e l a y i n t h e i r
own hands.
The Premier s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e was "a r e a l d 9 8 e r o f doctors and
but i n a number
nurses being overwhelmed i f any a d d i t i o n a l c a s e s occur",
of areas such a s i t u a t i o n had already a r i s e n .
In Newcastle, which lacked t h e governmental o r g a n i s a t i o n afforded t o
Sydney, i n d i v i d u a l m u n i c i p a l i t i e s s e t about t h e t a s k o f securing r e l i e f and
nursing f o r t h e i r c i t i z e n s . Many councils arranged f o r women t o v i s i t t h e
homes of t h e i l l and render any necessary a i d . The women of Hamilton
e s t a b l i s h e d a kitchen where food such as beef t e a , c u s t a r d and j e l l y was
prepared and d i s t r i b u t e d amongst t h e needy, and o t h e r councils soon followed
i t s example. Three hundred people were provided f o r by t h e Hamilton depot
alone. These kitchens r e l i e d on funds donated by t h e p u b l i c o r on g i f t s of
foodstuffs. Most of t h e work f e l l on t h e women o f t h e community, who indeed
seemed i n d e f a t i g a b l e , a s d i d members of s e r v i c e clubs and o r g a n i s a t i o n s .
A t a l o c a l c o u n c i l meeting i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t "very few homes $4
Adamstown have n o t been v i s i t e d by t h e i n f l u e n z a - mild o r o t h e r w i s e "
28
and t h e Mayor o f Newcastle f e l t t h a t "matters were becoming very s e r i o u s " .
I n one s t r e e t i n Hamilton a l o n e , f i f t e e n f a m i l i e s were i l l .
From t h e week,.ended June 2 4 t h . , t h e s t a t e m o r t a l i t y r a t e i n c r e a s e d by
100%. Over s i x thousand r a i l and tramway employees were a b s e n t from work
and department s t o r e s were s u f f e r i n g h e a v i l y from t h e d e p l e t i o n of s t a f f ,
and customers. Even food s a l e s e x h i b i t e d a pronounced d e c r e a s e owing t o t h e
number o f i l l and b e d r i d d e n p e o p l e . Thousands o f i n d i v i d u a l s were f o r c e d
t o r e l y upon t h e government f o r food, medicine and r e n t and by J u l y
a u t h o r i t i e s had p a i d a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n pounds i n compensation and r e l i e f .
By l a t e J u l y , t h e s i t u a t i o n had improved markedly throughout most
of t h e s t a t e . In Newcastle, f o r t h e f i r s t time i n months, no new c a s e s
were a d m i t t e d t o t h e Waratah H o s p i t a l . The d i s e a s e , however, remained
p r e v a l e n t i n t h e o u t l y i n g d i s t r i c t s o f Belmont and Swansea. By t h e end
o f J u l y t h e r e l i e f d e p o t i n Newcastle and t h e Wallsend Emergency H o s p i t a l
were c l o s e d , and l i f e was beginning t o r e t u r n t o normal.
The pandemic had "caused more s u f f e r i n g t h a n any scourge we have e v e r
I n New South Wales
had, owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t s o many p e o p l e were a f f e c t e d " .
a t o t a l o f s i x thousand, t h r e e hundred and f i v e d e a t h s had o c c u r r e d ,
a l t h o u g h it i s thought t h a t l a r g e numbers d i e d o f r e l a t e d c a u s e s , b u t whose
d e a t h s were n o t r e c o r d e d a s b e i n g d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n z a .
In Newcastle medical p r a c t i t i o n e r s n o t i f i e d two thousand, f o u r hundred c a s e s ,
w i t h f o u r hundred and n i n e t y f o u r r e g i s t e r e d d e a t h s , i . e . d e a t h r a t i o o f
approximately .6% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , t h i s i n a p e r i o d of l e s s t h a n h a l f
a year!
The government p a i d d e a r l y f o r t h e measures i t had f e l t compelled t o
i n t r o d u c e t o combat t h e d i s e a s e . For example, i n Newcastle, w i t h a
p o p u l a t i o n o f 90,000, £13,000 was expended i n running t h e h o s p i t a l s , i n food
o r d e r s , b l a n k e t s and medicine, w i t h a l a r g e amount a l s o s u b s c r i b e d p r i v a t e l y .
The government was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r compensating, a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y ,
t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s d i s a d v a n t a g e d by t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed i n t h e e p i d e m i c ' s
early stages.
The i n f l u e n z a epidemic had claimed thousands o f l i v e s , caused massive
f i n a n c i a l l o s s e s and d i s r u p t e d everyday l i f e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o an e x t e n t
unprecedented. Yet today it i s a v i r t u a l l y f o r g o t t e n i n c i d e n t i n o u r h i s t o r y .
Perhaps t h i s i s because o f t h e almost s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n a l s p e e d w i t h which
t h e d i s e a s e came and went. Except f o r t h o s e who had l o s t f a m i l y members,
l i f e q u i c k l y r e t u r n e d t o normal. There were no s i g n i f i c a n t a f t e r - e f f e c t s ,
no maimed o r i n j u r e d p e o p l e l e f t a s a reminder o f t h e h o r r o r s which had p a s s e d .
The r e s t r i c t i o n s and d i s l o c a t i o n s were coupled i n memory w i t h t h e wartime
p r o h i b i t i o n s , u n t i l many came t o t h i n k of t h e epidemic a s merely an appendage
o f World War I . But although a s an h i s t o r i c a l and even a s a medical
phenonemon t h e i n f l u e n z a epidemic t e n d s t o be i g n o r e d , t h e f a c t remains t h a t
f o r f i v e months i n 1919 a d e v a s t a t i n g i l l n e s s swept t h e c o u n t r y , c a u s i n g
a g r e a t e r l o s s i n l i f e and i n economic and p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y t h a n any s i n g l e
e v e d i n the history of our nation.
Page 21
FOOTNOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21;
Sydney Morning H e r a l d , 31 December, 1918.
Ibid.
I b i d , 21 J a n u a r y , 1919.
I b i d , 6 February, 1919.
Newcastle Morning H e r a l d , 12 February, 1919.
Sydney Morning H e r a l d , 1 A p r i l , 1919.
I b i d . 29 J a n u a r y
. ., 1919.
Newcastle Morning H e r a l d , 8 A p r i l , 1919.
Sydney Morning H e r a l d , 4 February, 1919.
I b i d , 19 February, 1919.
I b i d , 2 February, 1919.
Newcastle Morning Herald, 12 March, 1919.
I b i d . 21 March. 1919.
Sydney Morning H e r a l d , 3 A p r i l , 1919.
I b i d , 27 March, 1919.
Newcastle Morning H e r a l d , 1 6 A p r i l , 1919.
"The Newcastle Diocesan Churchman", 1918-1919, Vol . I I I , p . 7, 1 A p r i l , 1919.
N.S.W. P a r l i a m e n t a r y Debates, Vo1.75, p.2744.
Newcastle Morning ~ e r a l d , 10 ~ e b r u a r ~1920.
,I b i d , 9 J u n e , 1919.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
1 b i d ; 16 ~ u n e ; 1919.
I b i d , 19 J u n e , 1919.
I b i d , 15 May, 1919.
I b i d , 20 June, 1919.
I b i d , 21 June, 1919.
I b i d , 22 June, 1919.
Commonwealth o f A u s t r a l i a P a r l i a m e n t a r y Debates, Vol. LXXXIX, p
-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources:
Commonwealth o f A u s t r a l i a P a r l i a m e n t a r y Debates, 1919.
New South Wales P a r l i a m e n t a r y Debates, 19 19.
Newcastle C i t y Council Minute Book, 191966, 1920.
Newcastle Diocesan Churchman, 1919-1920.
Newcastle Morning Herald, J a n u a r y 1st - August 30th, 1919.
Newcastle and Northumberland Benevolent S o c i e t y 35th Annual Report.
Sydney Morning H e r a l d , December 20th 1918 - August 20th 1919.
Secondary Sources :
Articles
J . Mcfarlane, 'The formation o f t h e Lake Macquarie D i s t r i c t
Ambulancef, Newcastle and Hunter D i s t r i c t H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y B u l l e t i n ,
March, 1980.
Monographs
B. Beveridge, I n f l u e n z a , t h e L a s t Great Plague, NY, 1977.
A. Crosby, Epidemic and Peace, Westport, 1976.