06
Diversity of plants
By the end of this chapter, you will be competent to...
• identify the morphological diversity of leaves.
• investigate the functions of plant stems and plant roots.
• use plant products to make human activities more productive.
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6. 1 Plant diversity
Among organisms which add beauty to nature, the highest credit goes to the
world of plants. The reason for this is the enormous diversity seen among plants. This
diversity has enabled plants to conquer not only land, but aquatic environments such
as marine and fresh-water habitats, while also ensuring their survival, at the same time.
Plants show a great diversity in structure ranging from the tiniest water plants,
herbs, bushes, creepers to large trees. In whatever environment they live in, most
plants are made up of the basic parts namely roots, stem, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits
and seeds. You have already studied about these parts. The purpose of this lesson is to
observe and appreciate the tremendous diversity seen among leaves, roots and stems
of plants.
Plant leaves
Shown below is the cover page of a booklet prepared by a group of students (Fig 6.1)
Diversity of leaves
Fig. 6.1
Observe the diversity in the shapes and the sizes of the leaves pasted on the cover
page. You can see that there is a difference not only in the shapes but also in the shades
of the green colour.
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Irrespective of the diversity of leaves, the basic parts of a leaf and a small branch can
be noted as below.
terminal bud
axial bud
leaf apex
leaf margin
leaf stalk
(petiole)
leaf blade
Inter-node
leaf base
mid-rib
node
lateral veins
stipules
Fig. 6.2 - Branch of a Dicot plant
Assignment - 1
Observe leaves of different types of plants, and identify the parts indicated
above. Try to identify the axillary bud that can be seen at the point of attachment of
the leaf to the stem in Dicotyledonous plants.
How wonderful it would be, if we could stand in a place with a supply of air and
water, and produce our own food. Although animals including man are unable to do
this, all green plants, in the presence of sunlight can synthesise their food, using the raw
materials - water and carbon dioxide.
The main site for photosynthesis is the leaf. Hence leaves show many adaptations
to receive optimum sunlight. The shapes, sizes, and attachment of leaves to the stem all
determine the ability of the leaves to capture maximum sunlight
Leaf apex and the margin
Observe the leaves in Fig. 6.1 once again. The tips of the leaves are pointed or
straight or curved or some times blunt. The margin too is straight or serrated, as seen
in the picture. Certain leaves have very sharp and pointed, spine like margins too.
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Leaf base and petiole
Most leaves are attached to the stem by a petiole, making it easy to be exposed
to the sun. Yet certain types of plants may have leaves without petioles. Grasses,
wheat are some examples.
Such leaves are attached to the stem by the base of the leaf. Leaf bases too show
variations. The leaf bases of onion store food and get swollen. They overlap and form
the onion bulb. These bulbs are mostly found underground.
Assignment - 2
swollen bases of
leaves
Observe a longitudinal section of
an onion bulb
underground stem
roots
A longitudinal section of an onion bulb
Do you know ?
In banana, the part above the ground is not the true
stem, but a collection of leaf bases arising from the
underground stem, growing under the soil.
Leaf surface
The most prominent part of the leaf is its surface, it is large, flat and thin, in order to get
maximum amount of sunlight. Leaf surface too may show a variety of shapes.
The upper surface is different from the lower surface. e.g. : leaf of temple trees (can be
distinguished easily).
In most of the leaves, the two sides cannot be distinguished. e.g.: Onion, certain
aquatic plants.
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Leaf venation
Veins are the transporting passages inside the leaves. The pattern in which the veins
are arranged is known as leaf venation. Often the veins form a spreading network
throughout the leaf facilitating the transport of water and food. Sometimes veins are
parallel. e.g. Coconut, arecanut. banana, cannas, bamboo and palms.
Fig 6.4 - Parallel venation
Fig. 6.3 - Reticulate venation
Assignment - 3
Apply a paint on the lower surface of
different types of leaves, and get their
copies, as shown in the picture.
Below each copy, write the name and
nature of the veins.
Shoe flower
Grass
Koboleela
Mango
Palm
Idda
Jak
Coconut
Phyllotaxis
Phyllotaxis is the arrangement of leaves around the stem. Often the leaves are arranged
around the stem in a very orderly pattern. Observe the way in which the leaves are
fixed, in such a way, so as not to block the light for the lower leaves. For this purpose
the upper leaves are often small and allow sunlight to reach the lower leaves effectively.
Some patterns of leaf arrangements are shown below;
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Fig. 6.5
Leaves are alternately placed
eg. Anona
Fig. 6.6
Leaves are in pairs and placed rectangulary
opposite eg. Mukunuwenna, Ixora
Fig. 6.7
Leaves are in pairs and oppositely
arranged eg. Guava
Fig. 6.8
Leaves turned in various directions - spiral
eg. Mango
Fig. 6.9
Three or more leaves arising from
the same level whorl eg. Alstonia
Fig. 6.10
Many leaves arising from the same level
forming clusters eg. Launia, Agave
Assignment - 4
Observe as many plants as you can. Identify the patterns of their phyllotaxis
and add more examples to your list.
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Simple and compound leaves
Leaves may be simple or compound. Simple leaves have a single blade, it may show
divisions but the divisions are not separated, but are on a common leaf surface.
Hibiscus
Jak
Papaw
Fig. 6.11 - Simple leaves
If the leaf blade is completely divided and separate, it is a compound leaf. The
divided parts of the leaf are called leaflets.
Fig. 6.12 - Sesbenia leaf
The place of attachment of leaflets to the petiole will have no axillary bud, while it will
be found only at the base where the compound leaf is fixed to the stem.
Legume
Rubber
Pea
Fig 6.13 - Compound leaves
Are coconut leaves simple or compound?
Assignment - 5
Observe as many plants as possible and find examples for the above
patterns. Draw the illustrations of those and write the name of the plant.
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6.2 Diversity of stems
Stem of a plant is the part which bears the leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and
buds and is often found above the soil. Yet, certain plants may have their stem under
the ground. Such stems are known as ‘under-ground stems’. Stems above the ground
are known as ‘aerial stems’. Most stems are branched, yet un-branched stems too
may be seen. e.g.: Coconut, arecanut. Some stems are strong, while some are weak.
The weak stemmed plants are the creepers, winding around supports.
Erect stems
Creepers (weak stems)
Fig. 6.14 - Diversity in stems of plants
Function of stems
Food is prepared in the leaves of plants, for which water is absorbed by the
roots. This water and mineral salts are transported along the conducting tissues of the
stems. In addition, stems provide a strong support to the leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds
and buds they bear.
In addition to these basic functions, certain stems also are adapted to carry out
various other functions. Some such instances are indicated below;
1. Photosynthetic stems
Mature parts of most large plants have no chloroplasts. eg. stems. Yet their
tender twigs, as well as the stem of herbs such as Balsam, kuppemania have
chloroplasts, hence are green in colour. Weak stemmed plants such as betel, gotukola
also have chloroplasts. Therefore, such stems can prepare food.
The main parts of the plant from where water evaporates are the leaves. Hence
plants which grow in arid areas have small leaves, or are reduced in numbers in order
to preserve the little water they absorb. e.g. daluk, nawahandi.
In some plants, leaves are totally absent. e.g. Cactus. In such plants, photosynthesis
is carried out by the stems. Such stems are called ‘cladodes’.
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Euphorbia (Nawahandi)
Euphorbia species
Asparagus
Cocoloba
Fig. 6.15 - Photosynthetic stems
2.
Climbing stems
Most plants grow straight in order to obtain maximum sunlight. Yet weak
stemmed plants cannot do so. They show various adaptations to climb up supports.
Such stems are called ‘climbing’ stems.
1) Plants such as Long beans, Katarolu when in contact with a support wind round it
spirally and climb up the support.
2) Some of the plant stems develop tendrils which attach them to the support.
e.g. Passion fruit, Bitter gourd, Hirassa
Katarolu
Bitter gourd
Passion fruit
Fig. 6.16 - Climbing stems
3) Certain plants have sharp spines which help them to find attachment to the supporting
stems.
4) Certain plants have tiny roots mainly for the purpose of climbing up supports.
They are often sticky.
Creeping Rose
Pota
Betel
Fig. 6.17 -Climbing roots
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Pepper
3. Stems for vegetative reproduction
Reproduction is the multiplication of organisms. That is, each generation
produces another generation of its kind before it dies off. Often this is done by way of
seeds produced by fruits. In addition there are certain vectative parts of plants help in
reproduction. This is called ‘vegetative propagation’. All underground stems have the
ability to reproduce vegetatively.
There are occasions when aerial parts too produce new plants. Runners of
centella, undupiyalli, ipomea can break into parts, produce roots, and get established
as new plants.
Desmodium
Centella
Ipomea
Fig. 6.18 - Plants with runners
Certain plants have aerial buds. Such aerial buds are called ‘bulbils’ e.g. agave,
Pineapple. Certain orchids have stems with swollen bases for the purpose of storing
water. Roots may grow from here, which have the ability to grow into new plants.
Pineapple
Agave
Orchid
Fig. 6.19 - Vegetative reproduction
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Water plants such as Pistia and Salvinia
have stems with suckers which can give
rise to new plants.
Pistia
4.
Storage stems
Eichornia
Fig. 6.20 - Stolons
Most underground stems are large due to storage of food reserves in them.
They are often brown in colour. Their main function is to remain alive and tide through
unfavourable conditions, and carry on the generation. Hence underground stems can
be considered as a method of perennation.
During unfavourable conditions, the aerial parts of such plants die off, yet the
underground parts remain due to the stored food and water in them.
During favourable conditions return, they produce new plants from the buds.
e.g. Canna, colocasia, ginger, banana.
Habarala (Colocasia)
Ginger
Fig. 6.21 - Underground Stems
Potato is also an underground stem. How does
this differ from other underground stems?
Potato tubers
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6.3 Diversity of roots and their functions
The main function of the root system is to fix the plant to the soil, and absorb
water and mineral salts from the soil.
Assignment 6
Uproot some small plants and observe the root systems. Identify the difference
between the taproot and the fibrous roots.
Observe the root systems of plants like pea and mimosa and identify the
difference of the root systems between those plants and the others. You will be able
to learn about this matter.
The root system of a plant is often found under the soil. If you are a good observer
you may have observed certain kinds of roots which grow above the soil. Some times
they may produce roots called adventitious roots. These are commonly produced
by the stems or branches, but occasionaly may be produced from leaves too.
e.g : Bryophyllum, begonia
The roots of Monocot plants are also adventitious roots.
1. Storage roots (Tuberous roots)
These are the roots which are swollen due to storage of food. Certain plants
store food in their tap root. e.g. Carrot, radish, beet-root. Others store food in their
lateral roots, e.g. Manioc, while some store food in adventitious roots e.g. Dhaelia,
spinach, sweet potato.
Carrot
Raddish
Dhaelia
Manioc
Fig. 6.22 - Types of storage roots
Generally roots that store food do not produce new plants. The food stored is for the
use in unfavourable conditions.
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Assignment 7
From the types of vegetables brought to your house for preparing food,
select those roots and stems containing stored food. Write down the features you
used for identifying them.
2.
Stilt roots
Certain adventitious roots arise from
the stem, grow downwards and fix the plant
to the soil in order to provide extra support
to the plant, This adaptation is often observed
in plants that grow in windy and marshy areas.
These are known as stilt roots. e.g. Rampe.
Pandanus. (Fig. 6.23)
3.
Rampe
Pandanus
Fig. 6.23 - Stilt roots
Prop roots
In some plants, adventitious roots which arise from
branches get fixed in the soil and provide additional support
for the tree. These roots also help to absorb water and
minerals from the soil. e.g. Banyan. (Fig. 6.24)
4.
Fig. 6.24 - Prop roots
Banyan
Climbing roots ( Clasping roots )
These roots help climbing plants such as betel, pepper
to climb up supports. The roots arise from the nodes of the
stem. (Fig. 6.25)
5.
Aerial roots
Observe some epiphytic plants such as orchids. How
many types of roots can you find? In addition to the roots
that attach the plant to the support, there are certain other
roots which grow perpendicular to the stem, which have no
connection with the soil nor the support. They are light green
or white in colour. Such roots are called ‘aerial roots’ and
they help to absorb rain water and atmospheric water
vapour.
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Fig. 6.25 Climbing roots, Betel
Fig. 6.26 - Aerial roots
Orchid
6.
Respiratory roots (Pneumatophores)
You may have observed mangrove plant which grow in lagoon areas which
contain a mixture of salty water and fresh water. In such areas certain column like
structures around the plants grow straight up
from the soil and turn brown. Have you
wandered what those are? Such structures
seen in mangrove plant such as Sonneratia and
Brugeira are a kind of roots which arise from
their main root system. Since mangrove plant
have difficulty in getting air from the marshy
soil, these roots help to absorb atmospheric
air from the surroundings. Therefore, they are
Fig. 6.28 known as ‘breathing roots’
Pneumatophores of a Mangrove plants
Do you Know
Cork stoppers used to close bottles are cut and shaped out of these
Rhizophore roots. Can you think of the reason for the spongy nature of cork?
Roots of leguminous plants such as Mimosa have ‘root
nodules’ in their roots. These structures are formed as nodules
due to a kind of bacteria living inside. These bacteria can
convert the nitrogen of the atmosphere to nitrates and make it
available for absorption by the plants. The plant provides food
for these bacteria.
Therefore, this is a good example for symbiosis between the
bacteria and the plant. Such plants can grow even in unfertile
soils.
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Fig. 6.29 - Mimosa
root - nodules
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6.4 Using plant products to make human activities more
productive
It was a very fortunate experience for little Sarala who was a nature lover, to be
able to spend her New Year holiday in the village. She never forgot her Grandmother’s
house in the village where its construction was so close to the nature.
The roof of the house was thatched, with light wooden rafters on which woven
coconut leaves were placed. The walls and floor were made of clay. The kitchen
utensils for pounding, winnowing, sieving were all of plant material, so were the spoons,
bags, mats and even the stools that granny sat on. All these arrangements were a
pleasant surprise for little Sarala.
Fig 6. 30 - A traditional kitchen
Sarala’s curiosity led her to more discoveries. On a side in the kitchen was a bag
of sand which contained some jak seeds and lime fruits. Above the fire place was a
shelf where things were placed for drying such as left-over rice, string-hoppers, jak,
breadfruit, manioc, jars of lime pickle as well as things needed for making drinks such
as ‘Ranawara’ and ‘Beli’ flowers. They were all placed above the fireplace, so they
got preserved by drying.
On inquiring from grandmother Sarala was told that the preserved food stuff such
as rice, breadfruit and manioc could be mixed with sugar and made into tasty sweets
when needed.
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Right through the past history, man has used plant products to secure his needs.
The village kitchen was a fine example of such practices.
Assignment - 8
Prepare a list of the equipment and food materials seen in the kitchen that
Sarala saw. Try to find out the type of plants that were used for making them and
note down in your list against the particular item.
Indicated below are some plant products used by man.
1. Food materials
7. Timber
2. Condiments
8. Drugs
3. Perfumes
9. Furniture
4. Clothing
10. Ornaments
5. Dyes and pigment
11. Sports goods
6. Gums
12. Various appliances
With increase in population, needs of people increased and the use of plant products also increased. Therefore it is necessary to use them more productively. In these
productions, traditional methods as well as modern methods are used.
Using household products more productively
Due to the technological development in modern times it has been possible
to improve the quality and the efficiency of such productions. However only these
practices itself may not be sufficient to improve the productivity. We must be concerned
about maximum use of the raw materials as well as minimise wastage.
How many instances have you noted where many plants and parts of plants are
wasted without being used for any purpose? How many productions can you make
out of them? Let us consider some such instances.
Material going waste
Product that can be made
Hay
Packing, fertiliser, art work
Wood shavings, soot
Fuel, ply wood
Attractive, sweet smelling flowers
Perfumes, ornaments
Various barks (e.g. Beli, Nava)
Bags, utensils, furniture
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It is important to convert the wasted out of the plants, into useful products in order
to use plants more productively. At the same time it is necessary to find ways of
identifying the various properties of plant materials and experiment new products using
them. However, it is important to avoid unlimited use of precious raw-materials.
Group assignment - 9
Prepare a list of plant resources in your area. Select those resources which can
be used productively, but not being done so at present and make a list. Find
information about some of the technologies that can be used to make use of them
in the future.
Let us consider some of the products out of the enormous array of plant
products developed by man.
(1)
Food and beverages
Plant materials are extensively used as food and beverages for us which fulfills a
basic need as well as they have entered the market as finished products. For the
above purposes, all parts of the plant such as leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, stems and
roots are used in many ways.
Part of the
plant used
Stem
Root
Seeds
Fruits
Flowers
Leaves
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Food and beverages produced
Kitul flour, jaggery, treacle, sugar, ginger preserve sweets
and syrups, potato chips.
Manioc flour, beet sugar, fried manioc chips, dried
carrots.
Rice flour, kurakkan flour, cadjunuts in treacle, gingelly
(Tala) sweets, wheat flour, undu seeds, coffee powder,
cocoa flour (chocolate powder).
Cordials, fruit juices, chutney, sauce, syrups, jams,
jak/pinepple/mango in sugar syrup, tinned chow-chow,
lime-pickle, polos, dried fruits (currants, raisins, dates,
straw-berry etc.) dried vegetables.
Flowers of Beli.
Ranawara, Tea leaves.
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The main purpose of producing food and beverages from plant materials is to
have a variety in the products, reduce wastage and easy preparation procedures.
Here it is important to maintain the quality of the products in terms of taste, nutritional
value and cleanliness. The most important challenge in such an activity is to ensure the
shelf value of the product.
Assignment - 10
• Prepare a list of the production techniques of food stuff and beverages
found in the market.
• With the help of the teacher find out ways in which they have been
preserved and prepare a list.
Spoilage of food is due to micro organism activity. Micro organisms are tiny
organisms and cannot be observed with the naked eye. Due to their small size it
is difficult to prevent their entry to food materials. Therefore in food
preservation, factors required for growth and multiplication of micro-organisms in
food is prevented or controlled.
Like for all other organisms, important factors for their growth and multiplication are air, water and warmth. Sometimes adding various chemicals to food
stuff creates a more conducive environment to bacterial growth.
Assignment - 11
Collect labels of preserved food materials. Find out what their preservation
agent is and write them down.
e.g. Sodium benzoate, Sodium metabisulphite
Study the table below
Food product
Method of preservation
1. Powdered coconut milk
2. Lime pickle
3. Fruits
4. Potato cubes
5. Raisins
Drying by machinery
Concentrated with salt
Tinned
Refrigeration
Drying
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Factor removed to
prevent growth of
micro-organisms
Water
Water
Air
Heat
Water
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Add some more food materials to this list and fill it up as above.
Identify the ways in which food spoilage was prevented in the kitchen that
Sarala saw. See whether you too can contribute to preventing food spoilage in
your kitchen using similar methods or even more modern methods.
A lot of food stuff is made out of flour. A number of types of flour such as rice
flour, kurakkan flour, kitul flour, undu flour are used but still the most common and
popular kind is wheat flour. A huge expenditure is needed for importing wheat flour.
Have you ever considered the numerous plant and parts of plants that can be used to
prepare flour and which is wasted away, without being put to any use?
Fruits of jak, bread fruit, corn seeds, ‘Lavulu’, ‘Hal’, roots of manioc, sweet
potato, stems of colocasia are some examples in this respect. These materials are
used at a minimum level in certain villages. However, it is important to carry out a
research about use of above items for large scale productions and popularising them.
Assignment - 12 - Let us make Manioc flour
• Remove the skin from a Manioc root and wash well
• Scrape it using a coconut scraper.
• Add some water to it and squeeze it well.
• Separate the extract and the refuse.
• Leave aside the extract and after some time note the amount of
flour collected at the bottom.
• Filter carefully and dry the flour.
2.
Drugs and medicines
Many plants are used to produce medicinal drugs due to the medicinal property of certain chemical substances in the plant.
Have you ever visited an Ayurvedic medicinal shop? We can see a large
array of medicinal herbs or their products in such a place. Except for a few such
as Bee’s honey, ‘Kasturi’ many of the others are direct products of plants. Here
we can see many products such as oils, tablets, powders, ‘Kalka’, ‘arishta’ or
other drinks used for many ailments are stored in various kinds of bottles and
packages.
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Assignment - 13
• Visit an Ayurveda medicine store and observe the medicinal products found
there.
• Identify the parts of the plant used to produce them.
• If possible, buy small samples of each.
• Take them to class and in groups arrange them into categories such as
fruits, flowers, leaves, roots etc. and organise them as a wall paper.
Due to the medicinal property of plant products they are used extensively in
beauty culture too. e.g.: Venivel, Sandun, Komarika (Aloe), Kohomba (Margosa) many of these are used in cosmetics such as soaps and creams.
3.
Fibres
Fig 6.31 - Products made out of fibres
Most parts of plants contain fibre. Fibre is separated from plants and used
for their strength and long lasting quality. When parts of the plant containing
fibres is soaked in water for some time the soft parts are acted upon by
micro-organisms and the fibres remain. The fibres can be separated by pressing
or beating with a heavy object. Separating coconut fibre from coconut husk is
done in this manner.
Hemp fibres are obtained from Hemp leaves. The soft parts are combed
away with a Bamboo comb. Banana fibre is obtained from the false stem of
Banana plant.
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Assignment - 14
Bury some leaves of Pineapple or Hemp under soil for about two weeks.
Observe the way in which the fibres separate after some time.
4.
Timber and wooden products
Most of the goods and objects that we use from birth to the grave are made
of wood. In houses the rafters, ceiling as well as doors, windows and their frames
are all made of wood. This is due to the strength and long lasting quality of
wood.
The plants used as timber are ‘jak’, ‘burutha’, ‘nadun’, ‘teak’, ‘kumbuk’ etc. In
addition wood is largely used for making household furniture.
Fig 6.32 - Wooden furniture
Use of plants for a large number of products has posed a threat to the survival of
the plants. Therefore, rare types of trees (e.g. Ebony) should not be used for making
furniture, while any trees that are used should be replaced by re-planting.
Around Sinharaja forest a ‘Buffer Zone’ has been created which contains
trees for the use of the people. This is for the purpose of protecting the forest
from making use of valuable trees of the forest.
Borwood (Rubber wood combined with Boron) is now becoming popular for
making household furniture. Here Rubber wood is used. Rubber plants are easy to
grow and mature quickly, so this reduces the use of more valuable timber trees under
extinction.
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Another product is plywood (used for doors, cupboards etc.) which is made
from wood-shavings and roots which are both thrown away material. This too reduces
wastage of a valuable resource.
5.
Ornamental objects
Using natural material for making ornaments is now becoming a popular art.
Most parts are used for their beauty, keeping qualities and diversity. Their natural state is maintained by drying, adding chemicals or protective coatings which
improve their lasting property. These object are not only environmental friendly
but also more attractive than artificial objects.
‘Ruk kalawa’
A wall hanger made up of dried flowers
Fig 6.33
Assignment - 15
1. ‘Ruk kala’ the practice of using any artistic part of roots or stems that are
often discarded from carpentry shops as they are of little use for making
furniture. Find out what chemicals can be used to improve the beauty and the
lasting quality of these.
2. Prepare some pressed parts of plants e.g. leaves, flowers, etc, and use them
to make birthday cards, book marks, wrapping paper, wall decorations, book
covers or table mats.
3. Use some kind of reeds and prepare an ornament.
Project reports and publications including information about various products from plant materials are available for sale at National Development Board (NDB).
You can also take part in the training workshops held by this organisation regarding
the various products developed by them.
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Exercises
i) Complete the concept map given below with your knowledge of
the diversity of parts of plants.
ii) Write 2 examples for each of the stages given in the map.
(Copy down this chart in your exercise book)
1.
Plant
Stem
1..........
Root
2.....................
Aerial
Stems
Simple
Leaves
3.....................
Tap root
and
lateral roots
Adventitious
roots
Non - Woody
Plants
(Herbs)
Woody
Plants
4.......................
Breathing
roots
Large
Trees
Small
(5.............)
Runners
(Stems which go
along the ground
6........................
(7...........)
(Rhizophers)
Storage roots
Ex. Coconut, Arecanut
(Stems climbing up
on supports)
Fibrous roots
Ex. 9 .........................
8. ..................... Ex. Pandanus, Rampa
Aerial roots
Ex. Pepper, Pota
10 ................... Ex. Banyan
Climbing roots
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2.
i)
ii)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
J)
Name some plant products prepared by man.
Write down one method by which the following food items can be
preserved. Write the factor which was prevented in the preservation
method you mentioned. Write the factor which was prevented from
contact with food, in front of your answer.
Jak fruit (fleshy part)
Lime fruits
Cows’ milk
Fruits
Fish
Vegetables
Ash gourd
Scraped coconut
Jak seeds
Fruit juice
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