S
t
udyGui
de
TheS
anFr
anc
i
s
c
oConf
er
enc
e1945
MUNTR2015
LETTER OF THE SECRETARY-GENERAL
Dear Participants,
My name is Nezahat Yeşim YARGICI, and I as the humble Secretary-General of Model United Nations
Turkey 2015, would like to proudly welcome you to the MUNTR family, in the name of DirectorGeneral Tolga Öner and each and every member of our Academic and Organization teams. This year’s
conference is built around the concept of change. Believing that change for the better can only be
realized through appreciation of the past, we have set the theme of the conference as ‘Legacy and
Reform’.
After celebrating the successful story of a decade, MUNTR 2015 will be the 11th session of the
conference. Starting a new decade, we feel the privilege of having space for creativity and change. We
not only want to give you a better MUN experience, but a new and different one. Working day and
night, our team wishes to create something more than a simulation, but a true platform of diplomacy
amongst young people where new ideas and insights are welcomed; where the world is shaped by day
and shaken by night.
The Secretariat has been working relentlessly for the past 7 months in fulfillment of this aim, which this
study guide is a result of. Before addressing the academic content, I would like to thank the members of
the Secretariat, and in especial, the Under-Secretary-General of the San Francisco Conference, Ms. Afra
Teren Gürlüler, for joining our team all the way from Istanbul but somehow managing to always be
there, be a true team player and good friend.
The San Francisco Conference is, in accordance with the conference theme, a highly significant
simulation. I advise all delegates to thoroughly read this academic material, and do extra research about
the United Nations for they will have the chance the reshape the biggest intergovernmental organization
in the world. Delegates should be reminded that, as the 70th anniversary motto of the United Nations
goes, a strong UN means a better world.
King Regards,
Nezahat Yeşim Yargıcı
Secretary-General of MUNTR 2015
LETTER OF THE UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL
Honorable Delegates
I have the utmost pleasure and honor of welcoming you to 11th annual session of Model United Nations
Turkey Conference . I am Afra Teren Gürlüler, a sophomore student in Koç University Law Faculty and
started my double major with International Relations this semester. It’s my honor to serve as the UnderSecretary-General responsible for United Nations Conference on International Organization San
Francisco 1945, in 75th Anniversary of United Nations and MUNTR provides you a chance to be part of
its roots.
I have been participating in several simulation conferences in last 5 years such as Model United Nations,
European Youth Parliament and court simulations.
While preparing the study guide I got a chance to learn very different aspects of the World War II and I
enhanced my knowledge. So I would like to thank to Secretary-General Miss Nezahat Yeşim Yargici
and Deputy-Secretary -General Gökberk Ekinci for giving me this opportunity.
I am looking forward to observing the debates in MUNTR. For any of you inquires please feel free to
contact with me.
Regards;
Afra Teren Gürlüler
Under-Secretary-General responsible for San Francisco Conference 1945
A. Introduction
(Figure 1: San Francisco Conference 1945) i
The
San
Francisco
Conference
will
commenced in
create
an
Organization
order
be
to
International
which
will
unite the nations. For the
conference, representatives
of fifty nations will arrive at
San Francisco in order to
rise from the ashes of
League of Nations and create a better organization. Principles for peaceful and more stabilized world
order has been drafted before in Dumbarton Oaks but representatives in San Francisco will try
completing the Charter of the United Nations (the founding document) and creating the organization
which hopefully prevents great scale war. This international organization was long waited; it was not
only yearned for solving international disputes but as League of Nations foreshadowed this organization
will also provide development aid for economically less developed states.
B. Historic Timeline
I.
International Peace Conference Hague (1899)
International Peace Conference in Hague was the largest conference supported by the civil society until
that time. Hague Conference started on May 18, 1899.ii Conference took place by the initiative of Czar
Nicholas II of Russia. This conference played a particularly crucial role in further conferences and peace
organizations because in the international community, for the first time, set up guidance for maintaining
peace.
Historians classify 19th century as the era of rising imperialism.iii In order to attune this era, numerous
European countries occupied territories in Africa and Middle East then formed colonies over these
lands.iv For example at the time, the British Empire was ruling 33,700,000 kilometer squares which were
nearly more then quarter of the whole world. As a result, it was famously dubbed as the empire on
which the sun never sets.v After industrialization, states needed to found new lands in order to acquire
further natural resources which would be used in their industries. Additionally these states required new
markets to sell the newly-produced final goods. Naturally, this cycle brought extensive armament.vi For
example, Alsace-Loraine region hold excessive amount of coal that could be used in factories. Germany
and France both seek to capture these mines.
All European countries were at unease because this armament could easily lead to a large-scaled
conflict. But Russia was unable to catch this rapid armament action due to economical obstacles.
Consequently Russia would benefit from a cease of this armament race.viiIf an armed conflict occurred,
with the fact that Russia did not have heavily equipped army as France and Britain, Russia could not win
a war against them.
Ultimately Russian Czar used the atmosphere to gather a conference that would prepare goals for peace.
This conference would be profitable for Russia’s welfare since it aimed to avoid a large scale conflict.
Then Czar sent a note to the leaders stating the objective of conference. In the note he stated; ‘’with the
object of seeking the most effective means of ensuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and lasting
peace, and, above all, of limiting the progressive development of existing armaments.’’viii When they
received the note from the Czar, most of the governments showed reluctance to admit to the conference
due to their impiousness to other state’s commitment to peace. On the other hand, with civilians’ and
peace organizations’ compulsion led states to attend this conference. Similar to governments, civilians
were apprehensive of a large-scale of military conflict that would cause thousands of casualties.ix For
example, in United Kingdom more than 750 resolutions were sent to Foreign Office from the peace
societies calling government to accept Czar’s initiative. x
The representatives of 26 governments gathered in Hague. United States of America, Britain, Russia,
France, China and Persia were among these 26 states. Final act of the conference was signed on July
29th, 1899. During the conference, disarmament and law of war was discussed upon. In the end, they
adopted the Hague Convention of 1899 with 4 main sections and other declarations included in the Final
Protocol. xi These four sections were; Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, Section regarding
respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Section regarding Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of
the Principles of the Geneva Convention of 22 August 1864 and last section covers the declarations.
They also agreed to convene a second conference. Conventions and declarations that were proposed and
signed in the end of the conference were significant since the rules and law of warfare were codified for
the first time by multilateral treaties in this conference.xii
a.
Convention over Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and Establishment of
Permanent Court of Arbitration
This convention stated the common desire for long lasting peace clearly.xiii In its preamble convention
states that; Considering that, while seeking means to preserve peace and prevent armed conflicts among
nations, it is likewise necessary to have regard to cases where an appeal to arms may be caused by
events which their solicitude could not avert.xiv This offers the motivation and the aim of the conference.
Convention recognizes the solidarity, which unites the members of the societies of civilized nations.xv
The Permanent Court of Arbitration was established by Convention for the Pacific Settlement of
International Disputes from Article 20 to Article 29.xvi The Permanent Court of Arbitration is the first
global judicial organ, which was founded in order to solve international disputes. According to Article 2
of the Convention, if serious disagreement occurs, state parties would refer dispute to mediation or good
offices instead of arm.xvii Permanent Court of Arbitration planted the seeds of a World Court. So this
foreshadows the international courts.
b.
Convention regarding respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land
This section regulates the rules governing wars on lands of state parties to this convention. The
convention refers to Geneva Convention of 1864 on several topics. Obligations of belligerents with
regard to the sick and wounded and treatment to prisoner of war were decided to be regulated according
to Geneva Convention of 1864.xviii
This section is also paramount due to the fact that a good number of conflicts arise from the post-war
aftermaths, especially regarding the war crimes, distribution of resources and treatment of war prisoners.
Conclusively, with this convention representatives aimed to prevent further conflict caused by the
consequents of any war.
c.
Convention for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva
Convention of 22 August 1864
Preamble of the convention states; "Alike animated by the desire to diminish, as far as depends on them
the evils inseparable from warfare, and wishing with this object to adapt to maritime warfare the
principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd August, 1864, 2 have decided to conclude a convention
to this effect:"xix
This convention regulated the maritime warfare focusing on the humanitarian aspects. It emphasizes the
protection of marine hospitals and protection of non-combatants during war.xx
As same as the Convention regarding respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, these
regulations were created in order to prevent further disputes and with these conventions, representatives
wanted to ease the effects of war on civilians.
d.
Declarations
Three declarations were added to the final act of Hague Peace Conference: Declaration concerning the
Prohibition of the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons or by Other New Analogous
Method, Declaration concerning the Prohibition of the Use of Projectiles with the Sole Object to Spread
Asphyxiating Poisonous Gases and Declaration concerning the Prohibition of the Use of Bullets which
can Easily Expand or Change their Form inside the Human Body such as Bullets with a Hard Covering
which does not Completely Cover the Core, or containing Indentations. xxi These declarations were
prepared and signed in order to decrease the damages if war takes place between state parties to the
Hague Conventions.xxii The Hague Convention and Declarations created a guideline for the formation of
peace and any international organization would take these principles in to consideration. These rules and
legislations were created in order to ease tension among states. International organizations would base
many principles on these conventions consequently, these convention are decisive.
II.
World War I and the League of Nations
a.
World War I (WWI)
The World War I took place between 1914 and
1918.
This war had the biggest number of
causalities in world history by then. According
to official documents, more than 65 million
soldiers fought the war worldwide.
(Figure 2: Session of League of Nations)
In the end, nearly 8.6 million people were
killed; around 22 million of the soldiers were wounded. Nearly 760 thousand men were missing or taken
as prisoners of war.xxiii
The War took place between opposing power blocs: Allies and Axis Powers. Central powers of Allies
were Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and Portugal. During War United States joined the Allies. Axis
Powers were Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgarian Kingdom and Austria-Hungarian Empire. The
War took place after long term political and economic tension. On the other hand, most significantly, the
nationalist movements and conflicts under multi-national empires regarding sub-nationalism were the
ideological root of the war, as the race of armament was
escalating at the same time.
(Figure 3: Stacks of German Franks symbolizing the high
inflation)
Colonialism must be subject to review while analyzing reasons of
war. Colonialism means domination of a land while creating
subjugation of inhabitants. xxiv Spain, United Kingdom, France
built Empires by acquiring lands majorly in Africa and Asia.
Colonies were not limited to Africa for these empires had lands
in Australia, islands in the Indian Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.
European countries occupied these lands for natural resources
and cheap labor force. Resources and labor were used in order to
increase the wealth in the mainland empires. Scilicet people of occupied land did not gain any wealth or
did not get share from outcome. Empires gained the political control in these lands and without the
consent of natives; mainland decided the course of their dependent territory. As a result, natives’ right to
choice or right to decide their nation’s destiny was disregarded.
After industrial revolution Britain and France gained many territories and economically developed faster
than Italy and Germany.xxv
Italy and Germany formed their political unification later than Britain and France. Italy and Germany
willingness to acquire resources caused heated conflict of interest among European states. Ultimately
economic race was grown faster and intense. Germany and Britain tried to rival against each other by
advancing and increasing navies. This caused an extensive arms race between them. Tension increased
day by day.
Apart from the economic reasons in this century, by the principles of French Revolution nationalist
movements started to affect multi-nationals empires. The French Revolution took place in 1789xxvi and
was inspired by the Enlightenment writers and philosophers. Diderot, Rousseau and John Locke were
important figures who dispersed the ideology of equality among people in front of law, freedom of
thought and speech and representative ruling systems. Economic situation was another inspiration for
the Revolution. French Empire has been suffering from the compensation of war and crises.xxvii Increase
in taxes caused an upheaval in country. French Revolution elicit the ideology of nationalism, equality
and justice
With the effect of French Revolution, empires lost their power because sub-nationalist movements
caused civil wars and they lost territories with the separation movements. Such as in Ottoman Empire,
Bulgarians gained their independence in 1817 and only to be followed by the Greeks, Armenians, Kurds
under Ottoman Empire who started to rebel with nationalistic drives in this century.
Prior to the World War I, states started forming alliances which included both political and military
partnerships. xxviii With forming alliances, states tried to balance the power in regions. xxix The Holy
Alliance was formed between Prussia, Russia, and Austria in 1815. After that, in 1873, Germany formed
an alliance with Austria-Hungary Empire and Russia.xxx This Alliance got separated because AustriaHungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy.xxxi Austria-Hungary Empire and Russia both
wanted to gain political control in Balkans by using their Slav origins. This policy caused a conflict of
interest. Following the separation, the Dual Alliance was formed between Germany and AustriaHungary Empire. The Dual Alliance aimed to balance the power of Russia over Balkans. Italy joined in
this alliance in 1881 and they formed Triple Alliance. xxxii These alliances shaped the blocs pre-war.
Therefore, the world was already divided into sides which would lead to open frontiers easily.xxxiii
b.
Peace Talks post-World War I
World War I lasted on November 11, 1918. War had many frontiers. During what was known then as
the Great War, in Russia, the Bolshevik Revolution took place; following the revolution Soviet Russia
left the War by signing Brest-Litovks agreement in 1918. Ottoman Empire had entered to Great War
because they did lose a lot of territory due to sub-nationalist movements and Sultan wanted to gain these
lands back. In the end of the Great War, Ottoman Empire had collapsed and a new Turkish State was
formed. Germany with its increasing military capacity wanted to occupy more lands and raise its
economic prosperity. Germany, however, was unable to won the war in frontiers. In World War I
airplanes used for the first time with long-range bombs.xxxiv This fact increased the destructive effect of
the war even further.
Social and economic affects continued for long time, different for each bloc. For example, the Allies
won the war but lost all their economic investment. As the leaders all agreed that countries would not
survive from such disaster again, they decided that there should be an institution, which solves the
conflicts in peaceful ways. Several agreements were made in order to terminate the war however these
agreements were including terms focused on depowering the defeated parties which were unsatisfied
with the outcomes. For instance, Germany signed Versailles Treaty with Allies. According to Versailles,
Germany would be left without any army and economic power:xxxv for example, German military was
limited 100.000 soldiers, only six battleships and none organized air force whatsoever.xxxvi The terms of
these treaties were designed to ensure there would be no future aggressions from these defeated states.
However, afflicted economic and social structure would lead to the rise of radical ideologies in the
following decades.xxxvii Losing the war meant the support and the legitimacy of the government who
waged it would decrease, thus the defeated states also experienced changes in regime and governmental
systems. Austria and Germany was reshaped in democratic ways. Nevertheless these democracies were
delicate, and easily manipulated, and after a short decade, by the 1930s, the newly found democracies in
Italy, Germany, Austria and Spain were transformed into different forms of dicta. In the meantime,
Russia, after going through the Bolshevik Revolution, went from the monarchy of the Czar to
communist absolutism. Therefore, the ideological differences and post-war economies would leave
Europe even more divided then before the War.xxxviii
The idea of further conflict was a frightening prospect to world leaders and civil societies. In this
context, peace talks needed to be concluded in order to prevent any further armed conflicts. Several
peace conferences and meetings took place after the War. During that time League of Nations rooted
from the idea of protection from further armed conflicts in worldwide scale.
c.
League of Nations
“Failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I
might call military sanctions ... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the
process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war ... [I]f
collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every
country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is
an essential part of collective security." S Baldwin, 1936.xxxix
League of Nations is known as predecessor of international organizations that aims to solve disputes and
maintain peace. This was the first international organization, which was created to solve any conflicts
arising from post-war tensions and prevent further damage. League of Nations was formed in the Paris
Conference in 1919 and it existed for 30 yearsxl and was based in Geneva, Switzerland, a country which
stayed neutral during WWI and accordingly was chosen as a peaceful location. xli
The founding
document of the League was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which was prepared in the Paris
Conference. The Covenant of the League of Nations was meant to do more than creating a platform of
diplomatic relations, but initiating pre-war means and methods of diplomacy and multilateralism for
States through the League, serving the ultimate purpose of prevention of another world-wide armed
conflict. xlii
Article 10 of the Covenant states: “The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as
against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members
of the League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the
Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.” xliii It should be
underlined that the wording of the Article -“undertake to respect and preserve”- does not create an
absolute legal obligation upon the signatories.xliv
Article 11 expanded the idea of war prevention, by making such a threat ‘a matter of concern to the
whole League’ and presses that the League ‘shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual
to safeguard the peace of nations.’ xlv The most significant bodies of the League were the League
Council, the Secretariat, the General Assembly, the Permanent Court of International Justice (hereinafter
referred to as PCIJ) and the International Labour Organization as a specialized agency.xlvi
The Assembly met once a year and consisted of all members of the League. xlvii The Council had four
permanent -Britain, France, Italy and Japan- and 9 non-permanent members –elected by the Assemblyand met more regularly, as the executive body.
xlviii
The mission of the Council was mediation of
disputes.xlix In the centre of the League’s bureaucracy, the Secretariat headed by the Secretary-General.l
In addition, the Secretary-General also acted as the chief mediator, represented and led the League.li
The Permanent Court of International Justice met for the first time in 1922, it was the body which meant
to solve any international legal disputes submitted to it and gave advisory opinions should the Council or
the Assembly ask for it.lii
Covenant provided three types of actions as sanctions.liii First action that the League could take was
calling states upon for dispute resolution. This dispute resolution was achieved through the General
Assembly of the League. The second step in dispute resolution was verbal sanctions, which meant the
relevant state would be warned if it did not stop aggression she would face with consequences.liv Last
step would be economic sanctions: financial consequences would also alienate the aggressor state and
leave a negative impact on their economy.lv
Only 28 members stayed with the League from inception until its demise; lvi the highest number of
Member-States was 58 in 1934.lvii The United States of America did not join the League. Germany was
not invited because of the Versailles Treaty. According to the Versailles Treaty, Germany was the
aggressor of World War I and therefore was excluded from the international society. lviii The Soviet
Russia was not invited either, because the communist government had been spreading source of worry
for Western Europeans.lix The lack of consistency regarding the memberships also affected the finances
of the League which was dependant on the Member-States. The withdrawals led to a massive decrease
in the League’s budget, causing it to be non-functional.lx
The League worked on various disputes. For example, the possession of the Aaland Islands was a long
disputed issue between Finland and Sweden which was successfully solved by the League. lxi
Upper Silesia was another issue on the League agenda. After the Versailles Treaty, a referendum took
place and people of the territory decided whether they wanted to be ruled by Germany or by Poland.lxii
According to the results 59.4 percent was in favor of Germany and 40.6 were in favor of Poland. After
the plebiscite riots took place for separation. After the interference of the League, in a matter of weeks,
the land was separated between the two States.lxiii
In the aftermath of the War, the Ottoman Empire also fell in the wave of regime changes. In 1923 the
Republic of Turkey was found, however it was economically devastated after its own war of
independence. The League used its financial resources to fund aid in order to build farms in addition to
sending medical doctors to stop spread of diseases.lxiv
In 1919, between Poland and Czechoslovakia the Teschen town led to a territorial dispute. Armed
conflict took place and many civilians living in the region were affected.lxv The League tried to separate
the territory between two states by giving the part bigger in territory to the Polish and the suburban part
to Czechoslovakia. These suburbs contained valuable mines therefore the Polish Government did not
accept this resolution.lxvi Even though the League failed to medium concrete solutions in several political
and economical conflicts it did manage to conclude some health aid and social improvement in third
world countries.
There are many examples where the League successfully prevented further conflict, but the lack of
enforcement power bestowed on it by its Covenant led to the lack of more efficient and effective results
when it came to dispute solving. In addition, the difference of ideologies, the high number of territorial
disputes and the economic imbalanced structure of the post-war Europe would eventually lead to a
deadlier conflict.
III.
World War II
a. Tensions Leading to World War II (WWII)
Political and economical reasons were the most common reasons for the World War II. The peace
treaties following the WWI were signed without considering a strategy to maintain peace. These treaties
were mostly focused on distribution of resources and dividing the land.lxvii In addition, after WWI,
Allied Powers tried to prevent further conflicts by disempowering defeated states so that they would not
be able to retaliate or show acts of aggression.
(Figure 4: Hitler and Mussolini)
The Treaty of Versailles is regarded as a main source of
tension which led Europe to WWII.
After WWI, during
1920s communist parties gained power especially in the
urban regions of Germany lxviii but these parties could not
hold in the power for so long. United States of America
supplied some monetary help to Germany in accordance with
the Dawes Plan. However when the Great Depression1 started
in United States of America, they were no longer able to
1
Great Depression is a severe economic crisis which took place between late 1930s and 1940s in the United States.
continue this aid. Then, between 1922 and 1923, the German Government issued more money in order
to balance its economy which caused hyperinflation.lxix
Social crises took place such as high rate of unemployment. In 1933 Adolf Hitler, with his national
socialist party, raise into power. National Socialist Party used the economic situation in their favor.lxx
They promised better employment and life standards for Germans.lxxi In the light of these promises the
majority of the German people believed Hitler and his party would invigorate the economy and enhance
the post-Versailles living standards.
When Hitler became the Fuhrer lxxii , he enacted a law, which allows him to take actions without
consulting the parliament.lxxiii With his ultimate power, Hitler rebuilt the German military. He, with the
support of German citizens, he violated the Versailles Treaty and invaded Rhineland. lxxiv Then he
continued the violations by the annexation of Austria.lxxv After Hitler’s rise to power, the leaders of
France, Italy and the United Kingdom met with Hitler. They signed Munich Pact.lxxvi According to this
pact Sudetenland became sovereign. Also Sudetan Germans would be free to leave if they want to leave
the land and Sudetan German prisoners would be freed.lxxvii League of Nations was formed in order to
ensure peace and stability. So they were reserved to take actions against Hitler. In a short period of time,
war would start, leading to the dissolution of the League after the international community believed in
its ineffectiveness. Germany invaded Poland on 1st September 1939.lxxviii Invasion of Poland was the
official commencement of World War II.
Italy was victorious in the WWI nevertheless, compared to its allies, gained less territory and resources.
The Italian economy was also affected as unemployment increased. Like Germany, as result of this
economic depression, socialists gained the power in the beginning.lxxix But later in 1922 Mussolini with
his nationalist party was elected to power. lxxx Mussolini worked on regulating and invigorating the
economy but the unemployment rate did not decrease.lxxxi Following the German invasion of Poland,
Italy invaded Abyssinia, also known as Ethiopia.lxxxii Italians supported this invasion because they also
wanted to increase economic opportunities in order to have enhanced job opportunities. New territories
would mean more resource, which will be processed in Italian industry.lxxxiii
Germany and Italy had fascist regimes and they need to form an annexation that will support each other.
For this reason Germany and Italy signed Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939.lxxxiv This pact was formed the
intention of a military and a political alliance between these states. Italy and Germany together, aided
the nationalist leader in Spain, Franco during the Spanish Civil War.lxxxv
Japan was another politically significant state during inter war period. After WWI, Government of
Japan followed a nationalist orientation,lxxxvi which led to citizens and government wanting to create the
great Empire of Japan. For this to achieved, they believed Japan needed to have more territories.lxxxvii
Occupation of Manchuria created an armed conflict between China and Japan.lxxxviii Manchuria was a
region disputed between USSR and Japan in addition to the fact that the region also had the interest of
the USSR. However Japan had a policy called: Asia for Asians. They believed Manchuria is a land in
Asia so USRR cannot hold this land because they do not have cultural and ethnic Asian origin as Japan
does. According to this motto Russia had no right to own Manchuria. In this connection, Japan and
Russia became opponents.lxxxix When Japan invaded the territory in 1931, the League of Nations asked
Japan to leave it. xc In 1937 Germany, Italy and Japan signed Tripartite Pact and formed the Axis
Power.xci
b. Post World War II and Structure of Blocs
World War II took place between 1939 and 1945. Axis powers were Germany, Italy and Japan. Center
powers of Allies were United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and France. War commenced with
the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany on September 1, 1939.
During the War, Nazi Germany sieged Stalingrad, as Adolf Hitler aimed to reach petrol resources in
Black Sea region by passing through Stalingrad. But armies of Nazi Germany could not conclude this
siege successfully.
Japan had a modernized army at the time. With this confidence Japan wanted to acquire more lands in
Indonesia, India and Pacific Islands. On December 7, 1941 aircrafts of Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and
bombed the US Navy ships which were docked there. The Asian Pacific Frontier started following the
Pearl Harbor attacks which resulted with the United States declaring war on Japan.
In the Pacific Frontier Japan had many defeats and when the United States used the atomic bombs on
Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Following this, Japan had to leave the war, concluding the
fight on the Pacific Frontier. On April 23rd, 1945, the Russian Army stepped in Berlin and the German
army was annihilatedxcii Hitler committed suicide.
Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, 1945 August, Potsdam Conference was held. xciii In this
conference Germany’s future was the first topic to be addressed. In the beginning the Soviets wanted to
implement harsh conditions on economic basis however the United Kingdom and the United States
opposed to this request because they did not want Europe to relive the results of Versailles Treaty.xciv
As a result they agreed upon creating limitations on military and economic matters, nevertheless, not in
the same dysfunctional level as Versailles. For example, the Protocol imposed that; there was to be “a
complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany”; all aspects of German industry that could be
utilized for military purposes were to be dismantled; all German military and paramilitary forces were
to be eliminated; and the production of all military hardware in Germany was forbidden. Also German
society was to be remade along democratic lines by repeal of all discriminatory laws from the Nazi era
and by the arrest and trial of those Germans deemed to be “war criminals.” The German educational
and judicial systems were to be purged of any authoritarian influences, and democratic political parties
would be encouraged to participate in the administration of Germany at the local and state level.xcv
German-Soviet Border was the second conflict in Potsdam. In the end, Poland lost many territories to
USSR. Regarding the protection of civilians leaders took some measures. For example protocol included
“any transfers that take place should be affected in an orderly and humane manner” and to request that
the Poles, Czechoslovaks and Hungarians temporarily suspend additional deportations.xcvi
After the World War II, two blocs were created. The period of tension between the the two blocs started.
First bloc was Western States which were ruled by democratic systems and the other bloc was Eastern
States which were mostly ruled by socialist regimes.
During World War II, many human rights violations took place. The Nazi government in especial,
caused the death of millions of civilians in Europe. Due to the anti-Semitic policies of the Nazi Party,
millions of people from the Jewish communities of Germany and Poland were systematically killed in
concentration camps. xcvii In addition to the anti-Semitic movement of the Nazi Party, gypsies,
homosexuals and communists were also being captured and killed.xcviii
Apart from Nazi Germany, during World War II civilians died and got affected from the usage of the
atomic bombs. The estimated number of civilian deaths in the WWII is between 20 million - 35 million
worldwide.xcix As a result, the international community agreed to prevent future conflict and form an
international organization, more effective than the League of Nations.
Pre-San Francisco Conference Timeline
IV.
Declaration of St. James Palace
“The only true basis of enduring peace is the willing cooperation of free peoples in a world in which,
relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security; it is our intention to
work together, and with other free peoples, both in war and peace, to this end.”c
The Declaration of St. James Palace is accepted as the inspiration of Charter of United Nations, herein
after referred as Charter. It is also called Inter Allied Declaration. Nine exiled governments met in
London. At that point in time, the Axis powers had the military superiority, and the destructiveness of
the War was at its peak.ci These leaders were exiled by the Nazi regime. These were the Governments of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa, the Government of Belgium, the Provisional Czechoslovak Government, the Governments of
Greece, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Representatives of General
de Gaulle, leader of Free Frenchmen. cii The purpose of the meeting was to initiate an international
organization, which will provide long lasting peace. On June 12, 1941 the declaration was signed by
these exiled governments. Since all of them were from the Allied powers, the declaration was called
Inter Allied Declaration.ciii The Declaration was found to be necessary because at the time, Axis Powers
were more superior and these leaders were afraid to lose the War.
According to declaration "The only true basis of enduring peace is the willing cooperation if free
peoples in a world in which, relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social
security and that it is their intention to work together, and with other free peoples, both in war and
peace to this end." civ The leaders intended to work in cooperation and take free people’s will into
consideration both during war and peace.
V.
The Atlantic Conference of 1941
In the following two months of the Declaration of the St. James Palace, the U.S. President Franklin D.
Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill met in August 1941 to discuss common
goals and aims to prevent further armed conflicts in great scale.cv They drafted the Atlantic Charter with
the aims to prevent further armed conflicts in great scale.
(Figure 5: Atlantic Charter)
The Charter had 8 goals which is as follows;
1. No territorial gains were to be sought
by the United States or the United Kingdom;
2. Territorial adjustments must be in
accord with the wishes of the peoples
concerned;
3. All people had a right to selfdetermination;
4. Trade barriers were to be lowered;
5. There was to be global economic cooperation and advancement of social welfare;
6. The participants would work for a world free of want and fear;
7. The participants would work for freedom of the seas;
8. There was to be disarmament of aggressor nations, and a post-war common disarmament.
Right to self-determination was mentioned in a written document for the first time. Right to selfdetermination means every nation has right to decide on their future and destiny. Additionally, this
Charter included provisions for liberal economy and freedom for political choice, which were really
significant at the time because it has been never mentioned before. Liberal economy implies the notion
of an economy based on private entrepreneurship free from government intervention. These provisions
would create more liberal democracies around
the world.
Representatives of 26
Washington
Conference
states
on
gathered in
22
December
1941. cvi The Atlantic Charter was approved by
these 26 states in this conference.cvii
(Figure 6: The Signing of the Declaration by
United Nations)
VI.
The Declaration by United Nations
On January 1, 1942 the representatives of 26 States gathered in Washington D.C. and pledged their
support for the Atlantic Charter signed a year prior.cviii The Declaration marks the first time the term
‘United Nations’ was officially used on the suggestion of President Roosevelt.cix
VII.
Moscow and Tehran Conferences
Moscow Conference was organized on the representation level of foreign ministers. Conference was
held between October 30, 1943 and November 18, 1943.cxUnited Kingdom, United States of America,
United Soviet Socialist Republics and Republic of China were represented in the conference. In this
gathering, representatives discussed how they would break barrier of Axis powers and how they would
end the war.cxi The Moscow Declaration, also known as the Declaration of the Four Nations on General
Security, was the outcome of the meeting. In this declaration representatives agreed upon continuing the
war against common enemies will continue in order to create peace. cxii In the fifth clause of the
declaration they stated “That for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security pending
the re-establishment of law and order and the inauguration of a system of general security they will
consult with one another and as occasion requires with other members of the United Nations, with a
view to joint action on behalf of the community of nations.”cxiii
VIII. Dumbarton Oaks Conference
Official name of the conference is Washington Conversations on International Peace and Security
Organization. Representatives gathered in Washington in order to draft founding documents for an
International Organization which will unite the nations around the peace. The founding document was
prepared on October 7, 1944.cxiv In this gathering, state representatives came together to form initial
guidelines to create an international organization, this was already planned out in the Moscow
Declaration. Founding principles of an International Organization was drafted in this conference. cxv
Structure of the International Organization was also proposed in this document. The proposal included a
four-body structure for the Organization: a General Assembly including all Member States, a Security
Council consisting of eleven members -five permanent, six to be elected by the Assembly- for
prevention of future conflict, International Court of Justice and Economic and Social Council.cxvi The
Economic and Social Council was included because by then, it was obvious that economic and social
welfare had a ‘conceptual linkage’ to the occurring of war. cxvii Even at the height of their military
cooperation, the States that attended the conference at Dumbarton Oaks left many matters unattended
due to a lack of consensus,cxviii for instance the voting method of the to-be-formed Security Council.cxix
This document was particularly important because several important principles were created. For
example until that time use of force was common but in Washington Conversations on International
Peace and Security Organization use of force was prohibited.cxx
Conclusively it should be highlighted that many long-standing principles of the United Nations were set
forth in the Dumbarton Oaks proposal, such as the prohibition of use of force, equality of States and
settlement of disputes by peaceful measures.cxxi
IX.
Tehran Conference
On 28 November 1943 U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met in Tehran. cxxii During the meeting, leaders discussed
upon the following phases of the war against Axis Powers. (Germany, Japan, Italy). In order to plan this,
leaders centered their discussion on opening a new front in West Europe.cxxiii The Allied leaders not
only focused on the course of the war but they also debated over a post-war structure.cxxiv The GermanPolish border issue was on table. Regardless of the fact that Poland lost lots of its territory, -with Stalin’s
pressure- leaders agreed upon moving the German-Polish border to the Oder and Neisse rivers.cxxv
Other than border and post-war issues, leaders conversed about the international organization and how
the composition of this international organization should be shaped. cxxvi In Moscow Conference, the
United States, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union had signed a four-power declaration, which called
upon the international community for the founding of an international organization that would keep
peace alive.cxxvii In Tehran, Roosevelt outlined that organization.cxxviii
Declaration of the Three Powers Regarding Iran was signed in Tehran Conference. cxxix Iranian
Government provided help to Allied powers against Germany, so with this declaration 4 leaders
promised economic assistance to Iran in return.cxxx Leaders also stated their ‘’desire for the maintenance
of the independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of Iran.”cxxxi
This conference was decisive because Stalin was convinced to join “United Nations”. cxxxii This is
significant because the United Nations was seen as an organization composed of liberal democratic and
western countries so as his political stance, Stalin was not willing to accept this participation but other
leaders convince him to do. (Figure 7 : Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill in Tehran, Iran,
1943)
X.
The San Francisco Conference and Conclusion
In Conference on International Organization delegates of 50 nations will gather together in order to
create more peaceful world by preventing future armed conflicts with using arbitrational and diplomatic
methods.cxxxiii Conference will commence on 25 April 1945. Delegates will have the Dumbarton Oaks
proposal to guide them. The conference aimed to create a founding document for this organization. This
will be the legal base. Here they need to create a voting system, make better principles and the whole
structure of the organization.cxxxiv
Creating a world court has been wanted by countries and tried for several times. In this conference
representatives should work on creating more efficient and effective legal organ.
The task of turning the Dumbarton Oaks proposal –sponsored by China, Soviet Union, United States and
United Kingdom- to the United Nations Charter will include rewriting, adding more bodies and
contemplating on ‘every line and comma’.cxxxv
United Nations is a long waited international organization. After two world-wide wars, the failures of
the League of Nations, millions of civilian deaths, shattered economies the devastated international
community will need to use diplomatic means at its best to create an intergovernmental organization
which will last the test of time and ensure long-lasting peace.
However this process should be made thoroughly so the United Nations will not share the same fate as
the League of Nations. Every body and their structures, voting systems, missions and visions, aims and
duties should be set out. The Dumbarton Oaks Proposal will be point zero when forming the new United
Nations; however the delegates should not be limited to the bodies and capacities mentioned in the
proposal.
All the bodies were foreshadowed before but the procedures and all details will have to be decided on, in
this conference. Representatives will shape the future of this organization.
“A man who is used to acting in one way never changes; he must come to ruin when the times, in
changing, no longer are in harmony with his ways.” – Niccolò Machiavelli
PROPOSALS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A GENERAL INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION
(The DUMBORTAN OAKS PROPOSAL)
There should be established an international organization under the title of The United Nations, the
Charter of which should contain provisions necessary to give effect to the proposals which follow.
CHAPTER I: PURPOSES
The purposes of the Organization should be:
1. To maintain international peace and security; and to that end to take effective collective measures for
the prevention and removal of threats to the peace and the suppression of acts of aggression or other
breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means adjustment or settlement of international
disputes which may lead to a breach of the peace;
2. To develop friendly relations among nations and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen
universal peace;
3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social and other
humanitarian problems; and
4. To afford a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the achievement of these common ends.
CHAPTER II: PRINCIPLES
In pursuit of the purposes mentioned in Chapter I the Organization and its members should act in
accordance with the following principles:
1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states.
2. All members of the Organization undertake, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits
resulting from membership in the Organization, to fulfill the obligations assumed by them in accordance
with the Charter.
3. All members of the Organization shall settle their disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that
international peace and security are not endangered.
4. All members of the Organization shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of
force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the Organization.
5. All members of the Organization shall give every assistance to the Organization in any action
undertaken by it in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.
6. All members of the Organization shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which
preventive or enforcement action is being undertaken by the Organization.
The Organization should ensure that states not members of the Organization act in accordance with
these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.
CHAPTER III: MEMBERSHIP
1. Membership of the Organization should be open to all peace-loving states.
CHAPTER IV: PRINCIPAL ORGANS
1. The Organization should have as its principle organs:
a. A General Assembly;
b. A Security Council;
c. An international court of justice; and
d. A Secretariat.
2. The Organization should have such subsidiary agencies as may be found necessary.
CHAPTER V: THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
Section A. Composition. All members of the Organization should be members of the General Assembly
and should have a number of representatives to be specified in the Charter.
Section B. Functions and Powers. 1. The General Assembly should have the right to consider the
general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the
principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments; to discuss any questions relating to
the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any member or members of the
Organization or by the Security Council; and to make recommendations with regard to any such
principles or questions. Any such questions on which action is necessary should be referred to the
Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion. The General Assembly
should not on its own initiative make recommendations on any matters relating to the maintenance of
international peace and security which is being dealt with by the Security Council.
2. The General Assembly should be empowered to admit new members to the Organization upon
recommendation of the Security Council.
3. The General Assembly should, upon recommendation of the Security Council, be empowered to
suspend from the exercise of any rights or privileges of membership any member of the Organization
against which preventive or enforcement actions have been taken by the Security Council. The exercise
of the rights and privileges thus suspended may be restored by decision of the Security Council. The
General Assembly should be empowered, upon recommendation of the Security Council, to expel from
the Organization any member of the Organization which persistently violates the principles contained in
the Charter.
4. The General Assembly should elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council and the
members of the Economic and Social Council provided for in Chapter IX. It should be empowered to
elect, upon recommendation of the Security Council, the Secretary-General of the Organization. It
should perform such functions in relation to the election of the judges of the international court of justice
as may be conferred upon it by the statute of the court.
5. The General Assembly should apportion the expenses among the members of the Organization and
should be empowered to approve the budgets of the Organization.
6. The General Assembly should initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of
promoting international cooperation in political, economic and social fields and of adjusting situations
likely to impair the general welfare.
7. The General Assembly should make recommendations for the coordination of the policies of
international economic, social, and other specialized agencies brought into relation with the
Organization in accordance with agreements between such agencies and the Organization.
8. The General Assembly should receive and consider annual special reports from the Security Council
and reports from other bodies of the Organization.
Section C. Voting. 1. Each member of the Organization should have one vote in the General Assembly.
2. Important decisions of the General Assembly, including recommendations with respect to the
maintenance of international peace and security; election of members of the Security Council; election
of members of the Economic and Social Council; admission of members, suspension of the exercise of
the rights and privileges of members, and expulsion of members; and budgetary questions, should be
made by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting. On other questions, including the
determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, the decisions
of the General Assembly should be made by a simple majority vote.
1. The General Assembly should meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as
occasion may require.
2. The General Assembly should adopt its own rules of procedure and elect its President for each
session.
3. The General Assembly should be empowered to set up such bodies and agencies as it may deem
necessary for the performance of its functions.
CHAPTER VI: THE SECURITY COUNCIL
Section A. Composition. The Security Council should consist of one representative of each of eleven
members of the Organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Republic of China, and,
in due course, France, should have permanent seats. The General Assembly should elect six states to fill
the non-permanent seats. These six states should be elected for a term of two years, three retiring each
year. They should not be immediately eligible for reelection. In the first election of the non-permanent
members three should be chosen by the General Assembly for one-year terms and three for two-year
terms.
Section B. Principle Functions and Powers. 1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the
Organization, members of the Organization should by the Charter confer on the Security Council
primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security and should agree that in
carrying out these duties under this responsibility it should act on their behalf.
2. In discharging these duties the Security Council should act in accordance with the purposes and
principles of the Organization.
3. The specific powers conferred on the Security Council in order to carry out these duties are laid down
in Chapter VIII.
4. All members of the Organization should obligate themselves to accept the decisions of the Security
Council and to carry them out in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.
5. In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the
least diversion of the world's human and economic resources for armaments, the Security Council, with
the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in Chapter VIII, Section B, paragraph 9,
should have the responsibility for formulating plans for the establishment of a system of regulation of
armaments for submission to the members of the Organization.
[Section C. Voting. 1. Each member of the Security Council should have one vote.
2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters should be made by an affirmative vote of
seven members.
3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters should be made by an affirmative vote of seven
members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under
Chapter VIII, Section A, and under the second sentence of Paragraph 1 of Chapter VIII, Section C, a
party to a dispute should abstain from voting.]
Section D. Procedure. 1. The Security Council should be so organized as to be able to function
continuously and each state member of the Security Council should be permanently represented at the
headquarters of the Organization. It may hold meetings at such other places as in its judgment may best
facilitate its work. There should be periodic meetings at which each state member of the Security
Council could if it so desired be represented by a member of the government or some other special
representative.
2. The Security Council should be empowered to set up such bodies or agencies as it may deem
necessary for the performance of its functions including regional subcommittees of the Military Staff
Committee.
3. The Security Council should adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its
President.
4. Any member of the Organization should participate in the discussion of any question brought before
the Security Council whenever the Security Council considers that the interests of that member of the
Organization are specially affected.
5. Any member of the Organization not having a seat on the Security Council and any state not a
member of the Organization, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council,
should be invited to participate in the discussion relating to the dispute.
CHAPTER VII: AN INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
1. There should be an international court of justice which should constitute the principal judicial organ
of the Organization.
2. The court should be constituted and should function in accordance with a statute which should be
annexed to and be a part of the Charter of the Organization.
3. The statute of the court of international justice should be either (a) the Statute of the Permanent Court
of International Justice, continued in force with such modifications as may be desirable or (b) a new
statute in the preparation of which the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice should be
used as a basis.
4. All members of the Organization should ipso facto be parties to the statute of the international court
of justice.
5. Conditions under which states not members of the Organization may become parties to the statute of
the international court of justice should be determined in each case by the General Assembly upon
recommendation of the Security Council.
CHAPTER VIII: ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL
PEACE AND SECURITY INCLUDING PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF
AGGRESSION
Section A. Pacific Settlement of Disputes. 1. The Security Council should be empowered to investigate
any dispute, or any situation which may lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to
determine whether its continuance is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and
security.
2. Any state, whether member of the Organization or not, may bring any such dispute or situation to the
attention of the General Assembly or of the Security Council.
3. The parties to any dispute the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of
international peace and security should obligate themselves, first of all, to seek a solution by negotiation,
meditation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement, or other peaceful means of their own choice.
The Security Council should call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.
4. If, nevertheless, parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in paragraph 3 above fail to settle it by
means indicated in that paragraph, they should obligate themselves to refer it to the Security Council.
The Security Council should in each case decide whether or not the continuance of the particular dispute
is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, and, accordingly,
whether the Security Council should deal with the dispute, and, if so, whether it should take action under
paragraph 5.
5. The Security Council should be empowered, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to in
paragraph 3 above, to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment.
6. Justiciable disputes should normally be referred to the international court of justice. The Security
Council should be empowered to refer to the court, for advice, legal questions connected with other
disputes.
7. The provisions of paragraph 1 to 6 of Section A should not apply to situations or disputes arising out
of matters which by international law are solely within the domestic jurisdiction of the state concerned.
Section B. Determination of Threats to the Peace or Acts of Aggression and Action With Respect
Thereto. 1. Should the Security Council deem that a failure to settle a dispute in accordance with
procedures indicated in paragraph 3 of Section A, or in accordance with its recommendations made
under paragraph 5 of Section A, constitutes a threat to the maintenance of international peace and
security, it should take any measures necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security
in accordance with the purposes and principles of the Organization.
2. In general the Security Council should determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of
the peace or act of aggression and should make recommendations or decide upon the measures to be
taken to maintain or restore peace and security.
3. The Security Council should be empowered to determine what diplomatic, economic, or other
measures not involving the use of armed force should be employed to give effect to its decisions, and to
call upon members of the Organization to apply such measures. Such measures may include complete or
partial interruption of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio and other means of communication and the
severance of diplomatic and economic relations.
4. Should the Security Council consider such measures to be inadequate, it should be empowered to take
such action by air, naval or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace
and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade and other operations by air, sea or land
forces of members of the Organization.
5. In order that all members of the Organization should contribute to the maintenance of international
peace and security, they should undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in
accordance with a special agreement or agreements concluded among themselves, armed forces,
facilities and assistance necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. Such
agreement or agreements should govern the numbers and types of forces and the nature of the facilities
and assistance to be provided. The special agreement or agreements should be negotiated as soon as
possible and should in each case be subject to approval by the Security Council and to ratification by the
signatory states in accordance with their constitutional processes.
6. In order to enable urgent military measures to be taken by the Organization there should be held
immediately available by the members of the Organization national air force contingents for combined
international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for
their combined action should be determined by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military
Staff Committee within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agreements referred to in
paragraph 5 above.
7. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of
international peace and security should be taken by all the members of the Organization in cooperation
or by some of them as the Security Council may determine. This undertaking should be carried out by
the members of the Organization by their own action and through action of the appropriate specialized
organizations and agencies of which they are members.
8. Plans for the application of armed force should be made by the Security Council with the assistance of
the Military Staff Committee referred to in paragraph 9 below.
9. There should be established a Military Staff Committee the functions of which should be to advise
and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements
for the maintenance of international peace and security, to the employment and command of forces at its
disposal, to the regulation of armaments, and to possible disarmament. It should be responsible under the
Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security
Council. The Committee should be composed of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the
Security Council or their representatives. Any member of the Organization not permanently represented
on the Committee should be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient
discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires that such a state should participate in its work.
Questions of command of forces should be worked out subsequently.
10. The members of the Organization should join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out the
measures decided upon by the Security Council.
11. Any state, whether a member of the Organization or not, which finds itself confronted with special
economic problems arising from the carrying out of measures which have been decided upon by the
Security Council should have the right to consult the Security Council in regard to a solution of those
problems.
Section C. Regional Arrangements. 1. Nothing in the Charter should preclude the existence of regional
arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international
peace and security as are appropriate for regional action, provided such arrangements or agencies and
their activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of the Organization. The Security Council
should encourage settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional
agencies, either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council.
2. The Security Council should, where appropriate, utilize such arrangements or agencies for
enforcement action under its authority, but no enforcement action should be taken under regional
arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council.
3. The Security Council should at all times be kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in
contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international
peace and security.
CHAPTER IX: ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
COOPERATION
Section A. Purpose and Relationships. 1. With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and wellbeing which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations, the Organization should
facilitate solutions of international economic, social and other humanitarian problems and promote
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Responsibility for the discharge of this function
should be vested in the General Assembly and, under the authority of the General Assembly, in an
Economic and Social Council.
2. The various specialized economic, social and other organizations and agencies would have
responsibilities in their respective fields as defined in their statutes. Each such organization or agency
should be brought into relationship with the Organization on terms to be determined by agreement
between the Economic and Social Council and the appropriate authorities of the specialized organization
or agency, subject to approval by the General Assembly.
Section B. Composition and Voting. The Economic and Social Council should consist of representatives
of eighteen members of the Organization. The states to be represented for this purpose should be elected
by the General Assembly for terms of three years. Each such state should have one representative, who
should have one vote. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council should be taken by simple majority
vote of those present and voting.
Section C. Functions and Powers of the Economic and Social Council. 1. The Economic and Social
Council should be empowered:
a. to carry out, within the scope of its functions, recommendations of the General Assembly;
b. to make recommendations, on its own initiative, with respect to international economic, social and
other humanitarian matters;
c. to receive and consider reports from the economic, social and other organizations or agencies brought
into relationship with the Organization, and to coordinate their activities through consultations with, and
recommendations to, such organizations or agencies;
d. to examine the administrative budgets of such specialized organizations or agencies with a view to
making recommendations to the organizations or agencies concerned;
e. to enable the Secretary-General to provide information to the Security Council;
f. to assist the Security Council upon its request; and
g. to perform such other functions within the general scope of its competence as may be assigned to it by
the General Assembly.
Section D. Organization and Procedure. 1. The Economic and Social Council should set up an
economic commission, a social commission, and such other commissions as may be required. These
commissions should consist of experts. There should be a permanent staff which should constitute a part
of the Secretariat of the Organization.
2. The Economic and Social Council should make suitable arrangements for representatives of the
specialized organizations or agencies to participate without vote in its deliberations and in those of the
commissions established by it.
3. The Economic and Social Council should adopt its own rules of procedure and the method of
selecting its President.
CHAPTER X: THE SECRETARIAT
1. There should be a Secretariat comprising a Secretary-General and such staff as may be required. The
Secretary-General should be the chief administrative officer of the Organization. He should be elected
by the General Assembly, on recommendation of the Security Council, for such term and under
conditions as are specified in the Charter.
2. The Secretary-General should act in that capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the
Security Council, and of the Economic and Social Council and should make an annual report to the
General Assembly on the work of the Organization.
3. The Secretary-General should have the right to bring to the attention of the Security Council any
matter which in his opinion may threaten international peace and security.
CHAPTER XI: AMENDMENTS
Amendments should come into force for all members of the Organization, when they have been adopted
by a vote of two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their
respective constitutional processes by the members of the Organization having permanent membership
on the Security Council and by a majority of the other members of the Organization.
CHAPTER XII: TRANSITIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
1. Pending the coming into force of the special agreement or agreements referred to in Chapter VIII,
Section B, paragraph 5, and in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of the Four-Nation
Declaration, signed at Moscow, October 30, 1943, the states parties to that Declaration should consult
with one another and as occasion arises with other members of the Organization with a view to such
joint action on behalf of the Organization as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining
international peace and security.
2. No provision of the Charter should preclude action taken or authorized in relation to enemy states as a
result of the present war by the Governments having responsibility for such action.
NOTE
In addition to the question of voting procedure in the Security Council referred to in Chapter VI, several
other questions are still under consideration.
Bibliography
i
Who.int, (2015). WHO | Photo exhibit part 1: 1940-1959. [online] Available at:
http://www.who.int/features/history/1940_1959/en/ [Accessed 14 Jan. 2015].
ii
Icrc.org, (2014). [online] Available at: https://www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/145 [Accessed 20 Dec. 2014].
iii
Zum.de, (2015). WHKMLA : The Den Haag Peace Conference 1899-1900 as portrayed in Punch.
[online] Available at: http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sp/0910/jinhyuck/jinhyuck1.html [Accessed 12 Jan.
2015].
iv
Ferguson, N. (2003). Empire. New York: Basic Books.
v
ibid
vi
McKercher, B. (1992). Arms limitation and disarmament. Westport: Praege
vii
ibid
viii
Icrc.org, (2015). [online] Available at: https://www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/145 [Accessed 9 Jan. 2015].
ix
Haguepeace.org,
(2015).
Hague
Appeal
for
Peace.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.haguepeace.org/index.php?action=history&subAction=conf&selection=when [Accessed 8
Jan. 2015].
x
ibid
xi
Icrc.org, (2015). [online] Available at: https://www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/145 [Accessed 9 Jan. 2015].
xii
Haguepeace.org,
(2015).
Hague
Appeal
for
Peace.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.haguepeace.org/index.php?action=history&subAction=conf&selection=when [Accessed 8
Jan. 2015].
xii
ibid
xiii
CONVENTION
for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
xiv
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Article.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=9FE084CDA
C63D10FC12563CD00515C4D
xv
CONVENTION for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes. (n.d.). 1st ed.
xvi
Haguepeace.org,
(2015).
Hague
Appeal
for
Peace.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.haguepeace.org/index.php?action=history&subAction=conf&selection=when [Accessed 8
Jan. 2015].
xvii
CONVENTION for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes. (n.d.). 1st ed.
xviii
Avalon.law.yale.edu, (2015). The Avalon Project - Laws of War : Laws and Customs of War on
Land
(Hague
II);
July
29,
1899.
[online]
Available
at:
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hague02.asp [Accessed 17 Jan. 2015].
xix
Avalon.law.yale.edu, (2015). The Avalon Project : Laws of War - Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of
Principles of Geneva Convention of 1864 (Hague, III); July 29,1899. [online] Available at:
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hague993.asp [Accessed 15 Jan. 2015].
xx
ibid
xxi
Icrc.org,
(2015).
[online]
Available
at:
https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Article.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=8FCF14D9507
97012C12563CD00515C0A [Accessed 14 Jan. 2015].
xxii
ibid
xxiii
Pbs.org, (2014). The Great War . Resources . WWI Casualties and Deaths | PBS. [online] Available
at: http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/resources/casdeath_pop.html [Accessed 22 Dec. 2014].
xxiv
Kohn,
M.
(2006).
Colonialism.
[online]
Plato.stanford.edu.
Available
at:
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/ [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].
xxv
World
War
I.
(2015).
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.rosehulman.edu/~casey1/World%20War%20I.pdf [Accessed 16 Jan. 2015].
xxvi
Encyclopedia Britannica, (2014). French Revolution | 1787-1799. [online] Available at:
http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/219315/French-Revolution [Accessed 30 Jan. 2015].
xxvii
ibid
xxviii
Willmott, H. (2004). World War II.
xxix
ibid
xxx
ibid
xxxi
ibid
xxxii
Braybon, G. (2004). Evidence, History, and the Great War: Historians and the Impact of 1914–18.
xxxiii
ibid
xxxiv
Historylearningsite.co.uk, (2015). Aircraft and World War One. [online] Available at:
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/aircraft_world_war_one.htm [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
xxxv
History.ucsb.edu, (2015). German Economy in the 1920s. [online] Available at:
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/Econ20s.htm [Accessed 18 Jan.
2015].
xxxvi
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - GCSE Bitesize: The terms of the treaties. [online] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/thetreatyrev3.shtml [Accessed 20 Jan.
2015].
xxxvii
Ushmm.org,
(2015).
World
War
I:
Aftermath.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007429 [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].
xxxviii
Economics
and
Public
Disintegretation
(Online)
Available
at:
http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/disintegration.pdf [Accessed 26
Jan. 2015].
xxxix
Gcsehistory.org.uk, (2015). The League of Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.gcsehistory.org.uk/modernworld/interwarperiod/index.htm [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
xl
Weiss, T. and Daws, S. (2007). The Oxford handbook on the United Nations. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
xli
ibid
xlii
ibid.
xliii
Article
10,
Covenant
of
the
League
of
Nations,
26
June
1919,
<<http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp>> accessed August 27, 2013
xliv
Yargici, N. Y. 2014. “What is the legal standing of an armed intervention to a state, made by other
state/ state groups in response to breaches of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law?”. [e-
book] Ankara: Model Courts of Justice. Available through: modelcj.org http://modelcj.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/12/ICJA-Study-Guide.pdf [Accessed: 20 Jan 2014].
xlv
League of Nations, Covenant of the League of Nations, 28 April 1919, available at:
http://www.refworld.org/docid/3dd8b9854.html [accessed 13 January 2014]
xlvi
Chandler, H. 2014. Structure of the League of Nations - League of Nations - Guides Directory at
Oxford University. [online] Available at: http://ox.libguides.com/lnstruc [Accessed: 12 Jan 2014].
xlvii
Chandler, H. 2014. Structure of the League of Nations - League of Nations - Guides Directory at
Oxford University. [online] Available at: http://ox.libguides.com/lnstruc [Accessed: 12 Jan 2014].
xlviii
ibid.
xlix
Faqs.org. 2014. League of Nations -. [online] Available at: http://www.faqs.org/espionage/KeLo/League-of-Nations.html [Accessed: 17 Jan 2014].
l
Peacepalacelibrary.nl. 2014. League of Nations - Research Guide International Law | Peace Palace
Library. [online] Available at: http://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/research-guides/internationalorganisations-and-relations/league-of-nations/ [Accessed: 17 Jan 2014].
li
ibid.
lii
The Permanent Court of International Justice: its Constitution and Work. Trilingual book (English,
Spanish, French), first published in 1939, republished in 2012. 2012. [e-book] The Hague: The Registry
of the ICJ. Available through: icj-cij.org http://www.icj-cij.org/pcij/serie_other/cpji-pcij.pdf [Accessed:
17 Jan 2014].
liii
ibid
liv
ibid
lv
ibid
lvi
Weiss, T. G. and Daws, S. 2008. The Oxford handbook on the United Nations. Oxford [England]:
Oxford University Press.
lvii
Bbc.co.uk. 2014. BBC - GCSE Bitesize: The Covenant of the League of Nations. [online] Available
at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/aimsrev2.shtml [Accessed: 17 Jan 2014].
lviii
Historylearningsite.co.uk,
(2015).
League
of
Nations.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/leagueofnations.htm [Accessed 19 Jan. 2015].
lix
ibid
lx
Opt. Cit. Weiss, T. G. and Daws, S. 2008. The Oxford handbook on the United Nations. Oxford
[England]: Oxford University Press.
lxi
ibid
lxii
ibid
lxiii
ibid
lxiv
ibid
lxv
ibid
lxvi
ibid
lxvii
Ushmm.org,
(2015).
World
War
I:
Aftermath.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007429 [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].
lxviii
Gcsehistory.org.uk, (2015). The League of Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.gcsehistory.org.uk/modernworld/interwarperiod/index.htm [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
lxix
History.ucsb.edu, (2015). German Economy in the 1920s. [online] Available at:
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/Econ20s.htm [Accessed 31 Jan.
2015].
lxx
Ushmm.org,
(2015).
World
War
I:
Aftermath.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007429 [Accessed 26 Jan. 2015].
lxxi
Gcsehistory.org.uk,
(2015).
The
League
of
Nations.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.gcsehistory.org.uk/modernworld/interwarperiod/index.htm [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
lxxii
Adolf Hitler’s title which means leader of the nation.
lxxiii
ibid
lxxiv
History.ucsb.edu, (2015). German Economy in the 1920s. [online] Available at:
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/Econ20s.htm [Accessed 31 Jan.
2015].
lxxv
ibid
lxxvi
History.com, (1954). Munich Pact signed — History.com This Day in History — 9/30/1938. [online]
Available at: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/munich-pact-signed [Accessed 25 Jan. 2015].
lxxvii
Avalon.law.yale.edu, (2015). The Avalon Project : Munich Pact 9/29/38. [online] Available at:
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/munich1.asp [Accessed 25 Jan. 2015].
lxxviii
Gcsehistory.org.uk, (2015). The League of Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.gcsehistory.org.uk/modernworld/interwarperiod/index.htm [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
lxxix
ibid
lxxx
Historylearningsite.co.uk, (2015). Italy and World War One. [online] Available at:
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/italy_and_world_war_one.htm [Accessed 25 Jan. 2015].
lxxxi
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883-1945). [online]
Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml [Accessed 23 Jan.
2015].
lxxxii
ibid
lxxxiii
ibid
lxxxiv
History.com, (1843). The Pact of Steel is signed; the Axis is formed — History.com This Day in
History — 5/22/1939. [online] Available at: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-pact-ofsteel-is-signed-the-axis-is-formed [Accessed 23 Jan. 2015].
lxxxv
http://www.spanishcivilwar1936.com/StalinHitlerMussolini.htm
lxxxvi
Gcsehistory.org.uk, (2015). The League of Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.gcsehistory.org.uk/modernworld/interwarperiod/index.htm [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
lxxxvii
ibid
lxxxviii
ibid
lxxxix
Gcsehistory.org.uk, (2015). The League of Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.gcsehistory.org.uk/modernworld/interwarperiod/index.htm [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
xc
ibid
xci
History.com, (1779). The Tripartite Pact is signed by Germany, Italy, and Japan — History.com This
Day in History — 9/27/1940. [online] Available at: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/thetripartite-pact-is-signed-by-germany-italy-and-japan [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
xcii
Vallin, J., Meslé, F., Adamets, S. and Pyrozhkov, S. (n.d.). The Consequences of the Second World
War
and
the
Stalinist
Repression.
1st
ed.
[ebook]
Available
at:
http://www.demogr.mpg.de/books/drm/009/3.pdf [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
xciii
History.state.gov, (2015). The Potsdam Conference, 1945 - 1937–1945 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. [online] Available at: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/potsdam-conf [Accessed
18 Jan. 2015].
xciv
ibid
xcv
ibid
xcvi
ibid
xcvii
Bbc.co.uk,. 'BBC - History - World Wars: From Persecution To Genocide'. N.p., 2015. Web. 31 Jan.
2015.
xcviii
HISTORY.com,. 'The Holocaust - World War II - HISTORY.Com'. N.p., 2015. Web. 31 Jan. 2015.
xcix
Secondworldwarhistory.com,. 'WW2 Statistics'. N.p., 2015. Web. 31 Jan. 2015.
c
http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/saint-james.shtml
ci
Franklaughter.tripod.com. 2014. The founding of the United Nations. [online] Available at:
http://franklaughter.tripod.com/cgi-bin/histprof/misc/unitednations.html [Accessed: 20 Jan 2014].
cii
Nationsencyclopedia.com, (2015). Developments leading to the san francisco conference - The
Making of the United Nations - system, future, power. [online] Available at:
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/United-Nations/The-Making-of-the-United-NationsDEVELOPMENTS-LEADING-TO-THE-SAN-FRANCISCO-CONFERENCE.html [Accessed 26 Jan.
2015].
ciii
ibid
civ
Avalon.law.yale.edu, (2015). The Avalon Project : St. James Agreement; June 12 1941. [online]
Available at: http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/imtjames.asp [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cv
History.state.gov. 2014. The Atlantic Conference & Charter, 1941 - 1937–1945 - Milestones - Office
of the Historian. [online] Available at: http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/atlantic-conf
[Accessed: 4 Feb 2014].
cvi
Ww2db.com, (n.d.). First Washington Conference | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=119 [Accessed 23 Jan. 2015].
cvii
Weiss, T. and Daws, S. (2007). The Oxford handbook on the United Nations. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
cviii
Unmultimedia.org. 2014. United Nations Photo: Declaration by United Nations. [online] Available
at: http://www.unmultimedia.org/s/photo/detail/313/0031319.html [Accessed: 4 Feb 2014].
cix
ibid.
cx
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - WW2 People's War - Timeline. [online] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/timeline/factfiles/nonflash/a1141921.shtml [Accessed 23
Jan. 2015].
cxi
Online.infobaselearning.com, (n.d.). Infobase Learning - Login. [online] Available at:
http://online.infobaselearning.com/Directlink.aspx?ItemID=WE53&iPin=EUNN0276&SingleRecord=T
rue [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxii
Moscow Declaration on atrocities (1 November 1943). (1943). 1st ed. [ebook] Available at:
http://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/2004/2/12/699fc03f-19a1-47f0-aec073220489efcd/publishable_en.pdf [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
cxiii
Avalon.law.yale.edu, (n.d.). The Avalon Project : The Moscow Conference, October 1943. [online]
Available at: http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/moscow.asp [Accessed 22 Jan. 2015].
cxiv
Ibiblio.org,
(n.d.).
DUMBARTON
OAKS.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1944/441007a.html [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].
cxv
ibid
cxvi
Un.org. 2014. Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta - History of the United Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml [Accessed: 4 Feb 2014].
cxvii
Opt. Cit. Weiss, T. G. and Daws, S. 2008. The Oxford handbook on the United Nations. Oxford
[England]: Oxford University Press.
cxviii
ibid.
cxix
Un.org. 2014. Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta - History of the United Nations. [online] Available at:
http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/dumbarton_yalta.shtml [Accessed: 4 Feb 2014].
cxx
ibid
cxxi
Ibiblio.org.
2014.
DUMBARTON
OAKS.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1944/441007a.html [Accessed: 4 Feb 2014].
cxxii
History.state.gov, (2014). The Tehran Conference, 1943 - 1937–1945 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. [online] Available at: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/tehran-conf [Accessed
24 Dec. 2014].
cxxiii
Princeton.edu,
(2014).
Tehran
Conference.
[online]
Available
at:
https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Tehran_Conference.html [Accessed 23 Dec.
2014].
cxxiv
History.state.gov, (2014). The Tehran Conference, 1943 - 1937–1945 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. [online] Available at: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/tehran-conf [Accessed
24 Dec. 2014].
cxxv
ibid
cxxvi
ibid
cxxvii
Un.org, (2015). Moscow and Teheran Conferences - History of the United Nations. [online]
Available at: http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/moscowteheran.shtml [Accessed 24 Jan. 2015].
cxxviii
History.state.gov, (2014). The Tehran Conference, 1943 - 1937–1945 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. [online] Available at: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/tehran-conf [Accessed
24 Dec. 2014].
cxxix
History.army.mil,
(2015).
Frontispiece.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/front.htm [Accessed 9 Jan. 2015].
cxxx
ibid
cxxxi
ibid
cxxxii
History.state.gov, (2014). The Tehran Conference, 1943 - 1937–1945 - Milestones - Office of the
Historian. [online] Available at: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/tehran-conf [Accessed
24 Dec. 2014].
cxxxiii
Weiss, T. and Daws, S. (2007). The Oxford handbook on the United Nations. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
cxxxiv
ibid
cxxxv ibid.
Ant
al
y
a,
Mar
c
h2015
Or
gani
s
edbyt
heModel
Uni
t
edNat
i
onsofTur
k
ey
Undert
hedi
s
c
r
et
i
onoft
heS
ec
r
et
ar
i
at
S
ec
r
et
ar
yGener
al
:
Nez
ahatYeş
i
m Yar
gı
c
ı
Cont
entbyUnderS
ec
r
et
ar
yGener
al
:
Af
r
aGür
l
ül
er
Gr
aphi
cDes
i
gn:
ÖmerFar
ukTaps
ı
z
Web:
www.
munt
r
.
or
g
EMai
l
:
i
nf
o@munt
r
.
or
g