CHAPTER 4:
ITALIAN UNIFICATION: A HISTORICAL
RETROSPECT
CHAPTER 4: ITALIAN UNIFICATION: A HISTORICAL
RETROSPECT
Unification of Italy under the house of Savoy is a significant episode of world
history. It was not until the middle of nineteenth century that Italy as we know it today,
came to be. Until then, various city-states occupied the peninsula, each operating as a
separate kingdom or republic. The movement to unite Italy into one cultural and political
entity was known as the Risorgimento. After the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte III, Italy
got its shape as a united nation. The unification of Italy may be attributed to the role of
eminent leaders like Joseph Mazzini, Count Cavour, Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel.
Mazzini became a prominent member of the Carbonari. Even though Mazzini could not
succeed in establishing the republic, but the young men of Italy felt the urge to uproot
foreign rule from Indian soil. He is considered the founder of Italian nationalism. Garibaldi
acquired proficiency in guerilla warfare. He participated in several important wars. The
more conservative constitutional monarchic figures were Count Cavour and Victor
Emmanuel II, who would later become the first king of a united Italy. Under the leadership
of Victor Emmanuel, Count De Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi, the various city-states
moved towards unity.
For some centuries, Italy was only a geographical expression. There were eight
several states in the peninsula, each with distinct law and rituals. To the path of Italian
unity, one most important obstacle was Italy’s subjection to foreign rule. Austria was
entrenched in Venetia and Lombardy and indirectly governed in Tuscany, Modena and
Parma. In the South, a Bourbon dynasty controlled the two Sicilies, and the Papacy state
was a barrier to the unification of Italy. One main impediment behind the unification was
that the Italian people had not the attained a full sense of national consciousness. In a
previous chapter we have already shown that the beginning of Italian nationalism is traced
38
back to the reforming spirit of the Italian Enlightenment. ‘If the Risorgimento is seen as a
phase in the emergence of modern Italy, the Enlightenment may legitimately be considered
part of this historical process of change and renewal though the nationalist political vision
was still embryonical.’1 A new epoch began when Napoleon Bonaparte brought continental
Italy to its feet, and a uniform system of law and order was established everywhere. The
years of French hegemony represented another phase in the emergence of Italian
nationalism. ‘And Napoleon, who hated Austria and the Pope, encouraged Italians in all
parts to be Italian, not to think themselves as Papal or Austrian or Neapolitan subject.’2
Waterloo brought an end to Napoleon’s Italy. There was a great return of princes and rulers
back to their states after the Congress of Vienna, but the lesson that Italy was once a nation,
could never fade completely from Italian’s minds. Under the circumstances, three great
Italian patriots realized the dream of unity of the Italian Peninsula.
The prophet of Italian nationalism was Giuseppe Mazzini. At the age of sixteen he,
walking one Sunday with his mother, was stopped by a man who asking for alms for the
refugees of Italy. ‘ The scene made a tremendous impression on the youth’s mind, for the
first time he felt that the cause of freedom was not a scholastic subject, but one demanding
the height of sacrifice.’3 In a newspaper titled Indicator, had been published from Genoa
where Mazzini and his friends criticized the government. After being banned, by the order
of government, this paper had been published from Leghorn.’4. At the time, Italians realized
that present Italian governments were enemies of all types of development. After 1815,
secret societies had grown up; a typical example of which, was the Carbonaria. For the
1
Frank, J. Coppa, Studies in Modern Italian History, (Peter Long Publishing, New York, 1986), p.14.
2
D.H. Lawrence, Movements in European History, (Oxford University Press London, 1971), p.269.
3
Rupert Sarget, Builders of united Italy, (Henry Holt & Company, London, 1908), p.127.
4
Jogendranath Gupta, Myatsini, (Bhattacharya & Son, 16/1 Shyamachara De Street, Kol, 1929), p. 15.
39
cause of Italian liberty, Mazzini had joined the Carbonari. In Carbonari, there was too much
ritual, too little effort and had no definite plan for Italian liberty. Within a few days, he
attained its second-class membership but could not clearly define its political motives. The
revolution of July in France inspired Mazzini and his friends to began active preparation for
a military uprising. But Mazzini had been captured and exiled from Piedmont. In 1831, he
established the society of Young Italy for the youth of Italy with the aim of Italian unity.
‘Italy united, free, democratic and republican was the one absorbing passion of his life; an
ideal to be pursued at all costs and by all means.’5 He wanted not a federation of monarchies
but a single republic. He was convinced that Italy would be able to achieve her political
emancipation through her own efforts. He gave to the Italian people, the ideal of a united
Italy. At the same time, he published his young Italy Manifesto. He declared to say to Italy,
‘Arise in all the strength and energy of self-devotion.’ 6 He argued that without popular
involvement a revolution would fail. ‘The members of young Italy tried to raise two
insurrections, first from Genoa and then Geneva in 1833, but these two rising had failed for
betraying his plans.’7 His writings gradually gathered the young to unite Italy into one free
republic. He had stirred men’s mind to fever-heat in the great cause of Italian liberty.
A young sea captain Garibaldi was a great patriot. He came under the influence of
Mazzini’s work and joined his new movement of young Italy. From this moment, he was
ready to make any sacrifice for this great cause. He led the life of a guerilla leader. After
some unsuccessful insurrection, Mazzini’s greatest practical success came in the year of
1848. Republican feeling gradually became stronger and the Roman Republic was
proclaimed. ‘Later in the Year the Pope fled to Gaeta, leaving Mazzini to become virtual
5
H. Temparly, A.J.Grant, Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, (Langman Group Ltd, U.K,
1952), p.226.
6
Giuseppe Mazzini, Life and writings of Joseph Mazzini, (Smith Elder & Co. Cornhil, London, 1866), p. 47.
7
Sanjib Chandra Lahiri, Myatsini O Manober Kartarbya, (Saraswati Library, 9 Ramanath Majumder Street,
Kolkata), pp. 40-41.
40
dictator of a Roman republic for three months in 1849.’8 But the Roman republic fell to the
French forces in July. The downfall of the republic must have been a terrible blow to
Mazzini. Temporarily disappointed, he went on with his work at first in Switzerland, then in
London.
Meanwhile a new phase was starting. In 1852, Count Cavour became Prime Minister of
the Kingdom of Sardinia. He was a resourceful politician. ‘He founded a newspaper and
gave it a name destined to stand for the whole movement towards nationalism, ‘ II
Risorgimento.’9 He took over the chief editorship from Count Balbo in 1848. He was
convinced that foreign aid was indispensable for achieving liberty of the peninsula. He was
determined to create a united Italy by uniting all under the House of Savoy. So, he
continued the internal reorganization of Piedmont, preparing her for Italian destiny. He
realized that without the efficient modernization of Piedmont, the Unity of Italy could not
have achieved. He had no sympathy with popular revolutions and was very much opposed
to the radicals. Cavour employed all the methods of skilful diplomacy for allies and the
Crimean war had provided him with the opportunity to use his diplomacy. At the Paris
Congress, he got the opportunity of ventilating the grievances of Italy before the judgment
of Europe. ‘Lord Clarendon, the English representative, was openly sympathetic; Napoleon
III was impressed; the Italian question had become a subject of international attention.’10 In
his own speech to the Deputies, he said, ‘we have gained two things, first, that the
anomalous and unhappy condition of Italy has been proclaimed to Europe, not by
demagogues, or revolutionaries, excited journalists or party men but by representatives of
8
9
J.P.T Bary, The New Cambridge. Modern History. Vol. X, (Cambridge University press, 1971), p. 565.
Sargent, Op.cit. p. 174.
10
C.D.M. Ketelbey, A Short History of Modern Europe, (Surjeet Publication, Kamalapur, Delhi- 07, 1978),
p.156.
41
the greatest nations in Europe; by statesmen at the head of their countries’ governments; by
distinguished men accustomed to consult the dictates of reason rather than the impulse of
emotion. That is the first fact which I consider of the greatest value. The second is that these
same powers have declared that, not only in the interest of Italy herself, but in the interest of
Europe, a remedy must be found for the evils from which Italy in suffering,’11 Piedmontese
prestige also gained from being the only Italian state represented at an international
Congress.
In January, 1858, an attempt on Napoleon’s life was made by a Mazzinian fanatic,
named, Orsini. But from his prison, Orsini appealed to Napoleon to take up the Italian
cause. Napoleon was sympathetic to the Italian cause. He arranged to meet Cavour secretly
at Plombieres in order to plan their war. Cavour hurriedly left Turin without informing his
Cabinet because utmost secrecy was needed. ‘One clause bound Napoleon to fight against
the Austrians so long as the latter could be made by Cavour to appear as the aggressor.
Another clause formulated the aim of enlarging Piedmont to a kingdom of Northern Italy
with eleven million inhabitants. In return, Victor Emanuel agreed to cede Nice as well as
Savoy to France.’12. And ‘with Tuscany and some Papal territories, a new state would be
organized in central Italy; eventually an Italian confederation would be established under
the Presidency of the Pope.’13 In fact, Napoleon was to support Italian independence but not
Italian unity.
Facing provocation from France and Sardinia, Austrian troops suddenly entered
Piedmont and then France, declared war against Austria. The Franco- Sardinian forces had
defected Austrians. But at the height of success, when the destruction of Austria seemed
11
A.J. Whyte, The Political Life and Letters of Cavour, (Oxford University Press, London, 1930), p. 222.
12
Denis Mack Smith, Cavour, (George Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd, Great Britain, 1985 ), p.149.
13
Massino Salvadori, Cavour and the Unification of Italy, (D.Van. Nostrand company, INC, New York,
1961), p. 76.
42
imminent, Napoleon drew back and called a halt. And then came the news of Napoleon’s
Peace Treaty at Villafranka. Piedmont was to have Lombardy, but Austria was to keep her
hold on Venetia, and old rulers were to go back into their other states. Cavour was
disappointed and forced to resign from his post. ‘The British government helped in this next
stage. They felt that an enlarged Italy might possibly act as check on imperial France. At the
same time there was in Britain, a widespread admiration for Garibaldi and Mazzini’s idea of
uniting the whole peninsula. Early in 1860, France was persuaded under pressure to agree
that the central Duchies and the Papal Romagna could determine their own future by a
succession of popular plebiscites.’14 Cavour came back into his post in January. Tuscany,
Modena, Romagna were annexed to Piedmont, and Savoy and Nice were ceded to France.
Garibaldian adventure was the most dramatic episode of the Italian movement.
Conspiracy and insurrection were almost continuous in the southern kingdom. Garibaldi
gathered his famous Thousand from the northern cities and sailed for Sicily. ‘At the head of
his Thousand he landed at Marsala on May II, 1860 and from that day onwards his march
was one of triumphal progress. ’15 Within Some days, he had routed Neapolitan force and
entered Palermo. ‘The Story of Garibaldi’s amazing Sicilian adventure, how at the head of a
ragged and motley band of volunteers, bare of treasure and with on serious military
equipment, he landed at Marshala, stormed calatafimi, fought his way into Palermo, and at
the end of three months cleared the island of royal troops, is even when full allowance is
made for the cowardice and ineptitude of his opponents, and for the general sympathy of the
Sicilians, a great example of moral leadership in war.’16 He proclaimed himself Dictator of
14
Denis Mack Smith, Victor Emanuel, Cavour and Risorgimento, (Oxford University Press, London, 1971), p.
180.
15
P. Lipson, Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentienth centuries, (Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd, London, 1984),
p.180.
16
H.A.L. Fisher, A History of Europe, vol.2, (Surjeet Publications, Delhi- 7, 1981), pp. 1047-1048.
43
Sicily. The King of Sicily fled to Gaeta. The Sicilian movement stirred up a similar
insurrection in Naples, and Garibaldi determined to cross to the mainland. King Francis left
Naples for Gaeta, and Garibaldi entered the next day and proclaimed himself Dictator of the
Kingdom. But as a proof of his loyalty, he handed over his troops to King Victor
Emmanuel. On the other side, Cavour moved his troops into Papal States, and defeated the
army of the Pope and Umbria and Marches were in the hand of Piedmont. Annexation of
Naples and Sicily was effected through plebiscites. Cavour died in 1861.
Venetia and Rome still wanted to join the Italian Kingdom. In 1866, Venice was
joined to the territories of Italy. The acquisition of Venice was no fruit of Italian victory, but
of a secret alliance with Prussians in 1866. The Austrians had first offered to surrender it
without fighting, but Italy refused it for the prestige of an armed victory. In the war, Italians
was counterbalanced by the success of the Prussians, and Italy secured Venetia. But the
Pope was in Rome and defended by France. Garibaldi made another attempt to march on
Rome in 1862 and 1867, but failed. Finally, Rome came into Italian possession in 1870,
when French troops were withdrawn after the outbreak at Sedan and Italian army entered
Rome, which became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. With the acquisition of Rome in
1870, the Risorgimento to be complete. So, in 1870, Italians at last had their own country.