Forest L. Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
January, 2003
ESSAY:
Economy and efficiency are familiar words to the structural engineer. Some of the most
beautiful buildings and bridges of the past two centuries possess these characteristics. Engineers
have also used these words to justify architecture that most people find cold and alien. It is apparent
that economy and efficiency alone do not determine the beauty and social importance of a structure.
By integrating aesthetic concerns with those of economy and efficiency, designers create innovative
structures that appeal to us on many different levels.
The Gothic cathedral is aesthetically pleasing as well as being structurally efficient and
innovative. The stone in the cathedral is crafted in a fashion that not only expresses the authentic
nature of the material, but also provides a tactile connection to the masons who labored over its
construction many years ago (Figure 1). The beauty of the cathedral can be attributed, at least in
part, to the education of its designers. Most worked as craftsmen before being trained in architecture
and engineering. These designers possessed a thorough understanding of materials and structure
based on years of experience that enabled them to guide the vision of a structure through to
completion.
Figure 1: Notre Dame
Figure 2: Naiku shoden, Ise
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Forest L. Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
January, 2003
The physical presence of materials is equally powerful in the Shinto shrines of Japan
(Figure 2). These structures are primarily constructed of thatch and unfinished wood. To maintain
the appearance of the shrine, most of the buildings on the site are dismantled every twenty years and
reconstructed in exactly the same manner using new materials. The dismantled wooden components
are then reused in other Shinto shrines across the country.
The designers of both the Gothic cathedral and the Shinto shrine had an extensive heuristic
knowledge of physical materials and construction methods. The different approach taken by these
designers reflects the architectural traditions of their respective cultures. One might argue that
Western architecture is centered upon the object whereas Japanese architecture is more focused
upon the process. Architect Kisho Kurokawa explains the different philosophies as follows: “We
have in Japan an aesthetic of death, whereas you (Westerners) have an aesthetic of eternity. The Ise
shrines are rebuilt every twenty years in the same form, or spirit; whereas you try to preserve the
actual Greek Temple, the original material, as if it could last for eternity.”
The reality, of course, is that most structures will not be preserved indefinitely as monuments
to Western civilization. Most buildings and bridges are temporary. Yet the vast majority of
architects and engineers do not consider the possibility that the structure they are designing may not
exist in its original form fifty years from now, nor do they incorporate end of life issues into the
design.
The economic and environmental consequences of this approach are significant.
By
focusing on construction as a process rather than a result, there is an opportunity to improve a
structure’s economy and efficiency.
The engineer of the twenty-first century must consider financial and environmental costs over
the lifetime of a structure when assessing the performance of a design. A substantial portion of the
cost incurred and the waste generated from building a structure results from the processing,
transportation and disposal of materials. The quantity and type of material used therefore can have a
profound effect on the economic and environmental impact of the project.
To improve the
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Forest L. Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
January, 2003
performance of buildings and bridges, these structures must be constructed of materials and
components that are appropriate for the lifetime of the project. In addition, buildings and bridges
must be made adaptable so that they can accommodate various uses and environmental conditions.
These improvements can be implemented without sacrificing the beauty of the architecture.
The structure of the Katsura Palace in Kyoto, Japan, for example, serves both a technical and
an aesthetic function. The modular post and beam system has allowed it to adapt to accommodate
the evolving needs of successive generations by the addition of a series of pavilions placed on the
diagonal. The Palace was built in the seventeenth century and is still in use today. The uniform
structural module can be efficiently and economically constructed using consistent member sizes
and is structurally redundant to improve the reliability of the system under severe loading. This is
accomplished without sacrificing aesthetics since the structure’s integral geometry and rhythm not
only helps to visually organize the asymmetrical form, but also permeates the architecture to create a
rigorous unity down to the smallest detail (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Katsura Palace
Figure 4: Oita Stadium
The design of the Katsura Palace reflects a sound understanding of materials and structure, as
well as form and space. When the Katsura Palace was constructed, a single individual, similar to the
master builder of the Western cathedral possessed all of this knowledge. However, the complexity
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Forest L. Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
January, 2003
of modern structures has resulted in the specialization of knowledge into the distinct fields of
architecture, engineering and construction.
As a result, no single person knows everything
necessary to design and build a structure. Each of these professions thus needs to work together in
the design and construction process. The style of collaboration that has evolved in Japan, however,
reflects this unity at an organizational level and differs from typical Western practice.
A significant portion of the buildings and bridges now being built in Japan are design-build
projects done by large contractors. Outside design consultants are seldom required on these projects
since the most successful Japanese contractors each possess substantial architecture, engineering and
research departments in house. In contrast to the bidding process popular in the West, the designbuild process allows collaboration between design and construction professionals to take place at an
early stage in the project since all of the parties involved are within a single organization and are
often known from the onset of the project. Even outside of the design-build environment, Japanese
engineers and contractors are often involved in the conceptual design of a project to ensure that the
physical structure can achieve the desired aesthetic within the project constraints.
The successful integration of design and construction is evident in recent buildings and bridges
built in Japan. These structures incorporate some of the most technologically advanced structural
systems in the world and have achieved unprecedented spans. Many of these structures, however,
still reflect the traditional Japanese architectural ideals of unadorned materials and modular
construction. The interior space of the Oita Stadium, for example, has a modular structure that can
be partitioned by a method similar to the Katsura Palace to accommodate various venues including
concerts and athletic events (Figure 4).
The stadium is also an example of the collaboration that occurs during the design and
construction of a complex structure in Japan. The retractable roof designed by architect Kisho
Kurokawa consists of a Teflon membrane that slides over an arched frame structure. Since each rib
of the structure has a different curvature, each cable responsible for moving the membrane develops
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Forest L. Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
January, 2003
a different tension. To address this specific issue the contractor Takenaka Corporation researched,
developed and implemented a computerized actuator system that calculates and controls the loads.
Extensive collaboration in research was also necessary in order to complete the Tatara bridge
connecting Honshu and Shikoku, two of Japan’s four main islands. The world’s largest wind tunnel
was built and a 1:200 model was constructed in order to determine accurately wind loading at
various stages in the construction process. In addition, a new cable with an indented surface was
developed in order to reduce turbulence that results from wind blowing on rainwater running on the
surface of the 460 m long cable.
Studying structures such as the Ise Shrine, the Katsura Palace, the Oita Stadium and the Tatara
bridge and speaking to the designers of these newer innovative buildings and bridges will improve
our understanding of how traditional Japanese architectural ideals are achieved in the modern
context using state of the art building materials and construction methods. This investigation is
designed to provide us with critical insights on how to design aesthetic, adaptable and renewable
structures for the twenty-first century.
Figure 5: Tatara Bridge
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Forest Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
September, 2003
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3. United Kingdom Structures
LONDON (July 6-13, 2003)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Swiss Re Building (Foster) 2003
Great Court, British Museum (Buro Happold) 2000
White Cube Art Gallery (Atelier One) 1999
Millennium Bridge (Foster, Arup) 1999
Lilliput Nursery template (Cottrell and Vermeulen, Buro Happold) 1998
South Quay Footbridge (Wilkinson Eyre) 1997
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping (Rodgers) 1995
Riverside House (Hunt) 1995
Waterloo International Terminal (Grimshaw, Hunt) 1993
Broadgate Exchange House (SOM) 1990
Lloyd’s of London HQ (Rodgers) 1986
4. United Kingdom Contacts
LONDON (July 6-13, 2003)
1.
CHRIS WISE (Director, Expedition Engineering)
Discussion: Commerzbank HQ, American Air Museum, Millennium Bridge, South Dock Bridge,
Educational TV Programme ‘Building the Impossible’
2.
LES POSTAWA (Managing Director, Anthony Hunt Associates)
Discussion: Barajas Terminal Madrid Airport, Riverside House, Victoria House, Lloyds Register
of Shipping
3.
ARAN CHADWICK (Director, Atelier One)
Discussion: TSB Hospitality Unit, Cabletel Exhibition Units, U2 ‘Popmart’ stage set, Rolling
Stones ‘Bridges to Babylon’ stage set, White Cube Art Gallery, University Sports Hall (Ljubljana)
4.
ANGUS PALMER, ANREW CRIPPS, GREG OTTO (Engineers, Buro Happold)
Discussion: Downland Grid Shell, Great Court British Museum, Genzyme HQ, Westborough
School, Central rail station (Stuttgart)
5.
BRIAN VERMEULEN (Principal, Cottrell & Vermeulen Architects)
Discussion: Westborough School, Lilliput Nursery template
Forest Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
September, 2003
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5. Japan Structures
TOKYO (Nov 11-21)
1.
Prada Tokyo Minami Aoyamo (Herzog
DeMeuron) 2003
Technica House (Takenaka) 2002
Hermes Ginza Store (Piano, Arup) 2001
Q-Front (RIA) 2001
hhstyle.com (Sejima, Sasaki) 2000
Tokyo Sankei Building (Takenaka) 2000
National Museum of Horyuji Treasures
(Taniguchi) 1999
Tokyo International Forum (Vinoly, SDG)
1996
Shinjuku Park Tower (Tange, Kajima) 1994
Rainbow Bridge (Fujino, Mitsubishi) 1993
Spiral Building (Maki) 1985
Nagakin Capsule Tower (Kurokawa) 1974
Yoyogi National Sports Center (Tange) 1962
Meiji Jingu (Shinto shrine) 1920
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
KAMAKURA*
15. Engaku-ji (Zen temple) 1282
16. Tokei-ji (Zen temple) 1285
IIDA*
17. O-Museum (Sejima) 1999
NIKKO*
18. Toshogu (Shrine) 1636
KOGA*
19. Koga Park Café (Sejima) 1998
20. Koga Park Visitor Center (Naito) 1999
ISE (Oct. 27)
21. Ise Jingu (Shinto shrine) 9th cent.
TOBA (Oct. 28)
22. Sea Folk Museum (Naito) 1992
OSAKA (Oct. 30-Nov. 2)
26. Yumemai Bridge (Hitachi Zosen) 2002
27. GC Osaka Building (Ban) 2000
28. Osaka Int. Convention Center (Kurokawa, Arup)
2000
29. Osaka Maritime Museum (Arup) 2000
30. Osaka Dome (Nikken Sekkei, Takenaka) 1997
31. Tajiri Sky Bridge (Hitachi Zosen) 1994
32. Kansai Airport (Piano, Arup) 1994
33. Umeda Sky Building (Hara, Takenaka) 1993
34. Church of Light (Ando) 1989
35. Konohana Bridge (Hitachi Zosen) 1987
36. Row House Sumiyoshi (Ando) 1976
37. Sony Tower (Kurakawa) 1975
38. Osaka-jo (castle) 1583
39. Sumiyoshi Taisha (temple) 211
KOBE (Nov. 3-4)
40. Kobe Wing Stadium (Obayashi) 2001
41. Tatara Bridge (HSBA) 1999
42. Akashi Kaiko Bridge (Hitachi Zosen, Obayashi,
HSBA) 1998
43. Paper Church (Ban) 1995
44. Higashi Kobe Bridge (HEPC) 1993
45. Ikuchi Bridge (HSBA) 1991
46. Ikuta Jingu (Shinto shrine) 3rd cent.
HIROSHIMA (Nov. 5-6)
47. Hakuryu Dome (Takenaka) 1992
48. Museum of Contemporary Art (Kurokawa) 1989
49. Peace Park (Tange) 1949
KYOTO (Nov. 7-10)
50.
51.
52.
53.
Kyoto Station (Hara) 1997
Miho Museum (Pei, LERA) 1996
Katsura Rikyu (Palace) 17th cent.
Selection of ancient structures
SENDAI (Nov. 22-23)
54. Sendai Mediatheque (Ito, Sasaki, Kawasaki) 2001
55. Miyagi Stadium (Abe) 2001
NARA (Oct. 29)
NASU / BATO (Nov. 24)
23. Nara Centennial Hall (Isozaki) 1998
24. Todai-ji (temple complex) 752
25. Horyu-ji (temple) 607
*
Day trip from Tokyo
56. Stone Museum (Kuma) 2000
57. Bato Machi Hiroshige Museum (Kuma) 2000
Forest Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
September, 2003
4 of 5
6. Japan Contacts
TOKYO (Nov 11-21)
1.
SHIGERU HIKONE (Engineer, Arup)
Discussion: Osaka International Convention Center, Osaka Maritime Museum, Toyota City Stadium,
Hermes Ginza Store
2.
SHIGERU BAN (Architect, Shigeru Ban and Associates)
Discussion: Issei Miyake Gallery, Paper Church, Paper Loghouses, GC Osaka Building, 9 Square Grid
House
3. KISHO KUROKAWA (Architect, Kurokawa and Associates)
Discussion: Nakagin Capsule Tower, Osaka International Convention Center, Sony Tower, Hiroshima
Museum of Contemporary Art and the Oita Stadium
4.
YOZO FUJINO (Professor, Tokyo University)
Discussion: Rainbow Bridge, Akashi Kaiko Bridge, sensing and monitoring infrastructure
5.
MUTURO SASAKI (Engineer, Sasaki and Associates)
Discussion: hhstyle.com, Sendai Mediatheque, Koga Park Café, philosophy of structural design
6.
KAZUYO SEJIMA (Architect)
Discussion: O Museum, Koga Municipal Park Café, hhstyle.com, flexible space
7.
TBD (Misawa Housing Corporation)
Discussion: Zero Energy Home, modular design, prefabrication, eco-materials
8.
KENGO KUMA (Architect, Kuma and Associates)
Discussion: Plastic House, Stone Museum, Bato Machi Hiroshige Museum, surface and tradition
9.
DR. TAKASHI TAZOH (General Manager, Institute of Technology, Shimizu Corporation)
Discussion: Toyota City Stadium, life cycle management, extending functional service life
10. HIROSHI NAITO (Architect, Tokyo)
Discussion: Koga Park Visitor Center, Sea Folk Museum
OSAKA (Oct. 30-Nov. 2)
11. TBA (Infrastructure Division, Hitachi Zosen)
Discussion: Akashi Kaiko Bridge, Yumemai Bridge
SENDAI (Nov. 22-23)
12. Hitoshi Abe (Architect, Atelier Hitoshi Abe)
Discussion: Reihoku Community Hall
7. Japan Activities
TOKYO (Nov. 13-15)
1.
First International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring and Intelligent Infrastructure
Conference Theme: Structures / Infrastructure Sustainability
Web: www.civil.ibaraki.ac.jp/shmii
Forest Flager
SOM Traveling Fellowship
September, 2003
5 of 5
8. Budget
UNITED KINGDOM
JAPAN
Travel
Airfare: San Francisco-Tokyo
Japan Rail Pass
Local Travel (bus, metro, etc.)
Accommodation
Tokyo: 11 nights at $90/night
Other: 20 nights at $70/night
Food
Tokyo: 11 days at $35/day
Other: 20 days at $30/day
$750
$815
$225
$990
$1400
$385
$600
Other
Conference Registration Fee
Miscellaneous
$250
$100
JAPAN SUB-TOTAL
$5515
Travel
Airfare: San Francisco-London
Local Travel (bus, metro, etc.)
$750
$110
Accommodation
London: 7 nights at $70/night
$490
Food
London: 7 days at $30/day
$210
LONDON SUB-TOTAL
$1560
DOCUMENTATION
Photography: 300 prints at $0.75/print
Report Documentation
$225
$125
DOCUMENTATION SUB-TOTAL
$350
TOTAL
$7425